Text 1: Ecosystems and Human Interferences
An ecosystem is characterised by energy flow and chemical
cycling. Both of these begin when algae and green plants
capture a small percentage of the sun’s energy and use it to
transform inorganic chemicals such as carbon dioxide and
water into organic compounds that are used as food for
themselves and for all the other populations in an
ecosystem. Eventually, when decomposers break down
organic matter, the inorganic chemicals are liberated once
again, but the energy has dissipated as heat.
Ecosystems are not self-contained; they have inputs and
outputs to the other ecosystems of the biosphere.
Therefore, some ecologists think of the biosphere as a global
ecosystem. Most persons now realise that humans are a part
of the biosphere and that our activities affect all of its
ecosystems. DDT is an insecticide that was first used during
World War II in the Pacific to destroy mosquitoes that carry
malaria. Today, DDT is found in every body of water on Earth
and in the tissues of every human being. In the same way,
our overuse of resources -such as when we destroy forests-
may bring about changes that we find difficult to predict at
this time.
The Nature of Ecosystems:
Our planet is unique in many ways. Unlike the other planets
in our solar system, Earth has water, an atmosphere, and
abundant life. Perhaps our planet should have been called
‘water’ instead of Earth. Water is present in the
hydrosphere, which covers over three quarters of the
Earth’s surface. The oceans moderate the temperature of
the Earth, as surface temperature rises, the oceans take up a
great deal of heat, and then as temperatures cool, they
return heat slowly to the atmosphere. This helps keep the
temperature on Earth suitable for life.
The atmosphere is concentrated in the lowest 10 kilometres
near Earth but extends out at least 1.000 kilometres. Among
other gases, the atmosphere contains carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, and oxygen, which are both used and released by
living things. Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
Oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration, and in the upper
atmosphere it becomes ozone, a substance that shields
Earth from damaging ultraviolet radiation and makes life on
land possible.
A rocky substratum called the lithosphere extends from
Earth’s surface to about 100 kilometres deep. The
weathering of rocks supplies minerals to plants, which take
root in weathered rocks and slowly form soil. Besides
minerals, soil contains decaying organic material known as
humus. The organisms of decomposition play a vital role in
breaking down organic matter, returning inorganic nutrients
to plants so that photosynthesis cycles continue.
Source: English 2 – Dept. Biology, University of Crete
The biosphere is that part of the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
and lithosphere that contains living things. Taking the global
view, the entire biosphere is an ecosystem, a place where
organisms interact among themselves and with the physical
and chemical environment. These interactions help maintain
ecosystems and in turn the biosphere. Human activities can
alter the interactions between organisms and their
environments in ways that reduce the abundance and
diversity of life that the environments can support. It is
important to understand how ecosystems function so that
we can repair past damage and predict how human activities
might change current conditions.
Usually, ecologists study ecosystems on a smaller scale: A
pond, a swamp, or a wooded area are all ecosystems.
Regardless of their size, ecosystems are characterized by 1)
one-way flow of energy through the biotic community of an
ecosystem, and 2) cycling of materials from the abiotic
environment though the biotic community and back to the
abiotic environment.
Biotic Components of an Ecosystem:
The populations of an ecosystem are categorized according
to their food source. Some populations are autotrophs and
some are heterotrophs.
Autotrophs:
Autotrophs require only inorganic nutrients and an outside
energy source to produce organic nutrients for their own
use and for all the other members of a community. They are
called producers because they produce food.
Photoautotrophs, often called photosynthetic organisms,
produce most of the organic nutrients for the biosphere.
Algae of all types possess chlorophyll and carry on
photosynthesis in freshwater and marine habitats. Algae
make up the phytoplankton, which are photosynthesizing
organisms suspended in water. Green plants are the
dominant photosynthesizers on land. Some autotrophic
bacteria are chemosynthetic. They obtain energy by
oxidising inorganic compounds such as ammonia, nitrides,
and sulphides, and they use this energy to synthesise
organic compounds. Chemosynthesizers have been found to
support communities in some caves and also at
hydrothermal vents along deep-sea oceanic ridges.
Heterotrophs:
Heterotrophs need a performed source of organic nutrients.
They are called consumers because they consume food.
Herbivores are animals that graze directly on plants or algae.
In terrestrial habitats, insects are small herbivores, while in
aquatic habitats, zooplankton, such as protozoans, play that
role. Carnivores feed on other animals; birds that feed on
insects are carnivores, and so are hawks that feed on birds.
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This example allows us to mention that there are primary
consumers (e.g. insects), secondary consumers (e.g. birds),
and tertiary consumers (e.g. hawks). Sometimes tertiary
consumers are called top predators. Omnivores are animals
that feed on both plants and animals. As you likely know,
most humans are omnivores.

The decomposers are heterotrophic bacteria and fungi such

as molds and mushrooms that break down dead organic
matter, including animal wastes. They perform a very
valuable service because they release inorganic nutrients
that are then taken up by plants once more. Otherwise,
plants would have to wait for minerals to be released from
rocks. Detritus is the remains of dead organisms plus the
bacteria and fungi of decay. Fanworms feed on detritus
floating in marine waters, while clams take it from the
substratum. Earthworms and some beetles, termites, and
maggots are soil detritus feeders.

Source: English 2 – Dept. Biology, University of Crete 2