Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H.

Majeed

Compressible Flow (High Speed Gas Flow)

A compressible flow is that flow in which the density of the fluid changes during flow.
All real fluids are compressible to some extent and therefore their density will change
with change in pressure or temperature. If the relative change in density Δρ/ρ is small,
the fluid can be treated as incompressible. A compressible fluid, such as air, can be
considered as incompressible with constant ρ if changes in elevation are small,
acceleration is small, and/or temperature changes are negligible. In other words, if
Mach’s number V/c, where c is the sonic velocity, is small, compressible fluid can be
treated as incompressible.
• The gases are treated as compressible fluids and study of this type of flow is often
referred to as ‘Gas dynamics’.
• Some important problems where compressibility effect has to be considered are :
(i) Flow of gases through nozzles, orifices ;
(ii) Compressors ;
(iii) Flight of aero planes and projectiles moving at higher altitudes ;
(iv) Water hammer and acoustics.
The basic principles in compressible flow are:
a- Conservation of mass (continuity equation)
b- Newton's second law of motion (momentum equation
c- Conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics)
d- Entropy principle (Second law of thermodynamics)
e- Equation of state.
1- Velocity of Sound in a Fluid
Let us consider an infinitesimal pressure wave initiated by a slight movement of
a piston to the right (Fig.1) in a pipe of uniform cross section. The pressure wave front
propagates steadily with a velocity c, which is known velocity of sound, sonic
velocity or acoustic velocity. The fluid near the piston will have a slightly increased
pressure and will be slightly more dense, than the fluid away from the piston.
To simplify the analysis, let the observer be assumed to travel with the wave
front to the right with velocity c. Fluid flows steadily from right to left and as it passes
through the wave front, the velocity is reduced from c to (c-dV). At the same time, the
pressure rises from P to (P+dP) and the density from  to (+d).
The continuity equation for the control volume gives
Ac    d Ac  dV   c    d c  dV 
And c  c  dV  cd  d  dV
dV  cd  d  dV
Neglecting the product d  dV because it is being very small, we get
dV  cd (1)
The momentum equation for the control volume gives
P  P  dP A  m c  dV   c  Acc  dV  c
 AdP   AcdV
Or dP  cdV (2)
From eq.1 and eq.2 we get that
dP  c 2 d
dP
Or c
d

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

Since the variations in pressure and temperature are negligibly small and the
change of state is so fast as to be essentially adiabatic, and the absence of any internal
friction or viscosity, the process is reversible and isentropic. Hence, the sonic velocity
is given by:-
 dP 
c    (3)
 d  s
For an ideal gas, in an isentropic process
P
P k  const or  const.
k

By differentiating this equation we get that

1 dP p
 k k 1  0
 d
k

By multiplying this equation by k
dP p
Then we get that k
d 
P
And from equation of state of ideal gas P  RT   RT . Then

dP
 kRT and this at constant entropy so
d
 dP 
   kRT Then by substituting in eq.3 we obtain that
 d  s

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

 dP 
c     kRT (4)
 d  s
2- Mach Number
The Mach number, M, is defined as the ratio of the actual velocity V to the sonic
velocity c.
V
M (5)
c
Where M>1, the flow is supersonic,
And where M<1, the flow is subsonic,
and M=1, the flow is sonic
Example-1
Air enters a diffuser with a speed of 200 m/s. Determine (a) the speed of
sound and (b) the Mach number at the diffuser inlet when the air temperature is
30°C.
Solution: At the enter of diffuser V=200m/s, T=30oC=303K
Analysis: (a) the velocity of sound at 303K where R=287J/kg.K, k=1.4
c  kRT  1.4287 303  349m / S
V 200
(b) Mach number M    0.573
c 349
3- Stagnation Properties
Let us consider an isentropic steady flow of compressible gas through a
system (Fig.2) with no work and neglecting potential energy. The energy equation can
be written as below

The energy equation ( First law of thermodynamics) for this system is

h  ke  0

h2  h1   1 V22  V12   0

2
1 2 1
Or h1  V1 h 2  V22  cons tan t
2 2
This means that the energy that accomplished with the fluid is still constant. It will be
as enthalpy only if the velocity becomes zero. The enthalpy can be denoted as ho. The
state at which the velocity becomes zero and the enthalpy be the maximum is called
as the stagnation state.

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

1 1
Then ho  h1  V12  h 2  V22
2 2
And this relation can be written for any state as
1 1
ho  h  V 2 or ho  h  V 2
2 2
For ideal gas h=CpT , then
1
Cp To  T   V 2
2
The properties without any subscript denote static properties, and
To V2
1
T 2CpT
kR
And we know that: Cp  and by substituting this in the equation before, we
k 1
To V 2 k  1 k 1 V 2 
get 1 1  2  where c 2  kRT
T 2kRT 2 c 
And by using Mach number we obtain that
To k 1 2
1 M (6)
T 2
The stagnation pressure Po is related to the Mach number and static pressure in the
case of an ideal gas by the following equation:
k k
Po  To  k 1  k  1 2  k 1
    1  M  (7)
P T   2 
And also for the density
1 1
o  To  k 1  k  1 2  k 1
    1  M  (8)
 T   2 
Example.2.
An aircraft is flying at a cruising speed of (250 m/s) at an altitude of (5000 m)
where the atmospheric pressure is (55kPa) and the ambient air temperature is
(256.7K). The ambient air is first decelerated in a diffuser before it enters the
compressor (Fig.3). Approximating both the diffuser and the compressor to be
isentropic, determine (a) the stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet and (b)
the required compressor work per unit mass if the stagnation pressure ratio of
the compressor is 8.

Solution: An aircraft is flying with speed V=250m/S, at altitude Z=5000m at P=55kP,

and T=256.7K and the stagnation pressure ratio Po2/Po1=8. It is required to determine
(a) the stagnation pressure at inlet of compressor Po2,(b) compressor work required.

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

V2
Analysis: T o1 T1  Take Cp=1005J/kg.K
2Cp

T o1 256.7 
2502  287.8K
21005
k k 1.4
 P   T  k 1  T  k 1  287.8 1.4 1
And  o1    o1   Po1  p  o1   55   82.07 kPa
 P1   T1  T
1 1   256.7 
Now we can find To2 stagnation temperature at the compressor inlet
k 1 k 1
 To 2   P o 2  k P  k 1.4 1
      To 2  To1  o 2   287.88 1.4  521.33K
 To1   Po1   Po1 
Disregarding potential energy changes and heat transfer, the compressor
work per unit mass of air is determined from equation of energy
w  Cp To 2  To1   1.005521.33  287.8  234.7 kJ / kg
Example-3
Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional area duct
such as a nozzle shown in Fig. 4 at a mass flow rate of (3.00kg/s). The carbon
dioxide enters the duct at a pressure of (1400kPa) and (200°C) with a low
velocity, and it expands in the nozzle to an exit pressure of (200kPa). The duct is
designed so that the flow can be approximated as isentropic. Determine the
density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number at each location along the duct
that corresponds to an overall pressure drop of (200kPa).

Solution: CO2 flow in varying cross-sectional area duct m  3kg / S , P1=1.4MPa, and
T1=200oC, and P2=200kPa. The flow is isentropic. It is to determine the , V, A, and
M at each location to an overall pressure drop of (200kPa). For CO 2 k=1.289,
R=0.1889kJ/kg.K, Cp=0.846kJ/kg.K
Analysis: When the velocity at the inlet of the duct so To=T1=200oC=473K,
Po=P1=1.4MPa.
For a pressure drop of 200kPa=0.2MPa
To illustrate the solution procedure, we calculate the desired properties at the location
where the pressure is 1.2MPa, the first location that corresponds to a pressure drop of
0.2MPa. Then
k 1 1.289 1
P k
 1. 2  1.289
T  To    473   456.93K
 Po   1. 4 

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

And V  2CpTo  T   2846 473  456.93  164.9m / S

P 1200
And    13.9kg / m3
RT 0.1889  456.93
m 3
So the area A    0.00131m 2  13.1cm 2
V 13.9  164.9
And also c  kRT  1.289188.9 456.93  333.555m / S
V 164.9
And M   0.494
c 333.555
P kPa T K V m/s kg/m3 A cm2 c m/S M
1200 456.9318 164.8862 13.90266 13.08697 333.5555 0.494329
1000 438.6302 241.1508 12.06895 10.30773 326.8073 0.737899
800 417.2255 307.1978 10.15049 9.620907 318.7336 0.963807
600 391.1641 372.1107 8.12008 9.928618 308.6185 1.20573
400 357.1729 442.6957 5.928565 11.43053 294.9047 1.501148
200 305.7638 531.9432 3.462677 16.28711 272.8572 1.94953
For the M=1 We can find the other parameters as below by using eq.(6)
To k 1 2 1.289  1 To
1 M 1   1.1445  T  473 / 1.1445  413.281K
T 2 2 T
k 1.289
 T  k 1  413.281 1.289 1
P  Po    1400   766.81kPa
 To   473 
P 766.81
   9.82kg / m3
RT 0.1889  413.281
V  2Cp To  T   2846 473  413.281  317.875m / S
Or c  kRT  1.289188.9 413.281  317.875m / S
m 3
A   0.000961m 2  9.61cm 2
V 9.82  317.875
P kPa T K V m/s kg/m3 A cm2 c m/S M
1200 456.9318 164.8862 13.90266 13.08697 333.5555 0.494329
1000 438.6302 241.1508 12.06895 10.30773 326.8073 0.737899
800 417.2255 307.1978 10.15049 9.620907 318.7336 0.963807
766.81 413.2806 317.8762 9.822247 9.608429 317.2232 1.002059
600 391.1641 372.1107 8.12008 9.928618 308.6185 1.20573
400 357.1729 442.6957 5.928565 11.43053 294.9047 1.501148
200 305.7638 531.9432 3.462677 16.28711 272.8572 1.94953
Problems-1
1- Air flows in a duct at a pressure of (150kPa) with a velocity of (200 m/s). The
temperature of the air is (300 K). Determine the isentropic stagnation pressure and
temperature.
2- A stationary thermometer measures 85◦C in an air flow that has a velocity of 180
m/s. What is the actual flow temperature?
3- Steam leaves a nozzle with a pressure of (500kPa), a temperature of (350◦C), and
a velocity of (250 m/s). What are the isentropic stagnation pressure and
temperature.
4- Steam at (1600kPa), (300◦C), flows so that it has a stagnation (total) pressure of
(1800kPa). Find the velocity and the stagnation temperature.

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

5- An object from space enters the earth’s upper atmosphere at (5kPa), (100K), with
a relative velocity of (2500 m/s) or more. Estimate the object’s surface
temperature.
6- The products of combustion of a jet engine leave the engine with a velocity
relative to the plane of (500 m/s), a temperature of (527◦C), and a pressure of
(75kPa). Assuming that (k = 1.32), (Cp = 1.15 kJ/kg.K) for the products,
determine the stagnation pressure and temperature of the products relative to the
airplane.
7- Air flows through a device such that the stagnation pressure is (0.6MPa), the
stagnation temperature is 400oC, and the velocity is 570 m/s. Determine the static
pressure and temperature of the air at this state.
8- Air at (320K) is flowing in a duct at a velocity of (a) 1, (b) 10, (c) 100, and (d)
1000 m/s. Determine the temperature that a stationary probe inserted into the duct
will read for each case.
9- Calculate the stagnation temperature and pressure for the following substances
flowing through a duct: (a) helium at (0.25MPa), (50oC), and (240 m/s); (b)
Nitrogen at (0.15MPa), (50oC), and (300 m/s); and (c) steam at (0.1MPa),
(350oC), and (480 m/s).
10- Determine the stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure of air that is
flowing at (38kPa), (238K), and (320 m/s).
11- Air enters a compressor with a stagnation pressure of (100kPa) and a stagnation
temperature of (38oC), and it is compressed to a stagnation pressure of (900kPa).
Assuming the compression process to be isentropic, determine the power input to
the compressor for a mass flow rate of (0.04 kg/s).
12- Products of combustion enter a gas turbine with a stagnation pressure of
(0.75MPa) and a stagnation temperature of (690oC), and they expand to a
stagnation pressure of (100kPa). Taking (k= 1.33) and (R=0.287 kJ/kg·K) for the
products of combustion, and assuming the expansion process to be isentropic,
determine the power output of the turbine per unit mass flow.
13- Carbon dioxide enters an adiabatic nozzle at (1200 K) with a velocity of (50 m/s)
and leaves at (400 K). Assuming constant specific heats at room temperature,
determine the Mach number (a) at the inlet and (b) at the exit of the nozzle.
14- Nitrogen enters a steady-flow heat exchanger at (150kPa), (10°C), and (100 m/s),
and it receives heat in the amount of (120 kJ/kg) as it flows through it. Nitrogen
leaves the heat exchanger at (100kPa) with a velocity of (200 m/s). Determine the
Mach number of the nitrogen at the inlet and the exit of the heat exchanger.
15- Assuming ideal gas behavior, determine the speed of sound in refrigerant-134a at
(0.9MPa) and (60°C).
16- Determine the speed of sound in air at (a) 300 K and (b) 800 K. Also determine
the Mach number of an aircraft moving in air at a velocity of 330 m/s for both
cases.
17- Air expands isentropically from (2.2MPa) and (77°C) to (0.4MPa). Calculate the
ratio of the initial to the final speed of sound.
18- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle at a pressure of (1200kPa) with
negligible velocity. What is the lowest pressure that can be obtained at the throat
of the nozzle.
19- In March 2004, NASA successfully launched an experimental supersonic-
combustion ramjet engine (called a scramjet) that reached a record-setting Mach
number of 7. Taking the air temperature to be (220oC), determine the speed of this
engine.

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

20- Air at (200kPa), (100oC), and Mach number (M=0.8) flows through a duct.
Calculate the velocity and the stagnation pressure, temperature, and density of the
air.
21- An aircraft is designed to cruise at Mach number (M=1.1) at (12,000 m) where the
atmospheric temperature is 236.15 K. Determine the stagnation temperature on the
leading edge of the wing.
4- Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
Consider the mass balance (continuity equation) for a steady-flow process:
m  AV
Differentiating and dividing the resultant equation by the mass flow rate, we obtain
d dA dV
  0 (9)
 A V
Using the Conservation of Energy equation of steady state with no work and heat
transfer and potential energy, then
V2
h 0
2
And the differentiation form is dh  VdV  0 (10)
dP
And we also know that Tds  dh  dP  dh 

dP
Or dh  (11)


dP
From eq.(10) and eq,(11) we get that:  VdV  0 (12)

This relation is also the differential form of Bernoulli’s equation when changes in
potential energy are negligible, which is a form of Newton’s second law of motion for
steady-flow control volumes.
Eq.(9) and eq.(12) can be rewritten as
dA d dV dP
  and  VdV
A  V 
And by combining these two equations, we obtain that
dA d 1 dP dP  1 d  dP  1 1
  2   2   2  2
A  V   V dP    V c 
dA dP

A V

2
1 M 2  (13)

This is an important relation for isentropic flow in ducts since it describes the
variation of pressure with flow area. We note that A, , and V are positive quantities.
For subsonic flow (M<1), the term (1-M2) is positive; and thus dA and dP must have
the same sign. That is, the pressure of the fluid must increase as the flow area of the
duct increases and must decrease as the flow area of the duct decreases. Thus, at
subsonic velocities, the pressure decreases in converging ducts (subsonic nozzles) and
increases in diverging ducts (subsonic diffusers).
In supersonic flow (M>1), the term (1-M2) is negative, and thus dA and dP must have
opposite signs. That is, the pressure of the fluid must increase as the flow area of the
duct decreases and must decrease as the flow area of the duct increases. Thus, at
supersonic velocities, the pressure decreases in diverging ducts (supersonic nozzles)
and increases in converging ducts (supersonic diffusers).

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

And also by substituting eq.(12) into eq.(13) we get that

dA
A

dV
V
1  M 2  (14)
This equation governs the shape of a nozzle or a diffuser in subsonic or supersonic
isentropic flow. Noting that A and V are positive quantities, it is concluded the
following:

dA
For subsonic flow (M< 1) 0
dV

dA
For supersonic flow (M> 1) 0
dV

dA
For sonic flow (M=1) 0
dV

Fig.6

5- Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases

Next we develop relations between the static properties and stagnation
properties of an ideal gas in terms of the specific heat ratio k and the Mach number M.
We assume the flow is isentropic and the gas has constant specific heats.
The temperature T of an ideal gas anywhere in the flow is related to the stagnation
temperature To through the following equation:
To V2
1
T 2CpT
And we know that Cp  kR / k  1 , c 2  kRT , M  V / c
V2 V2  k 1V  k 1 2
2
Then    2  M
2CpT 2kR / k  1T  2  c  2 

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

To  k 1 2
And then  1  M (15)
T  2 
The ratio of the stagnation to static pressure is obtained as:
k
Po   k  1  2  k 1
 1  M (16)
P   2  
The ratio of the stagnation to static density is obtained as:
1
 o   k  1  2  k 1
 1  M (17)
   2  
Numerical values of T/T0, P/P0, and /o are listed versus the Mach number in Table
for k=1.4, which are very useful for practical compressible flow calculations
involving air.
The properties of a fluid at a location where the Mach number is unity (the throat) are
called critical properties, and the ratios in Eq.(15) through eq.(17) are called critical
ratios when M=1 (Fig.7). It is standard practice in the analysis of compressible flow
to let the superscript asterisk (*)represent the critical values. Setting M=1 in Eq.15
through 17, yields

T* 2
 (18)
To k  1

k
P *  2  k 1
  (19)
Po  k  1 

1
 *  2  k 1
  (20)
o  k  1 

Example-4
Calculate the critical pressure and
temperature of carbon dioxide for the flow
conditions at a stagnation pressure of
(1400kPa) and stagnation temperature of (200oC).
Solution: The critical Pressure and temperature of the carbon dioxide at condition of
Po=1400kPa, To=200oC=473K.
Analysis: for carbon dioxide k=1.289
2 2
By using eq.(18) T *  To  473  413.3K
k 1 1.289  1
k 1.289
 2  k 1  2 1.289 1
And by using eq.(19) P*  Po    1400   766.8kPa
 k  1  1.289  1 

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

5- ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

Converging or converging–diverging nozzles are found in many engineering
applications including steam and gas turbines, aircraft and spacecraft propulsion
systems, and even industrial blasting nozzles and torch nozzles. In this section we
consider the effects of back pressure (i.e., the pressure applied at the nozzle
discharge region) on the exit velocity, the mass flow rate, and the pressure distribution
along the nozzle.
5-1 Converging Nozzles
Consider the subsonic flow through a converging nozzle as shown in Fig.8.
The nozzle inlet is attached to a reservoir at pressure Pr and temperature Tr . The
reservoir is sufficiently large so that the nozzle inlet velocity is negligible. Since the
fluid velocity in the reservoir is zero and the flow through the nozzle is assumed to be
isentropic, the stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature of the fluid at any cross
section through the nozzle are equal to the reservoir pressure and temperature,
respectively. Po=Pr and To=Tr
Now we begin to reduce the back pressure and observe the resulting effects on the
pressure distribution along the length of the nozzle, as shown in Fig.8.
1- If the back pressure Pb=P1, which is equal to Pr, there is no flow and the pressure
distribution is uniform along the nozzle.
2- When the back pressure is reduced to P2, the
exit plane pressure Pe also drops to P2 . This
causes the pressure along the nozzle to decrease
in the flow direction.
3- When the back pressure is reduced to P3 (=
P*, which is the pressure required to increase
the fluid velocity to the speed of sound at the
exit plane or throat), the mass flow reaches a
maximum value and the flow is said to be
choked. Further reduction of the back pressure
to level P4 or below does not result in additional
changes in the pressure distribution, or anything
else along the nozzle length. the mass flow rate
through the nozzle is constant and is expressed
as
P k
m  AV  AM kRT  PAM
RT RT
And by solving T from eq.(15) and P from
eq.(16) we gat that
AMPo k / RT o 
m  (21)
 
1  k  1M 2 / 2
k 1 / 2  k 1

For a specified flow area A and stagnation properties To and Po, the maximum mass
flow rate can be determined by differentiating Eq.21 with respect to M and setting the
result equal to zero. It yields M=1. Since the only location in a nozzle where the Mach
number can be unity is the location of minimum flow area (the throat), the mass flow
rate through a nozzle is a maximum when M=1 at the throat. Denoting this area by
A*, we obtain an expression for the maximum mass flow rate by substituting M=1 in
Eq.21:

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

k 1 / 2 k 1
k  2 
m max  A * Po   (22)
RTo  k  1 
 k 1 / 2 k 1
A 1  2  k  1 2 
And   1  M  (23)
A * M  k  1  2 
Another parameter sometimes used in the analysis of one-dimensional isentropic flow
of ideal gases is M*, which is the ratio of the local velocity to the speed of sound at
the throat:
V
M*  (24)
c*
V c Mc M kRT T
Eq.(24) can be expressed as M *    M (25)
c c* c* kRT * T*
Where M is the local Mach number, T is the local temperature, and T* is the critical
temperature. And we can get also:
k 1
M*  M (26)
2  k  1M 2
Example-5
Air at (1.2MPa) and (650°C) enters a converging nozzle, shown in Fig.9, with a
velocity of (200 m/s). Determine the mass flow rate through the nozzle for a
nozzle throat area of (60cm2) when the back pressure is (a) 0.75MPa and (b)
0.42MPa.
Solution: Pi=1.2MPa, Ti=650oC=923K
2
Vi=200m/S At=60cm (a) Pb=0.75MPa,
(b) Pb=0.42MPa
For air k=1.4 Cp=1.005kJ/kg.K,
R=0.287kJ/kg.K
Analysis: we can find at the beginning the
stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature
at the inlet of the nozzle.
V2 200 2
Toi  T   650   670 K
2Cp 21005 
k 1.4
 T  k 1  670 1.4 1
and Poi  P oi   1.2   1.334 MPa
T   650 
these stagnation temperature and pressure can be assumed to be that of the nozzle.
To=Toi , and Po=Poi
(a) Pb=750kPa
For mach number M=1 and from eq.(19)
k k 1.4
P *  2  k 1  2  k 1  2 1.4 1
  , P*  Po    1.334   0.705MPa
Po  k  1   k  1  1.4  1 
In this case Pb>P* there is no chocking at the exit of the nozzle and from eq.(16) we
can find Mach number M
1/ 2
k
 k 1
 
Po   k  1  2  k 1  Po  k 2 
 1  M  M      1 
P   2    P   k  1
  

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

1/ 2
 1.4 1
 
 1.334  1.4  2 
M    1   0.9456
 0.75   1.4  1

 
And from eq.(15) we can get T at the exit Tb
1 1
To  k 1 2   k 1 2    1. 4  1  2
1   M  T  To 1    M   670 1   0.9456  
T  2    2     2  
T=568.36K
cb  kRT  1.4287 568.36  477.88m / S
Vb  Mcb  0.9456477.88  451.88m / S
P 750
m  AbVb b  AbVb b  60  10 4 451.88  12.466kg / S
RTb 0.287568.36 
(b) Pb=0.420MPa
In this case we find that P*=0.705MPa which is greater than Pb the flow is
chocked in the throat of the nozzle. There will be maximum flow. We can also find T *
2 2
T*  To  670  558.3
k 1 1.4  1
c  kRT  1.4287 558.3  473.63m / S  V for M=1
P 705
m  A  AV  60  10  4 473.63  12.5034kg / S
RT 0.287558.3
Or we can calculate mass flow rate from eq.(22)

k 1 / 2 k 1 (1.4 1) / 2 (1.4 1) 

m max  A *P
k  2 
 
RTo  k  1 
4

 60  10 1334  10 3
 1. 4  2 
 
287670  1.4  1 
o

 12.5kg / S
5-2 Converging–Diverging Nozzles
Consider the converging–diverging nozzle shown in Fig. 10. A fluid enters the nozzle
with a low velocity at stagnation pressure Po. When Pb=Po (case A), there is no flow
through the nozzle. This is expected since the flow in a nozzle is driven by the
pressure difference between the nozzle inlet and the exit. Now let us examine what
happens as the back pressure is lowered.
1. When Po>Pb>PC, the flow remains subsonic throughout the nozzle, and the mass
flow is less than that for choked flow. The fluid velocity increases in the first
(converging) section and reaches a maximum at the throat (but M<1). However, most
of the gain in velocity is lost in the second (diverging) section of the nozzle, which
acts as a diffuser. The pressure decreases in the converging section, reaches a
minimum at the throat, and increases at the expense of velocity in the diverging
section.

47
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

2. When Pb=PC, the throat pressure

becomes P* and the fluid achieves sonic
velocity at the throat. But the diverging
section of the nozzle still acts as a
diffuser, slowing the fluid to subsonic
velocities. The mass flow rate that was
increasing with decreasing Pb also
reaches its maximum value. Recall that
P* is the lowest pressure that can be
obtained at the throat, and the sonic
velocity is the highest velocity that can
be achieved with a converging nozzle.
Thus, lowering Pb further has no
influence on the fluid flow in the
converging part of the nozzle or the
mass flow rate through the nozzle.
However, it does influence the character
of the flow in the diverging section.
3. When PC >Pb>PE, the fluid that
achieved a sonic velocity at the throat
continues accelerating to supersonic
velocities in the diverging section as the
pressure decreases. This acceleration
comes to a sudden stop, however, as a
normal shock develops at a section
between the throat and the exit plane,
which causes a sudden drop in velocity
to subsonic levels and a sudden increase
in pressure. The fluid then continues to
decelerate further in the remaining part
of the converging–diverging nozzle. Flow through the shock is highly irreversible,
and thus it cannot be approximated as isentropic. The normal shock moves
downstream away from the throat as Pb is decreased, and it approaches the nozzle exit
plane as Pb approaches PE. When Pb=PE, the normal shock forms at the exit plane of
the nozzle. The flow is supersonic through the entire diverging section in this case,
and it can be approximated as isentropic. However, the fluid velocity drops to
subsonic levels just before leaving the nozzle as it crosses the normal shock. Normal
shock waves are discussed in next Section.
4. When PE>Pb>0, the flow in the diverging section is supersonic, and the fluid
expands to PF at the nozzle exit with no normal shock forming within the nozzle.
Thus, the flow through the nozzle can be approximated as isentropic. When Pb=PF, no
shocks occur within or outside the nozzle. When Pb<PF, irreversible mixing and
expansion waves occur downstream of the exit plane of the nozzle. When Pb<PF,
however, the pressure of the fluid increases from PF to Pb irreversibly in the wake of
the nozzle exit, creating what are called oblique shocks.
Example-6
A converging-diverging nozzle is attached via a valve to a pipe holding
compressed air at (1.0MPa) and (20.0°C). The valve is opened and the air passes
through the nozzle and into the atmosphere. Assuming isentropic flow
throughout, determine

48
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

a. The exit Mach number. b. The exit

temperature. c. The exit velocity. d. The
pressure at the throat of the nozzle. e. The
temperature at the throat of the nozzle.
Solution:- First, draw a sketch of the
system (Fig.11). Air is the fluid that flow in
the valve which is ideal gas with k = 1.40.
Po=1MPa and To=20oC=293K,
PE=0.1013MPa
PE 0.1013
  0.1013
Po 1.0
From eq.(7) we can find M at the exit
1
k k
 k 1
 2
Po  To  k 1  k 1 2  k 1
   Po  k  2  
(a)    1  M  M      1 
P T   2    P   k  1  
  
1
 1.4 1
 2
   1  1.4  2  
M     1   2.15
  0.1013   1.4  1  
  
(b) Now to find the exit temperature, we can apply eq.(6)
To k 1 2 To 293
1 M T   152.25 K
T 2 k 1 2 1.4  1
1 M 1 2.152

2 2
k 1 k 1
To  Po  k  P k 1.4 1
Or     T T    2930.1013 1.4  152.3K
T P o
Po 
(c) To find the exit velocity firstly we will find the velocity of sound at the exit
ce  kRT  1.4287 152.25  247.334m / S
And Ve  Mce  2.15247.334   531.77 m / S
(d) Since the exit velocity is supersonic, the throat must be sonic, then to find the
pressure at the throat we can apply eq.(19)
k k 1.4
P *  2  k 1  2  k 1  2 1.4 1
   P*  Po    1.0   0.528MPa
Po  k  1   k  1  1.4  1 
(e) from eq.(18) also we can calculate the throat temperature
T* 2 2 2
  T *  To  293   244.17 K  28.83o C
To k  1 k 1 1. 4  1
k 1 1.4 1
 P * k
 0.528  1.4
Or T *  To    293   244.17 K
 Po   1 

Example-7
A conical air diffuser has an intake area of (0.11m2) and an exit area of (0.44m2).
Air enters the diffuser with a static pressure of (0.18MPa), static temperature of
(37oC), and velocity of (267m/S). Calculate (a) the mass flow rate of air through

49
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

the diffuser, (b) the Mach number, static temperature, and static pressure of air
leaving the diffuser.
Solution:- conical diffuser Ai=0.11m2, A2=0.44m2 P1=0.18MPa, T1=37oC=310K,
V1=267m/S

(a) The mass flow rate through the diffuser is

P 180
m  1 A1V1  1 A1V1  0.11267   59.42kg / S
RT1 0.287310 
The sound velocity at inlet of the diffuser is
c1  kRT1  1.4287 310  353m / S
V 267
M1  1   0.76
c1 353
And by using eq.(6) we can calculate the To

 k 1 2   1. 4  1
To  1  M T  1  0.762 310  345.435K  72.435o C
 2   2 
And from eq.(7) we can calculate Po
k 1.4
 k  1 2  k 1  1. 4  1
0.762   0.264MPa
1.4 1
Po  P1  M   0.181 
 2   2 

From the isotropic flow tables and at M1=0.76 (eq.(23)) we find that
 k 1 / 2 k 1
A 1  2  k  1 2 
  1  M 
A * M  k  1  2 
1.4 1 / 2 1.4 1
1  2  1.4  1
A1
  1  0.762   1.057
A * 0.76  1.4  1  2 
A1 A2 0.44
 1.0570 and A*=0.104068 then   4.2280
A* A * 0.104068
Or we can find M2 from the following relation

50
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

m P k P2 M 2 To k P2 M 2 To
m  A2  2V2   V2  2 kRT2 .M  .  .
A2 RT2 R T To R To T
m P k P2 M 2  k  1 2  k P2  k 1 2 
 o . 1  M 2   Po M 2 1  M2 
A2 Po R To  2  RTo Po  2 
k 1
1
m k  k 1 2  k 1 k  k  1 2  k 1
 Po M 2 1  M2   Po M 2 1  M2 
A2 RTo  2  RTo  2 
1 1
m  k   k  1 2  k 1
M 2   Po 1  M2 
A2  RTo   2 
And we know that m  59.42kg / S , A2=0.44m2, Po=263kPa, To=345.435K,
R=287J/kg.K, k=1.4
1 1
59.42  1.4   1.4  1 2 1.4 1
M2   263  103  1  M2 

0.44  287345.435   2 

M 2  0.1336642 1  0.2 M 22 
1 / 0.4

This equation can be solved to find M2 by trial end error

By assuming initial value of M2 as in the table below
M2 0.1 0.134334 0.134873 0.134883
F(M2) 0.134334 0.134873 0.134883 0.134883
Then M2=0.1349
Or from the isotropic properties of air table we can obtain M2 as below
A1 A2 0.44
 1.0570 and A*=0.104068 then   4.2280
A* A * 0.104068
And M2=0.135
And then we can calculate T2 and P2
 k 1 2   1. 4  1
T2  To / 1  M 2   345.435 / 1  0.13492   344.2 K  71.2o C
 2   2 
k 1.4
 k  1 2  k 1  1.4  1
0.13492   261kPa
1.4 1
P  Po / 1  M   0.263 / 1 
 2   2 
Example-8
A convergent-divergent nozzle has a throat area (500mm2) and an exit area of
(1000mm2). Air enters the nozzle with a stagnation temperature of (360K) and a
stagnation pressure of (1.0MPa). Determine the maximum flow rate of air that
the nozzle can pass, and static pressure, static temperature, Mach number, and
velocity at the exit from the nozzle, if (a) the divergent section act as a nozzle,
and (b) the divergent section acts as a diffuser.
Solution:- convergent- divergent nozzle
with A*=500mm2, A2=1000mm2,
To1=360K, and Po1=1.0MPa. The nozzle is
shown in Fig.13. It is needed to determine
the maximum flow rate in the nozzle, P2 ,
T2 and V2, if (a) the divergent section act
as a nozzle (b) the divergent section acts
as a diffuser.

51
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

A2 1000
Analysis:- We know from the known information that   2.0
A * 500
From eq.(22) we can find the maximum mass flow rate in the nozzle.
k 1 / 2 k 1
k  2 
m max  A * Po   
RTo  k  1 
1.4 1
6
m max  500  10 1  10 6
 
1.4  2  21.4 1

287360   1.4  1 
 1.065kg / S

A
Then from Table of isentropic properties of flow at 2  2.0 we get that
A*
That M=0.308 and M=2.197.
(a) for the divergent section as nozzle M2=2.197
then T2 from eq.(6)
k 1 2  k 1 2   1. 4  1
To
1 M  T2  To / 1  M 2   360 / 1  2.197 2   183.2 K
T 2  2   2 
k 1.4
 T  k 1  183.2 1.4 1
P2  Po  2   1.0   0.094 MPa
 To   360 
V2  M 2c2  M 2 kRT2  2.197  1.4287 183.2  596.1m / S
P 94
2  2   1.788kg / m3
RT2 0.287183.2 
 
m   2V2 A2  1.788 1  10 3 596.1  1.065kg / S
(b) for divergent section as diffuser M2=0.308
 k 1 2   1.4  1
Then T2  To / 1  M 2   360 / 1  .3082   353.3K
 2   2 
k 1.4
 T  k 1  353.3 1.4 1
P2  Po  2   1.0   0.938MPa
 To   360 
V2  M 2c2  M 2 kRT2  0.308  1.4287 353.3  116.0m / S
P 938
2  2   9.25kg / m3
RT2 0.287353.3
 
m   2V2 A2  9.25 1  10 3 116.0  1.065kg / S
Problems-2
1- Nitrogen enters a converging–diverging nozzle at (700kPa) and (400K) with a
negligible velocity. Determine the critical velocity, pressure, temperature, and density
in the nozzle.
2- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle at (1.2MPa) with a negligible velocity.
Approximating the flow as isentropic, determine the back pressure that would result
in an exit Mach number of (1.8).
3- A convergent nozzle has an exit area of (500mm2). Air enters the nozzle with a
stagnation pressure of (1.0MPa) and a stagnation temperature of (360K). Determine
the mass rate of flow for back pressures of (0.800MPa), (0.528MPa), and (0.3MPa),
assuming isentropic flow.

52
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

4- An ideal gas with (k=1.4) is flowing through a nozzle such that the Mach number
is (1.8) where the flow area is (36cm2). Approximating the flow as isentropic,
determine the flow area at the location where the Mach number is (0.9).
5- Air enters a nozzle at (0.5MPa), (420K), and a velocity of (110 m/s).
Approximating the flow as isentropic, determine the pressure and temperature of air at
a location where the air velocity equals the speed of sound. What is the ratio of the
area at this location to the entrance area?
6- Steam flowing at (15 m/s), (0.18MPa), (300◦C), expands to (0.16MPa) in a
converging nozzle. Find the exit velocity and area ratio Ae/Ai.
7- A convergent nozzle has a minimum area of (0.1m2) and receives air at (175kPa),
(1000K), flowing at (100m/s). What is the back pressure that will produce the
maximum flow rate? Find that flow rate.
8- A convergent-divergent nozzle has a throat area of (100mm2) and an exit area of
(175mm2). The inlet flow is helium at a total pressure of (1.0MPa) and a stagnation
temperature of (375K). What is the back pressure that will produce a sonic condition
at the throat but a subsonic condition everywhere else?
9- A jet plane travels through the air with a speed of (1000km/h) at an altitude of 6
km, where the pressure is (40kPa) and the temperature is (−12 oC). Consider the inlet
diffuser of the engine, where air leaves with a velocity of (100m/s). Determine the
pressure and temperature leaving the diffuser and the ratio of inlet to exit area of the
diffuser, assuming the flow to be reversible and adiabatic.
10- Air flows into a convergent-divergent nozzle with an exit area of (1.59) times the
throat area of (0.005m2). The inlet stagnation state is (1MPa), (600K). Find the back
pressure that will cause subsonic flow throughout the entire nozzle with (M =1) at the
throat. What is the mass flow rate?
11- A nozzle is designed assuming reversible adiabatic flow with an exit Mach
number of (2.8) while flowing air with a stagnation pressure and temperature of
(2MPa) and (150oC), respectively. The mass flow rate is (5kg/s), and k may be
assumed to be (1.40) and constant. Determine the exit pressure, temperature and area,
and the throat area.
12- An air flow at (600kPa), (600K), (M =0.3) flows into a convergent-divergent
nozzle with (M =1) at the throat. Assume a reversible flow with an exit area twice the
throat area and find the exit pressure and temperature for subsonic exit flow to exist.
Find also the exit pressure and temperature for supersonic exit flow.
13- Air is expanded in a nozzle from a stagnation state of (2MPa), (600K), to a back
pressure of (1.9MPa). If the exit cross-sectional area is (0.003 m 2), find the mass flow
rate.
14- Air is expanded in a nozzle from a stagnation state of (2MPa), (600K), to a static
pressure of (200kPa). The mass flow rate through the nozzle is (5kg/s). Assume the
flow is reversible and adiabatic and determine the throat and exit areas for the nozzle.
15- Air flows into a convergent-divergent nozzle with an exit area (2.00 times the
throat area of (0.005m2). The inlet stagnation state is (1.2MPa), (600 K). Find the
back pressure that will cause a reversible supersonic exit flow with (M = 1) at the
throat. What is the mass flow rate?
16- A supersonic wind tunnel nozzle is to be designed for (M=2) with a throat section,
(0.11m2) in area. The supply pressure and temperature at the nozzle inlet, where the
velocity is negligible, are (70kPa) and (37oC) respectively. Compute the mass flow
rate, the exit area, and the fluid properties at the throat and exit. Take k=1.4
17- An ideal gas flows into a convergent nozzle at a pressure of (0.565MPa), a
temperature of (280oC), and negligible velocity. After reversible adiabatic expansion

53
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

in the nozzle the gas flows directly into a large vessel. The gas in the vessel may be
maintained at any specified state while the nozzle supply state held constant. The exit
area of the nozzle is (500mm2). For this gas (k=1.3 and Cp=1.172kJ/kg.K). Determine
(a) The pressure of the gas leaving the nozzle when its temperature is (225 oC) and
(b) The gas mass flow rate when the pressure in the vessel is (0.21MPa).
18- Air flows adiabatically through a pipe with a constant area. At point 1, the
stagnation pressure is (0.35MPa) and the Mach number is (0.4). Further downstream
the stagnation pressure is found to be (0.25MPa). What is the Mach number at the
second point for subsonic flow?
19- A stream of air flowing in a duct is at a pressure of (150kPa), has a Mach number
of (0.6), and flows at a rate of (0.25kg/S). The cross-sectional area of the duct is
(625mm2). (a) Compute the stagnation temperature of the stream. (b) What is the
maximum percentage reduction in area which could be introduced without reducing
the flow rate of the stream? (c) For the maximum area reduction or part (b), find the
velocity and pressure at the minimum area, assuming no friction and heat transfer.
20- A rocket combustion chamber is supplied with (12kg/s) of hydrogen and (38kg/s)
of oxygen. Before entering the nozzle all the oxygen is consumed, the pressure is
(2.3MPa) and the temperature is (2800oC). Neglecting dissociation and friction, find
the throat area of the nozzle required. Assume k=1.25.

6- Normal Shock In An Ideal Gas Fl0wing Through A Nozzle

A shock wave involves an extremely rapid and abrupt change of state. In a normal
shock this change of state takes place across a plane normal to the direction of the
flow. Fig. 14. shows a control surface that includes such a normal shock. We can now
determine the relations that govern the flow. Assuming steady-state, steady-flow, we
can write the following relations, where subscripts x and y denote the conditions
upstream and downstream of the shock, respectively. Note that no heat or work
crosses the control surface.

The energy equation for an ideal gas across the shock becomes
V2 V2
CpTx  x  CpTy  y  CpTo
2 2
And hox  hoy  ho and Tox  Toy  To
kR
Substituting Cp  , cx  kRTx , and c y  kRTy
k 1
To k 1 2 To k 1 2
1 M x and  1 My,
Tx 2 Ty 2
k 1 2
Ty 1 Mx
 2 (27)
Tx 1  k  1 M 2
y
2

54
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

Px P
Again  xVx   yVy and then Vx  y V y
RTx RTy
Ty Py Vy Py M y c y Py M y Ty Ty Py M y
Or         
Tx Px Vx Px M x cx Px M x Tx Tx Px M x
2 2
Ty P  M 
Or   y    y  (28)
Tx  Px   Mx 
From eq.(27) and eq.(28)
k 1 2
Py 1 Mx
Mx 2
 (29)
Px M y 1  k  1 M 2
y
2

Also Px   xVx2  Py   yVy2

kPx 2 kPy 2
Or Px  Vx  Py  Vy
kRTx kRTy
2
Vx2 V
Px  kPx 2
 Py  kPy y2
cx cx
And  
Px 1  kM x2  Py 1  kM y2 
Then
Py

1  kM  2
x
(30)
Px 1  kM  2
y

2
M x2 
From eq.(29) and eq.(30) we get that M y2  k 1 (31)
2k
M x2  1
k 1

My 
k  1M x2  2 (31a)
2kM x2  k  1
Py 2k k 1
Then from eq.(29), eq.(30) and eq.(31)  M x2  (32)
Px k 1 k 1
Py 2kM x2  k  1

Px k 1
And from eq.(27) and eq.(31) we get that
 k  1 2  2k 
1  M x  M x2  1
Ty  2  k  1 
 (33)
Tx k  12 M 2
2k  1
x

 y Py Tx Py Ty
Then    /
 x Px Ty Px Tx
And by using eq.(32) and eq.(33) we get that

55
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

  k  1 2  2k 
 1  M x  M x2  1 
 y Py Ty  2k k 1   2  k  1 
 /  M x2  /
 x Px Tx  k  1 k 1  k  1 M 2
2

 2k  1
x 
 
k  1   k  1 
2
  2k
  Mx 
2

  M x2 
y  k 1 k  1   2k  1 
Then  (34)
x  k  1 2  2 k 
1  M x  1
2
M x 
 2  k  1 
The ratio of the stagnation pressure is a measure of the irreversibility of the shock
process, and
Poy Poy Py Px
  
Pox Py Px Pox
k k
Poy  k  1 2  k 1 Pox  k  1 2  k 1
And  1  My  ,  1  M x  and eq.(32) we can get
Py  2  Px  2 
from upper equation

k
 k  1 2  k 1
1  My 
Poy  2    2k M 2  k  1 
 k  x 
Pox  k 1 k 1
 k 1 2  k 1
1  Mx 
 2 

And by substituting eq.(31) we find that

k
 2  k 1
 k 1 M x 
2

1  k 1 
 2 2k M 2  1 
Poy  k 1
x 
   2k M 2  k  1 
  x 
Pox k
 k 1 k 1
 k  1  k  1
1  M x2 
 2 
k
  2k   k  1 2   k 1
 M x2  1   M x  1 
  k 1   2 
  2k  
  M x  1
2

Poy   k 1     2k M 2  k  1 
  x 
 k 1 k 1
k
Pox
 k  1 2  k 1
1  Mx 
 2 
And can be simplified to be
k
 k  1 2  k 1 1
Poy  2 M x   2k k  1  k 1
   M x2   (35)
Pox 1  k  1 M 2   k 1 k 1
x
 2 

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

Poy Poy Py
And also  
Px Py Px
k
Poy  k  1 2  k 1  2k k  1
 1  My   M x2  (36)
Px  2  k 1 k  1

For different values of Mx, and for k=1.4, the values of My, Py/Px, Ty/Tx, y/x,
and Pox/Poy and Poy/Px as computed from previews equations are listed in table of
normal shock.
To evaluate entropy change across the shock, for an ideal gas:
dT dP
ds  Cp R
T P
Ty Py Ty k  1Cp Py
s y  s x  Cp ln  R ln  Cp ln  R ln
Tx Px Tx k Px
 k 1

T  P  k
s y  s x  Cp ln  ln  
 y y
(37)
 Tx  Px  
 
Cp k  1 Ty Tx
Where R  then s y  s x  Cp ln
P Px  k
k 1
k
y

Ty Tx P 
s y  s x  Cp ln   R ln oy  (38)
P Px 
k 1
y
k  Pox 

The strength of a shock wave, St, is defined as the ratio of the pressure increase to the
initial pressure:
Py  Px Py 2k k 1
St   1  M x2  1
Px Px k 1 k 1

St 
2k
k 1
M x2  1   (39)
Example-9
A spacecraft directional control thruster is a converging-diverging nozzle
that uses high-pressure and high-temperature air. The air enters with isentropic
stagnation properties of (7.0MPa) and (2000°C). The throat diameter is (0.020m)
and the diameter of the exit of the diverging section is (0.10m). Determine
a. The mass flow rate required for supersonic flow in the diverging section.
b. The Mach number, pressure, and temperature at the exit of the diverging
section with this mass flow rate.
c. The outside back pressure required to produce a standing normal shock wave
at the exit of the diverging section.
Solution:- Convergent-Divergent Nozzle with stagnation properties of Po=7.0MPa,
To=2000oC=2273K, Dt=0.02m, and De=0.1m. It is required to calculate (a) m max (b)
Me, Pe. Te (c) Pb for normal shock at the exit.
 
Analysis: (a) At=A*= At  A*  Dt2  0.02 2  0.000314m 2
4 4

57
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

 
Ae  De2  0.12  0.00785m 2
4 4
We can find the maximum mass flow rate by using eq.( 22)

1.41
k 1 / 2 k 1
m max  A * Po
k  2 
 
RTo  k  1 

 0.000314 7 10 6
 1.4  2 1.41.41
 
2872273  1.4  1 
m max  1.863kg / S
2 2
 D   0.1 
b- Here, Ae / A*   e      25 : Then, Eq. (23) can be inverted to find Me
 D *   0.02 
 k 1/ 2 k 1
Ae 1  2  k  1 2 
  1  M e 
A * M e  k  1  2 
1.41 / 2 1.41 2.4
 2  1.4  1 2 
25 
1
Me  1.4  1 1  2 M e  
1  1

M e 1.2

1  0.2 M e2  
 20.4 
   
3
 1
  
 
1
25M e   1  0.2 M e2   M e  51.225M e 3  1 =5 by using
1.2   
iteration method.
k 1.4
 k  1 2  k 1  1.4  1 2  1.41
Pe  Po / 1  M e   7 / 1  5   0.013MPa  13.23kPa
 2   2 
 k 1 2   1. 4  1 2 
And Te  To / 1  M e   2273 / 1  5   378.833K
 2   2 
These quantities can also be found from the Table of one-dimensional flow
c- the pressure that will make normal shock at the exit
where Mx=5.0, Tx=378.833K, Px=13.23kPa
2
M x2 
be using eq.(31) M y2  k 1
2k
M x2  1
k 1
2
5 
2

M y2  1.4  1  0.17  M  0.4152

21.4  2 y
5  1
1. 4  1
Py 2kM x2  k  1  2kM x2  k  1 
To find the back pressure   Py  Px  
Px k 1  k 1 
 21.4 52  1.4  1 
Py  13.23   383.67 kPa

 1 .4  1 
Example-10
A convergent-divergent nozzle operates at off-design condition while
conducting air from a high pressure tank to a large container. A normal shock occurs
in the divergent part of the nozzle at a section where the cross-sectional area is
(18.75cm2).if the stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature at the inlet of the
nozzle are (0.21MPa) and (36oC) respectively, and the throat area is (12.50cm2) and

58
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

the exit are is (25cm2) estimate the exit Mach number, exit pressure, loss in stagnation
pressure, and entropy increase, during the flow between the tanks.

Solution:- convergent-divergent nozzle with Po=210kPa, To=36oC=309K, the cross-

sectional at which the normal shock occur Ax=18.75cm2, A*=12.5cm2, Ae=25cm2
It to find the exit Mach number Me , Pe, Poe, S.
Analysis:- we can determine the ratio of Ax/A* by dividing its values
Ax 18.75
  1.5
A * 12.50
 k 1/ 2 k 1
Ae 1  2  k  1 2 
And by using eq.(23)   1  M e 
A * M e  k  1  2 

1.41 / 2 1.41 3
 2  1.4  1 2   1  2 
1.5 
1
M 3e  1.4  1 1  2 M e  
1
Me

 1.2  1  0.2M e  
     
 1

M  51.21.5M x 3  1 and by iteration Mx=1.85 or from table of
 
isentropic flow Mx=1.85 . At that Mach number we can find the static pressure Px
k 1.4
 k  1 2  k 1  1. 4  1
1.852   33.8 kPa
1.41
Px  Po / 1  M x   210 / 1 
 2   2 
For normal shock at Mx=1.85 then

My 
k  1M x2  2 1.4  11.852  2  0.606
2kM x2  k  1 21.4 1.85  1.4  1
2

2kM x2  k  1 21.4 1.85  1.4  1

2
Py
   3.83,  P  129.33kPa y
Px k 1 1.4  1
And
k 1.4
 k  1 2  k 1  1.4  1 2 1.4 1
Poy  2 M x   2k k 1 
1
k 1  1 .85    2 1 .4  1 . 4  1 
1
1.41
   M x2    2
 / 1.85 
2

Pox 1  k  1 M 2   k 1 k 1 1 
1. 4  1
1.852   1.4  1 1. 4  1 
x
 2   2 
1.4
 1 .4  1
1.852   21.4
1.4 1
1
Poy  1.4  1  1.41
2    0.79  Poy=166kPa
2
  /  1 . 85  
Pox 1  1.4  1 1.852   1 .4  1 1 .4  1 
 2 
For the shock section to the exit of the nozzle, the flow is again isentropic. When
My=0.606, and from eq.(23) we can get Ay/A*

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

k 1/ 2  k 1
Ay 1  2  k  1 2 
  k  1 1  2 M y 
A* M y   
1.41 / 2 1.41
1  2  1.4  1
A1
  1  0.6062   1.23
A * 0.606  1.4  1  2 
A2 A2 Ay 25
    1.23  1.64
A * Ay A * 18.75
And from eq.(23) we can obtain M2

 k 1/ 2 k 1
A2 1  2  k  1 2 
  1  M 2  
A * M 2  k  1  2 
1.41 / 2 1.41 3
1  2  1.4  1 2  1  1  2 
1.64   1 
M 2  1.4  1  2
M 2   M2  
1.64  1.2 

 1  0.2 M 2  
 
And by iteration we get M2=0.385
k 1.4
 k  1 2  k 1  1.4  1
0.3852   149.87kPa
1.41
Then P2  Poy / 1  M 2   166 / 1 
 2   2 
The loss in stagnation Pressure occurs only across the shock
Po ( LOSS )  Pox  Poy  210  166  44kP
Poy
The entropy increase is s  s y  s x    R ln
 166 
 0.287 ln   0.0675kJ / kg.K
Pox  210 

Problems-3
1- A normal shock wave occurs in a diverging section when air is flowing at a
velocity of (420m/s), pressure (100kPa), and temperature (10°C). Determine :
(i) The Mach number before and after the shock, (ii) The pressure rise, and
(iii) The velocity and temperature after the shock.
2- A normal shock wave occurs in air flowing at a Mach number of (1.5). The
static pressure and temperature of the air upstream of the shock wave are
(100kPa) and (300K). Determine the Mach number, pressure and temperature
downstream of the shockwave. Also estimate the shock strength.
3- Fluid is air and can be treated as a perfect gas. If the conditions before the
shock are: Mx =2.0, Px =140kPa and Tx = 350K; determine the conditions after
the shock and the entropy change across the shock.
4- Air has a temperature and pressure of (300K and (300kPa)., respectively. It is
flowing with a velocity of (868m/s) and enters a normal shock. Determine the
density before and after the shock.
5- A small converging-diverging nozzle having an exit area of (4cm 2) is to be
designed to produce an exit flow of air at (100kPa) and (M=2.5). The
upstream stagnation temperature is (125oC). Calculate (a) the stagnation
pressure, (b) the exit temperature, (c) the throat area, and (d) the mass flow
rate, (e) to what value must the back pressure be raised to just produce a
normal shock wave at the exit of the nozzle.
6- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle, shown in Fig. 16a, at (1.0MPa)and
(800K) with negligible velocity. The flow is steady, one-dimensional, and
isentropic with (k=1.4). For an exit Mach number of (M=2) and a throat area

60
Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

of (20cm2), determine (a) the throat conditions, (b) the exit plane conditions,
including the exit area, and (c) the mass flow rate through the nozzle. If the air
flowing through this converging–diverging nozzle experiences a normal shock
wave at the nozzle exit plane (Fig. 16b), determine the following after the
shock: (d) the stagnation pressure, static pressure, static temperature, and static
density; (e) the entropy change across the shock; (f) the exit velocity; and (g )
the mass flow rate through the nozzle. Approximate the flow as steady, one-
dimensional, and isentropic with (k=1.4) from the nozzle inlet to the shock
location.

7- Air enters a normal shock at (26kPa), (230K), and (815m/s). Calculate the
stagnation pressure and Mach number upstream of the shock, as well as
pressure, temperature, velocity, Mach number, and stagnation pressure
downstream of the shock. Calculate the entropy change of air across the
normal shock wave.
8- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle with low velocity at (2.0MPa) and
(100oC). If the exit area of the nozzle is (3.5) times the throat area, what must
the back pressure be to produce a normal shock at the exit plane of the nozzle?
9- Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle of a supersonic wind tunnel at
(1MPa) and (300K) with a low velocity. If a normal shock wave occurs at the
exit plane of the nozzle at (M=2.4), determine the pressure, temperature, Mach
number, velocity, and stagnation pressure after the shock wave .
10- A flow into a normal shock in air has a total pressure of (400kPa), a stagnation
temperature of (600K), and (Mx = 1.2). Find the upstream temperature Tx, the
specific entropy generation in the shock, and the downstream velocity.

REFRENCES
1- Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 8th edition by Claus Borgnakke and Richard E.
Sonntag University of Michigan University of Michigan Wiley 2013
2- Engineering Thermodynamics, 5th edition by P. K. Nag , McGraw Hill Education
Office New Delhi- 2013
4- Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach 8Th Edition by Yunus A. Cengel.
Michael A. Boles McGraw-Hill 2015
5- Engineering Thermodynamics 3rd edition by R.K. RAJPUT LAXMI Publication
(P)LTD-NEW DELHI 2007
6- Modern Engineering Thermodynamics Robert T. Balmer, Elsevier Inc 2011
‫ا‬ENGELYUNUS A.

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Second Year Thermal Power Engineering Dprt. Prof. Dr. Majid H. Majeed

‫ا‬ENGEL

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