Lecture Notes On General Topology

LECTURE NOTES ON GENERAL TOPOLOGY
BIT, SPRING 2018
DAVID G.L. WANG
Contents
1. Introduction 3
1.1. Who cares topology? 3
1.2. Geometry v.s. topology 5
1.3. The origin of topology 7
1.4. Topological equivalence 8
1.5. Surfaces 9
1.6. Abstract spaces 9
1.7. The classification theorem and more 10
2. Topological Spaces 12
2.1. Topological structures 12
2.2. Subspace topology 17
2.3. Point position with respect to a set 19
2.4. Bases of a topology 24
2.5. Metrics & the metric topology 27
3. Continuous Maps & Homeomorphisms 37
3.1. Continuous maps 37
3.2. Covers 42
3.3. Homeomorphisms 45
Date: June 30, 2018.
1
4. Connectedness 53
4.1. Connected spaces 53
4.2. Path-connectedness 62
5. Separation Axioms 66
5.1. Axioms T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 66
5.2. Hausdorff spaces 70
5.3. Regular spaces & normal spaces 71
5.4. Countability axioms 75
6. Compactness 78
6.1. Compact spaces 78
6.2. Interaction of compactness with other topological properties 81
7. Product Spaces & Quotient Spaces 86
7.1. Product spaces 86
7.2. Quotient spaces 92
Appendix A. Some elementary inequalities 99
3
1. Introduction
1.1. Who cares topology?

Question 1.1. Imagine you have super stretchy and bendy pants. Can you turn
them inside out without taking your feet off the ground?
Answer. Yes.
Question 1.2. You have a picture frame with a loop of string fixed on the back,
and two nails. Can you hang it onto the wall using both nails so that pulling out
any nail from the wall leads the painting falling down?
Figure 1.1. A solution to Question 1.2. Screenshot from a video of

the PBS Digital Studios.
Answer. Yes. See Fig. 1.1.
Question 1.3. The necklace splitting problem. Its name and solutions are due to
mathematicians Alon & West. See Fig. 1.2.
Answer. The version illustrated in Fig. 1.3 can be solved by using Borsuk-Ulam
theorem: every continuous function from an n-sphere into En maps some pair of
antipodal points to the same point.
Question 1.4. The inscribed square problem: Any simple closed curve inscribes a
square. See Fig. 1.4.
Answer. Open up to 2017. The proposition that any simple closed curve inscribe a
rectangle can be shown with the aid of Möbius strips; see Fig. 1.5
4 D.G.L. WANG
Figure 1.2. Illustration of one version of the necklace splitting

problem. Screenshot from a video of 3Blue1Brown.
Figure 1.3. Illustration of one version of the necklace splitting

problem. Screenshot from a video of 3Blue1Brown.
Figure 1.4. A simple, closed, polygonal curve inscribing a square.

Stolen from Terrence Tao’s manuscript on arXiv:1611.07441.
5
Figure 1.5. August Ferdinand Möbius (1790–1868) was a German

mathematician and theoretical astronomer. The right part is a
Möbius strip. Stolen from Wiki.
Homework 1.1. Make a Möbius strip by yourself.
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2016 was awarded with one half to David J. Thouless,
and the other half to F. Duncan M. Haldane and J. Michael Kosterlitz “for theo-
retical discoveries of topological phase transitions and topological phases
of matter”; see Fig. 1.6.
Topology, over most of its history, has NOT generally been applied outside of
mathematics (with a few interesting exceptions).
WHY?
• TOO abstract? The ancient mathematicians could not even convince of the subject.
• It is qualitative, not quantitative? People think of science as a quantitative

endeavour.
1.2. Geometry v.s. topology. Below are some views from Robert MacPherson,
a plenary addresser at the ICM in Warsaw in 1983.
• Geometry (from ancient Greek): geo=earth, metry=measurement.

Topology (from Greek): τ óπoσ=place/position, λóγoσ=study/discourse.
• Topology is “geometry” without measurement.
It is qualitative (as opposed to quantitative) “geometry”.
6 D.G.L. WANG
Figure 1.6. Topology was the key to the Nobel Laureates’ discov-
eries, and it explains why electronical conductivity inside thin layers
changes in integer steps. Stolen from Popular Science Background of
the Nobel Prize in Physics 2016, Page 4(5).
Figure 1.7. Screenshot from a video of Robert MacPherson’s talk

in Institute for Advanced Study.
• Geometry: The point M is the midpoint of the straight line segment L connecting
A to B.
Topology: The point M lies on the curve L connecting A to B.
7
• Geometry calls its objects configurations (circles, triangles, etc.)

Topology calls its objects spaces.
1.3. The origin of topology. Here are three stories about the origin of topology.
1.3.1. The seven bridges of Königsberg. The problem was to devise a walk through
the city that would cross each of those bridges once and only once; see Fig. 1.8.
Figure 1.8. Map of Königsberg in Euler’s time showing the actual

layout of the seven bridges, highlighting the river Pregel and the
bridges. Stolen from Wiki.
The negative resolution by Leonhard Paul Euler (1707–1783) in 1736 laid the
foundations of graph theory and prefigured the idea of topology. The difficulty Euler
faced was the development of a suitable technique of analysis, and of subsequent
tests that established this assertion with mathematical rigor.
Euler was a Swiss mathematician, physicist, astronomer, logician and engineer
who made important and influential discoveries in many branches of mathematics
like infinitesimal calculus and graph theory, while also making pioneering contribu-
tions to several branches such as topology and analytic number theory.
1.3.2. The four colour theorem. The four colour theorem states that given any
separation of a plane into contiguous regions, producing a figure called a map, no
more than four colours are required to colour the regions of the map so that no
two adjacent regions have the same color.
The four color theorem was proved in 1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang
Haken. It was the first major theorem to be proved using a computer.
1.3.3. Euler characteristic. χ = v − e + f ; see Fig. 1.9.

We use the terminology polyhedron to indicate a surface rather than a solid.
8 D.G.L. WANG
Figure 1.9. Stamp of the former German Democratic Republic

honouring Euler on the 200th anniversary of his death. Across the
centre it shows his polyhedral formula. Stolen from Wiki.
Theorem 1.5 (Euler’s polyhedral formula). Let P be a polyhedron s.t.
• Any two vertices of P can be connected by a chain of edges.

• Any cycle along edges of P which is made up of straight line segments (not
necessarily edges) separates P into 2 pieces.
Then the Euler number or Euler characteristic χ = 2 for P .
• 1750: first appear in a letter from Euler to Christian Goldbach (1690–1764).

• 1860 (around): Möbius gave the idea of explaining topological equivalence by
thinking of spaces as being made of rubber. It works for concave P .
• David Eppstein collected 20 proofs of Theorem 1.5.
Homework 1.2. Compute the Euler characteristic of the Platonic solids (all
regular and convex polyhedra): the tetrahedron, the cube, the octahedron, the
dodecahedron, and the icosahedron; see Fig. 1.10.
1.4. Topological equivalence. = homeomorphism; see Section 1.6.

√
: thicken, stretch, bend, twist, . . .;
× : identify, tear, . . ..
See Fig. 1.11.

Theorem 1.6. Topological equivalent polyhedra have the same Euler characteristic.
• The starting point for modern topology.

• Search for unchanged properties of spaces under topological equivalence.
9
Figure 1.10. The Plotonic solids. Stolen from Wiki.
Figure 1.11. Some surfaces which are not equivalent. Stolen from
Haldane’s slides on Dec. 8th, 2016.
• χ = 2 belongs to S 2 , rather than to particular polyhedra → define χ for S 2 .

• Theorem 1.6: different calculations, same answer.
1.5. Surfaces. What exactly do we mean by a “space”?
• Homeomorphism → Continuity.
• Geometry → Boundedness.
1.6. Abstract spaces. The axioms for a topological space appearing for the first
time in 1914 in the work of Felix Hausdorff (1868–1942). Hausdorff, a German
mathematician, is considered to be one of the founders of modern topology, who
10 D.G.L. WANG
contributed significantly to set theory, descriptive set theory, measure theory,

function theory, and functional analysis.
How has modern definition of a topological space been formed?
(1) General enough to allow set of points or functions, and performable construc-
tions like the Cartesian products and the identifying. Enough information to
define the continuity of functions between spaces.
(2) Cauchy: distances → continuity.
(3) No distance! Continuity ← neighbourhood ← axiom.
A function f : Em → En is continuous if given any x ∈ Em and any neighbour-

hood U of f (x), then f −1 (U ) is a neighbourhood of x.
X
Definition 1.7. Let X be a set. Suppose that for any x ∈ X, a collection Nx ∈ 22
is assigned to x, satisfying the following 4 axioms:
(a) If x ∈ X and U ∈ Nx , then x ∈ U .

(b) If x ∈ X and U1 , U2 ∈ Nx , then U1 ∩ U2 ∈ Nx .
(c) If x ∈ X, U ∈ Nx , and U ⊂ V , then V ∈ Nx .
(d) If x ∈ X and U ∈ Nx , then {y ∈ V : V ∈ Ny } ∈ Nx .
Then we call every subset U ∈ Nx a neighbourhood of x. The assignment

{(x, Nx ) : x ∈ X} of the collection of neighbourhoods satisfying the above four
axioms to each x ∈ X is called a topology on X. The whole structure, that is,
the set X together with the topology, is called a topological space. A function
f : X → Y between topological spaces is continuous if ∀ x ∈ X and ∀ U ∈ Nf (x) ,
the set f −1 (U ) ∈ Nx . It is called a homeomorphism if it is a continuous
bijection and has a continuous inverse. We call X and Y are homeomorphic or
topologically equivalent spaces if such a function exists.
• The Euclidean space En .

• The subspace topology → surfaces become topological spaces.
• Metric → topology; e.g., d(f, g) = supx |f (x) − g(x)|.
• The peculiar cofinite topology: U ⊆ R is a neighbourhood ⇐⇒ |U c | < ∞.
• Every singleton in X is a neighbourhood =⇒ every f : X → Y is continuous.
1.7. The classification theorem and more.

11
Theorem 1.8 (Classification theorem). Any closed surface is homeomorphic to S 2

with either a finite number of handles added, or a finite number of Möbius strips
added. No two of these surfaces are homeomorphic.
Definition 1.9. The S 2 with n handles added is called an orientable surface of
genus n. Non-orientable surfaces can be defined analogously.
Historical notes. The classification of surfaces was initiated and carried through
in the orientable case by Möbius in a paper which he submitted for consideration for
the Grand Prix de Mathématiques of the Paris Academy of Sciences. He was 71 at
the time. The jury did not consider any of the manuscripts received as being worthy
of the prize, and Möbius’ work finally appeared as just another mathematical paper.
Decide ∼
= or ∼
6=.
• ∼=: construct a homeomorphism; techniques vary.

• ∼
6=: look for topological invariants, e.g., geometric properties, numbers, algebraic
systems.
Examples to show ∼
6=.
• E1 ∼
6= E2 : connectedness, h : E1 \ {0} → E2 \ {h(0)}.
• Poincaré’s construction idea: assign a group to each topological space so that
homeomorphic spaces have isomorphic groups. But group isomorphism does not
imply homeomorphism.
Here are some theorems that the fundamental groups help prove.
Theorem 1.10 (Classification of surfaces). No 2 surfaces in Theorem 1.8 have
isomorphic fundamental groups.
Theorem 1.11 (Jordan separation theorem). Any simple closed curve in E1
divides E1 into 2 pieces.
See Fig. 1.12.

Theorem 1.12 (Brouwer fixed-point theorem). Any continuous function from a
disc to itself leaves at least one point fixed.
See Fig. 1.13.

Theorem 1.13 (Nielsen-Schreier theorem). A subgroup of a free group is always
free.
12 D.G.L. WANG
Figure 1.12. Marie Ennemond Camille Jordan (1838–1922) was

a French mathematician, known both for his foundational work in
group theory and for his influential Cours d’analyse. The Jordan
curve (drawn in black) divides the plane into an “inside” region (light
blue) and an “outside” region (pink). Stolen from Wiki.
Figure 1.13. Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer (1881–1966), usually

cited as L. E. J. Brouwer but known to his friends as Bertus, was a
Dutch mathematician and philosopher, who worked in topology, set
theory, measure theory and complex analysis. He was the founder of
the mathematical philosophy of intuitionism. Stolen from Wiki.
2. Topological Spaces
The definition of topological space fits quite well with our intuitive idea of what
a space ought to be. Unfortunately it is not terribly convenient to work with. We
want an equivalent, more manageable, set of axioms!
2.1. Topological structures. We redefine topological spaces as follows, which

can be shown to be compatible with that defined in Def. 1.7.
Definition 2.1. Let X be a set and Ω ∈ 2X .
• A (topological) space is a pair (X, Ω), where the collection Ω, called a topology
or topological structure on X, satisfies the axioms
13
(i) ∅ ∈ Ω and X ∈ Ω;
(ii) the union of any members of Ω lies in Ω;
(iii) the intersection of any two members of Ω lies in Ω.
• A point in X: p ∈ X.
• An open set in (X, Ω): a member in Ω.
A closed set in (X, Ω): a subset A ⊆ X s.t. Ac ∈ Ω.
A clopen set in (X, Ω): a subset A ⊆ X which is both closed and open.
Remark 1. Being closed is not the negation of being open! A set might be
• open but not closed, or
• closed but not open, or
• clopen, or
• neither closed nor open.
Remark 2. Why do we use the letter O and the letter Ω?
• Open in English
• Ouvert in French
• Otkrytyj in Russian
• Offen in German
• Öppen in Swedish
• Otvoren in Croatian
• Otevřeno in Czech
• Open in Dutch
Here are some topological spaces that we will meet frequently in this note.
Space 1. An indiscrete or trivial topological space: (X, {∅, X}).
Space 2. A discrete topological space: (X, 2X ).

A space is discrete ⇐⇒ every singleton is open.
Space 3. A particular point topology (X, Ω):

Ω = {∅, X} ∪ {S ⊆ X : p ∈ S},
where p is a particular point in X.
14 D.G.L. WANG
Figure 2.1. Waclaw Franciszek Sierpiński (1882–1969) was a Polish

mathematician. He was known for outstanding contributions to
set theory (research on the axiom of choice and the continuum
hypothesis), number theory, theory of functions and topology. He
published over 700 papers and 50 books. Stolen from Wiki.
Space 4. An excluded point topology (X, Ω):

Ω = {∅, X} ∪ {S ⊆ X : p 6∈ S},
where p is a particular point in X.
Space 5. The real line (R, ΩR ):

ΩR = {unions of open intervals}
is the canonical or standard topology on R.
Space 6. The cofinite space (R, ΩT1 ):

ΩT1 = {∅} ∪ {complements of finite subsets of R}
is the cofinite topology or finite-complement topology or T1 -topology.
Space 7. The arrow (X, Ω):

X = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0} and Ω = {∅, X} ∪ {(a, ∞) : a ≥ 0}.
Space 8. The Sierpiński space (X, Ω):

X = {a, b} and Ω = { ∅, {a}, {a, b}}.
15
Homework 2.1. Find a smallest topological space which is neither discrete nor
indiscrete.
Question 2.2. Does there exist a topology which is both a particular point topology
and an excluded point topology?
Example 2.3. The set {0} ∪ {1/n : n ∈ Z+ } is closed in the real line.
“Think geometrically, prove algebraically.” — John Tate
Figure 2.2. John Tate (1925–) is an American mathematician, dis-

tinguished for many fundamental contributions in algebraic number
theory, arithmetic geometry and related areas in algebraic geometry.
He is professor emeritus at Harvard Univ. He was awarded the Abel
Prize in 2010. Stolen from Wiki.
Homework 2.2. Find a topological space (X, Ω) with a set A ⊂ X satisfying all
the following properties:
a) A is neither open nor closed;

b) A is the union of an infinite number of closed sets; and
c) A is the intersection of an infinite number of open sets.
Answer. The interval [ 0, 1) in R.
Example 2.4. The Cantor ternary set K is the number set created by iteratively
deleting the open middle third from a set of line segments, i.e.,
X
ak n o
K= k
: a k ∈ {0, 2} = 0.a a
1 2 · · · : a i ∈
6 {1, 4, 7} ⊂ [0, 1].
k≥1
3
See Fig. 2.3. The set K was discovered by Henry John Stephen Smith in 1874,
and introduced by Georg Cantor in 1883. It has a number of remarkable and deep
properties. For instance, it is closed in R.
16 D.G.L. WANG
Figure 2.3. The left most is Henry John Stephen Smith (1826–
1883), a mathematician remembered for his work in elementary
divisors, quadratic forms, and Smith-Minkowski-Siegel mass formula
in number theory. The middle is Georg Cantor (1845–1918), a
German mathematician who invented set theory. The right most
illustrates the Cantor ternary set. Stolen from Wiki and Math
Counterexamples respectively.
Recall that the neighbourhoods of an element has been defined in Def. 1.7, by
which we defined topology. Now we give an alternative definition of neighbourhoods.
Definition 2.5. Given (X, Ω). Let p ∈ X. A neighbourhood of p is a subset
U ⊆ X s.t.
∃ O ∈ Ω s.t. p ∈ O ⊆ U.
Remark 3. In literature the letter U is used to indicate a neighbourhood since it is
the first letter of the German word “umgebung” which means neighbourhood.
Remark 4. We are following the Nicolas Bourbaki group and define the term
“neighbourhood” in the above sense. There is another custom that a neighbourhood
of a point p is an open set containing p. Nicolas Bourbaki is the collective
pseudonym under which a group of (mainly French) 20th-century mathematicians,
with the aim of reformulating mathematics on an extremely abstract and formal
but self-contained basis, wrote a series of books beginning in 1935. With the goal
of grounding all of mathematics on set theory, the group strove for rigour and
generality. Their work led to the discovery of several concepts and terminologies
still used, and influenced modern branches of mathematics. While there is no
one person named Nicolas Bourbaki, the Bourbaki group, officially known as the
Association des collaborateurs de Nicolas Bourbaki (Association of Collaborators
of Nicolas Bourbaki), has an office at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris.
Question 2.6. A topology can be defined by assigning neighbourhoods or open

sets; see Defs. 1.7 and 2.1. Can it be defined by assigning closed sets?
17
Answer. Yes. Here is a list of axioms for assigning closed sets:
(i)’ ∅ and X are closed;

(ii)’ the union of any finite number of closed sets is closed;
(iii)’ the intersection of any collection of closed sets is closed.

Remark 5. Given (X, Ω). Since the union of all members in Ω is X, the topology Ω
itself carries enough information to clarify a topological space. However, the
topological space (X, Ω) is often denoted simply by X, because different topological
structures in the same set X are often considered simultaneously rather seldom.
Moreover, to exclaim a set is in general easier than clarifying a topology. As will
be seen in §2.2, subspace topology helps the clarification by calling the knowledge
of common topologies.
2.2. Subspace topology.

Definition 2.7. Given (X, Ω) and A ⊆ X. The subspace topology (or induced
topology) of A induced from (X, Ω):
ΩA = {O ∩ A : O ∈ Ω}.
The topological subspace induced by A: (A, ΩA ).
Question 2.8. Describe the topological structures induced
1) on Z+ by ΩR ;
Answer. The discrete topology.
2) on Z+ by the arrow;
Answer. All sets of the form {n ∈ N : n ≥ a} where a ∈ N.
3) on the two-element set {1, 2} by ΩT1 ;
Answer. The discrete topology.
4) on the two-element set {1, 2} by the arrow topology.
Answer. {∅, {2}, {1, 2}}.

18 D.G.L. WANG
Theorem 2.9. Let (X, Ω) be a topological space and A ⊆ X. The subspace topology
of A induced from (X, Ω) can be defined alternatively in terms of closed sets as
S is closed in A ⇐⇒ S = F ∩ A, where F is a closed set in X.
Theorem 2.10. Let X be a topological space and let A ⊆ M ⊆ X.
1) If A is open in X, then A is open in M .

If A is closed in X, then A is closed in M .
2) If A is open in M , and if M is open in X, then A is open in X.
If A is closed in M , and if M is closed in X, then A is closed in X.
Proof. The openness of A in M follows from the formula A = A ∩ M . Conversely,

if A is open in M , then A = O ∩ M , where O is open in X. As a consequence, this
intersection A = O ∩ M is open in X as long as M is also open in X. The “closed”
version can be shown along the same line with aid of Theorem 2.9.
Remark 6. The condition that M is√open/closed in X in Theorem 2.10 is necessary.
For instance, the set {x ∈ Q : x > 2} is clopen in Q, but neither closed nor open
in R.
Homework 2.3. Let A ⊆ M ⊆ X.
(1) If A is open in M , can we infer that A is open in X?

(2) If A is closed in M , can we infer that A is closed in X?
Answer. No to both.
Theorem 2.10 is about the openness of A in the set inclusion structure A ⊆ M ⊆

X. Theorem 2.11 concerns the topology of A in that structure.
Theorem 2.11. Let A ⊆ M ⊆ X. Then the topology of A induced from the
topology of X coincides with the topology of A induced from ΩM , where ΩM is the
subspace topology of M induced from the topology of X. In other words, it is safe
to say “the subspace topology of A”.
Proof. {O ∩ A : O ∈ ΩM } = {(O0 ∩ M ) ∩ A : O0 ∈ ΩX } = {O0 ∩ A : O0 ∈ ΩX }.

19
2.3. Point position with respect to a set.

Definition 2.12. Given (X, Ω) and A ⊆ X.
• A limit point of A: a point p ∈ X s.t.

U ∩ (A \ {p}) 6= ∅, ∀ neighbourhood U of p.
An isolated point of A: a point p ∈ A s.t.
∃ a neighbourhood U of p s.t. U ∩ (A \ {p}) = ∅.
• A is perfect, if it is closed and has no isolated points.

• The closure of A: the union of A and its limit points, denoted A, i.e.,
A = {x ∈ X : N ∩ A 6= ∅, ∀ neighbourhood N of x}.
It is alternatively written as Cl A when considered as a set operator.
An adherent point of A: a point in A.
• An interior point of A: a point having a neighbourhood in A.
An exterior point of A: a point having a neighbourhood in Ac .
A boundary point of A: a point s.t. each neighbourhood meets both A and Ac .
• The interior of A: A◦ = {interior points} = ∪{O ∈ Ω : O ⊆ A};
The exterior of A w.r.t. X: (Ac )◦ = {exterior points};
The boundary of A: ∂A = {boundary points} = A \ A◦ .
Remark 7. The symbols Cl(A), Int(A), and Ext(A) are used to denote the closure A,
the interior A◦ , and the exterior (Ac )◦ resp., when one emphasizes that they are
set operators. The symbol Bd(A) is sometimes recognized as the boundary of A,
but used uncommonly since the symbol ∂ well plays the role of a set operator.
Example 2.13. ∀ A ⊆ X, we have

A◦ ⊆ A, Ext A ⊆ Ac , and Ext ∅ = X.
In R, we have Int Q = ∅ and Ext Q = ∅. For the Cantor set in Eg. 2.4, we have
K = K, K ◦ = ∅, Ext K = I \ K, and ∂K = K.
Notation 2.14. The unit interval: the interval [0, 1] in R, denoted by I.

Puzzle 2.15. The Smith-Volterra-Cantor set K 0 is a set of points on the real
line R; see Fig. 2.4. It can be obtained by removing certain intervals from I as
follows. After removing the middle 1/4 from I, remove the subintervals of length
20 D.G.L. WANG
1/4n from the middle of each of the remaining intervals. For instance, at the first
and second step the remaining intervals are

3 5 5 7 3 5 25 27
0, ∪ ,1 and 0, ∪ , ∪ , ∪ ,1 .
8 8 32 32 8 8 32 32
Show that the set K 0 is nowhere dense.
Figure 2.4. The Smith-Volterra-Cantor set. Stolen from Bing image.
Theorem 2.16 (Characterization of the closure and interior). The closure of a

set is the smallest closed set containing that set, and the interior of a set is the
largest open set contained in that set.
Proof. The closure of a set is the intersection of all closed sets containing it, and
the interior of a set is the union of all open sets contained in it.
Proposition 2.17. Given a topological space X.
1) The interior and exterior of a set are open, and the boundary is closed.
2) Any set A in X can be decomposed as
A = Lim(A) t Iso(A),
where Lim(A) and Iso(A) are the sets of limits and isolated points of A resp.
3) The whole set X can be decomposed w.r.t. a subset A:
X = (∂A) t (Int A) t (Ext A) = (Cl A) t (Ext A),
4) ∂A = A ∩ Ac .
5) ∂(A◦ ) ⊆ ∂A.
Definition 2.18. Let f be an operator.
• f is an involution: f ◦ f = id. is the identity map.

• f is idempotent: f ◦ f = f .
21
In the operator theory, we denote the set operator of closure, interior, complement
resp. by k, i, and c. For instance, the set operator c is an involution.
Theorem 2.19. Given (X, Ω) and A ⊆ X.
1) Both the set operations interior and closure preserve the inclusion, i.e.,
A⊆X =⇒ A◦ ⊆ X ◦ and A ⊆ X.
2) ci = kc.
3) The operators k, i, and ki = kckc are idempotent.
4) The distributivity of k with ∪, and the distributivity of i with ∩:
A∪B =A∪B and (A ∩ B)◦ = A◦ ∩ B ◦ .
The operators k does not work well with ∩, neither does i with ∪:
A∩B ⊆A∩B and (A ∪ B)◦ ⊇ A◦ ∪ B ◦ .
Remark 8. It is clear that the exterior does not preserves the inclusion, and that it
is not idempotent. From Theorem 2.19, one may see that the set operation closure
is “more dual” to the set operation interior, comparing to the set operator exterior.
However, there are some properties that closure and interior do not share.
Theorem 2.20. Let X be a topological space and A ⊆ M ⊆ X. Then
ClM (A) = ClX (A) ∩ M,
but IntM (A) 6= IntX (A) ∩ M in general.
Proof. The formula for closure holds since

\ \ \
ClM (A) = F = (C ∩ M ) = M ∩ C = M ∩ ClX (A),
A⊆F A⊆C A⊆C
F is closed in M C is closed in X C is closed in X
The other formula holds false for instance X = R2 , M = A = R.
Puzzle 2.21 (Kuratowski’s closure-complement problem). How many pairwise

distinct sets can one obtain from of a given subset of a topological space by using
the set operators k and c?

Answer. 14. An example in the real line: (0, 1) ∪ (1, 2) ∪ {3} ∪ [4, 5] ∩ Q .
The answer 14 was first published by Kuratowski in 1922. A subset realising the
maximum of 14 is called a 14-set.
22 D.G.L. WANG
Figure 2.5. Kazimierz Kuratowski (1896–1980) was a Polish math-

ematician and logician. He was one of the leading representatives of
the Warsaw School of Mathematics. Stolen from Wiki.
Puzzle 2.22. Recall that we can define a topology either in terms of open sets, or
in terms of closed sets, or in terms of neighbourhoods. Can we define a topology
with the aid of the closure operation, or the interior operation?
Answer. Let X be a set. Let Cl∗ be a transformation on the power set 2X s.t.
(i) Cl∗ ∅ = ∅;
(ii) A ⊆ Cl∗ A;
(iii) distributive with the union operation: Cl∗ (A ∪ B) = Cl∗ A ∪ Cl∗ B;
(iv) idempotent: Cl∗ Cl∗ A = Cl∗ A.
Then the set Ω = {O ⊆ X : Cl∗ (Oc ) = Oc } is a topology on X. Moreover, the set

Cl∗ A is the closure of a set A in the topological space (X, Ω).
Definition 2.23. Given (X, Ω) and A, B ⊆ X.
• A is dense in B: B ⊆ A.
• A is everywhere dense: A = X, i.e., Ext A = ∅.
• A is nowhere dense: Ext A is everywhere dense, i.e., Ext Ext A = ∅.
Remark 9. Concerning topics on subset density, an often helpful fact is Theorem 2.16;
see the proofs of Theorem 2.25 and Corollaries 2.26 and 2.27.
23
Example 2.24. The whole set is everywhere dense, and the empty set is not
everywhere dense. Continuing Eg. 2.13, the set Q is everywhere dense in R, and
the Cantor set is nowhere dense in I.
Theorem 2.25 (Characterization for everywhere density). A set is everywhere

dense ⇐⇒ it meets every nonempty open set ⇐⇒ it meets every neighbourhood.
Proof. The second equivalent is clear. We show the first. Let (X, Ω) be a topological
space with A ⊆ X.
⇒. Let O ∈ Ω s.t. A ∩ O = ∅. Then A is a subset of the closed set Oc . It follows

that X = A ⊆ Oc . Hence O = ∅.
⇐. Let F ⊂ X be a proper closed set containing A. From premise, we have
A ∩ Fc =
6 ∅, that is, A 6⊆ F . Therefore, the smallest closed set containing A
is X. By Theorem 2.16, we have A = X. Hence A is everywhere dense.
This completes the proof.
Corollary 2.26. If A is everywhere dense and O is open, then O ⊆ A ∩ O.
Proof. If not, then ∃ x ∈ O with a neighbourhood U s.t. U ∩ (A ∩ O) = ∅. W.l.o.g.,

we can suppose that U is open. Then the everywhere dense set A does not meet
the open set U ∩ O. By Theorem 2.25, we infer that U ∩ O = ∅, contradicting the
fact that x ∈ U ∩ O.
Corollary 2.27. Let X be a topological space.
(1) X is indiscrete ⇐⇒ only the empty set ∅ is not everywhere dense.
Proof. Let A ⊆ X s.t. A 6∈ {∅, X}. If X is indiscrete, then there is only

one nonempty open set, that is, the whole set X. Certainly A meets X. By
6 A, no
Theorem 2.25, the set A is everywhere dense. Conversely, since A = X =
A is closed. Hence X is indiscrete.
(2) X is discrete ⇐⇒ only the whole set X is everywhere dense.
Proof. Let A ⊆ X s.t. A 6∈ {∅, X}. If X is discrete, then A is closed, and

A = A 6= X. Conversely, by Theorem 2.25, the set A does not meet some
nonempty open set. Taking A to be the complement of each singleton, we find
that every singleton is open. Hence X is discrete.
(3) A set S is everywhere dense in the arrow ⇐⇒ sup S = ∞.

24 D.G.L. WANG
Proof. If sup S = ∞, then (s, ∞)∩S 6= ∅, ∀ s ≥ 0. It is clear that [ 0, ∞)∩S 6= ∅.

Thus S meets every nonempty open set, and is everywhere dense by Theorem 2.25.
Conversely, if sup S 6= ∞, then ∃ M > 0 s.t. s < M , ∀ s ∈ S. It follows that
S ∩ (M, ∞) = ∅. By Theorem 2.25, we infer that S is not everywhere dense.
(4) A set S is everywhere dense in the cofinite space ⇐⇒ S is infinite.
Theorem 2.28. A set A is nowhere dense in a topological space X ⇐⇒

each open set in X contains an open set that is contained in Ac .
Proof. By Theorem 2.25, we deduce that A is nowhere dense

⇐⇒ Ext A is everywhere dense
⇐⇒ Ext A meets every neighbourhood
⇐⇒ each neighbourhood contains an exterior point of A
⇐⇒ each neighbourhood contains a neighbourhood that is contained in Ac
⇐⇒ each open set contains an open set that is contained in Ac .
Theorem 2.29. The real line is not the union of a countable number of nowhere
dense sets.
Proof. Assume to the contrary that R = ∪n∈N Yn , where Yn is nowhere dense in R.

Since Y0 is nowhere dense, by Theorem 2.28, ∃ [a0 , b0 ] ⊆ Y0c . Since Y1 is nowhere
dense, by Theorem 2.28, ∃ [a1 , b1 ] ⊆ [a0 , b0 ] ⊆ Y1c . Continuing in this way, one
obtains a nested sequence of closed intervals [an , bn ] which is contained in Ync . From
calculus, we know that the set A = ∩n∈N [an , bn ] 6= ∅. But
\ [ c
c
A⊆ Yn = Yn = Rc = ∅,
n∈N n∈N
a contradiction.
2.4. Bases of a topology.

Definition 2.30. Given (X, Ω).
• A base for Ω: a collection β of open sets s.t.

any open set of X is the union of some members of β.
• Ω is generated by β: β is a base for a topology Ω; denoted Ω = hβi.
25
Remark 10. In contrast to a basis of a vector space in linear algebra, a base need not
to be maximal, e.g., any open set can be safely added to a base. Moreover,
a topological space may have disjoint bases of distinct sizes, e.g., the standard
topology ΩR of the real line has a base of all open intervals with rational ends, and
another base of all open intervals with irrational ends.
Question 2.31. Here are some questions about bases.
(1) Describe a smallest base for an indiscrete space.
Proof. The whole set.
(2) Describe a smallest base for a discrete space. Is it unique?
Answer. The collection of all singletons. Yes.
(3) Describe a smallest base for the arrow. Is it unique?
Answer. {(r, ∞) : r ∈ Q+ } ∪ { [0, ∞)}. No.
Here is a criterion for a collection to be a base of a given topology.

Theorem 2.32. Given (X, Ω) and β ⊆ Ω. Then β is a base for Ω
⇐⇒ for any pair (x, O) where x ∈ O ∈ Ω, ∃ B ∈ β s.t. x ∈ B ⊆ O.
Proof. Let O ∈ Ω. ⇒: Since β is base, ∃ Γ ⊆ β s.t. O = ∪B∈Γ B.

⇐: ∀ x ∈ O, let Bx ∈ β such that x ∈ Bx ⊆ O. Then O = ∪x∈O Bx .
Puzzle 2.33. Any base of the real line is reducible. In other words, for any base β
of the real line R, ∃ B ∈ β s.t. β \ {B} is a base of R.
Proof. Assume that R has an irreducible base β. Let A ∈ β. By Theorem 2.32,

there exists a pair (xA , OA ) where xA ∈ OA ⊆ ΩR s.t. the set A is the unique
M ∈ β s.t. xA ∈ M ⊆ OA . Note that the open set A is the union of some open
intervals. Let IA be the maximal open interval in A which contains xA .
We shall show that A = IA . In fact, since β is a base, the open set IA can be
generated by β. If A = 6 IA , then IA ⊂ A, and IA can be generated by β \ {A}. It
follows the existence of B ∈ β \ {A} s.t. xA ∈ B ⊆ IA . Hence, both A, B ∈ β well
play the role of M , contradicting the uniqueness of M . This proves IA = A.
Let A = (u, v). Suppose that u ∈ R. Since for each n ≥ 1, the open interval
Jn = (u + (v − u)/n, v) can be generated by β \ {A}, the interval A = ∪n≥1 Jn
26 D.G.L. WANG
can be generated by β \ {A}. This proves that the base β can be reduced by
removing the member A. Along the same lines we can prove the reducibility if
v ∈ R. Otherwise A = (−∞, ∞). Since the interval (−n, n) can be generated by
β \ {A} for each n ∈ Z+ , so can the interval A. Hence β is reducible.
Next is a criterion for a collection to be a base of a certain topology.

Theorem 2.34. Given X and β ⊆ 2X . Then
β is a base for a certain topology on X
(
X is the union of all members of β,
⇐⇒
the intersection of any two members of β is the union of some sets in β.
Proof. ⇒: Since any member of β is open for the topology generated by β, the
intersection of any two members is open and hence can be generated by the
base β. ⇐: Define Ω ⊆ 2X to be the collection of unions of members of β. By
using distributive law for the unions and intersections, one may verify that Ω is a
topology on X.
In contrast to Euclid’s classical proof of the infinitude of primes recorded in

the Elements, Hillel (Harry) Furstenberg published a topological proof in 1955 (H.
Furstenberg, On the infinitude of primes, Amer. Math. Monthly 62 (5) 353), when
he was an undergraduate student at Yeshiva Univ.; see Fig. 2.6.
Figure 2.6. Hillel (Harry) Furstenberg (1935 — ) is an American-

Israeli mathematician, a member of the Israel Academy of Sciences
and Humanities and U.S. National Academy of Sciences and a laure-
ate of the Wolf Prize in Mathematics. Stolen from Wiki.
Space 9. The evenly spaced integer topology (Z, Ω): Ω is generated by all
arithmetic progressions.
27
Furstenberg’s proof of the infinitude of primes. In the evenly spaced integer topol-
ogy, each set P (a, d) = {a + nd : n ∈ Z} is clopen. Note that
[
Z \ {−1, 1} = P (0, d).
p is prime
If the number of primes is finite, then the set {−1, 1} is clopen. However, every
open set is infinite from definition, a contradiction.
2.5. Metrics & the metric topology.

Definition 2.35. Let X be a set.
• A metric on X: a function d : X × X → R s.t.

(a) subadditivity or triangle inequality: d(x, y) ≤ d(y, z) + d(z, x);
(b) symmetry: d(x, y) = d(y, x); and
(c) being positive-definite: d(x, y) ≥ 0, and d(x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = y.
• A metric space: the pair (X, d).
Remark 11. In economics, subadditivity is an essential property of some particular
cost functions. It implies that production from only one firm is socially less
expensive (in terms of average costs) than production of a fraction of the original
quantity by an equal number of firms. – from wiki.
We distinguish the notation of a topological space (X, ΩX ) and the notation of

a metric space (X, d) by statement. As will be seen in Definition 2.48, a metric
induces a topological structure.
Example 2.36. Let d1 and d2 be metrics on X. Then ρ+ = d1 + d2 is a metric,

and so is ρmax = max{d1 , d2 }.
Proof. The symmetry and positive semi-definity for each of the functions ρ+
and ρmax are clear. The subadditivity is shown below.

ρ+ (x, z) + ρ+ (y, z) = d1 (x, z) + d2 (x, z) + d1 (y, z) + d2 (y, z)

= d1 (x, z) + d1 (y, z) + d2 (x, z) + d2 (y, z)
≥ d1 (x, y) + d2 (x, y) = ρ+ (x, y);
ρmax (x, z) + ρmax (y, z) = max{d1 (x, z), d2 (x, z)} + max{d1 (y, z), d2 (y, z)}
≥ max{d1 (x, z) + d1 (y, z), d2 (x, z) + d2 (y, z)}
≥ max{d1 (x, y), d2 (x, y)} = ρmax (x, y).
28 D.G.L. WANG
The properties of being definite can be shown as follows.

ρ+ (x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ d1 (x, y) = 0 and d2 (x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = y.
ρmax (x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ d1 (x, y) = 0 and d2 (x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = y.
Example 2.37. The map d∆ (A, B) = S(A) + S(B) − 2S(A ∩ B), where S(C) is
the area of a polygon C, defines the area metric on the set of all bounded plane
polygons. In fact, the number d∆ (A, B) is the area of the symmetric difference
A∆B. Thus the symmetry and being positive-definite are clear. The subadditivity
holds because A∆C ⊆ (A∆B) ∪ (B∆C) for any bounded plane polygons A, B, C.
Homework 2.4. Let d be a metric on a set X, and f a function defined on R≥0 .

Then the function g(x, y) = f (d(x, y)) is a metric if
i) f (0) = 0;
ii) f is increasing; and
iii) f is subadditive, i.e., f (x + y) ≤ f (x) + f (y) for any x, y ∈ R.
Proof. We check the 3 conditions for a metric.
(1) Subadditivity.
f (d(x, y)) ≤ f (d(x, z) + d(y, z)) (by the increasing property of f )
≤ f (d(x, z)) + f (d(y, z)) (by the subadditivity of f ).
(2) Symmetry. f (d(x, y)) = f (d(y, x)) by the symmetry of d.

(3) Being positive-definite. By the increasing property, we have
f (d(x, y)) ≥ f (0) = 0, and
f (d(x, y)) = 0 ⇐⇒ f (d(x, y)) = f (0) ⇐⇒ d(x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = y.
Homework 2.5. For any metric d, the function min{d(x, y), 1} is a metric.
Proof. We check that the function ρ(x, y) = min{d(x, y), 1} satisfy the 3 conditions
for a metric.
29
(1) Subadditivity. Since ρ(x, z) = min{d(x, z), 1} ≤ 1, by the non-negativity of the

metric d, the desired inequality holds if d(x, y) ≥ 1 or d(y, z) ≥ 1. Consequently,
we may suppose that d(x, y) < 1 and d(y, z) < 1. Then, by the subadditivity
of d, we infer that
ρ(x, y) + ρ(y, z) = d(x, y) + d(y, z) ≥ d(x, z) ≥ ρ(x, z).
(2) Symmetry: Directly by the symmetry of d.
(3) Being positive-definite: we have ρ(x, y) ≥ 0 since d(x, y) ≥ 0, and
ρ(x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ d(x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = y.
Homework 2.4 and Homework 2.5 give two ways of self-production of metrics.
In linear algebra, functional analysis and related areas, we use the concept of
norm, which has a close relationship with metrics.
Definition 2.38. Let V be a vector space over R.
• A seminorm on V : a function k · k : V → R satisfying

(1) subadditivity: ku + vk ≤ kuk + kvk, ∀ u, v ∈ V ; and
(2) absolutely scalability: kλvk = |λ|· kvk, ∀ λ ∈ R, v ∈ V .
• Seminorm is positive semi-definite: kvk ≥ 0, ∀ v ∈ V .
(2) ⇒ k0k = 0 and k−vk = kvk. Taking u = −v in (1) ⇒ kvk ≥ 0.
• The trivial seminorm: kvk = 0 ∀ v ∈ V .
• A norm on V : a function k · k satisfying (1),(2), and
(3) being definite: kvk = 0 ⇒ v = 0.
• A normed space: a vector space equipped with a norm.
• The metric induced by the norm: d(x, y) = kx − yk.
Notation 2.39. We denote H = {x : x ≥ 1} ∪ {+∞}.

Definition 2.40. Let x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Cn and p ∈ H.
• The p-norm of x:
n
X 1/p
p
(2.1) kxkp = |xi | .
i=1
The subadditivity is called Minkowski’s inequality; see Theorem A.6.
30 D.G.L. WANG
• The grid/Manhattan/taxicab norm or snake distance: the 1-norm. See

Fig. 2.7.
Figure 2.7. The Manhattan distance. Stolen from Bing image.
• The Euclidean norm: the 2-norm.

• The infinity/maximum norm: kxk∞ = maxi |xi |.
In fact, if M = maxi |xi |, then
n 1/p n 1/p
|xi |p
X X
p
kxk∞ = lim |xi | = M · lim
p→∞
i=1
p→∞
i=1
Mp
= M · lim |{1 ≤ i ≤ n : |xi | = M }|1/p = M.
p→∞
Example 2.41. Let p ∈ H. Consider the metric

X n 1/p
(p) p
(2.2) ρ (x, y) = |xi − yi |
i=1
induced by the p-norm.

Pn
(1) ρ(1) (x, y) = i=1 |xi − yi |.
n
p
(2) ρ(2) (x, y) =
P 2
i=1 (xi − yi ) is the Euclidean metric.
(3) The Chebyshev/chessboard distance or L∞ -metric:

ρ(∞) (x, y) = max |xi − yi |.
i
The Chebyshev distance is used in warehouse logistics, as it effectively measures

the time an overhead crane takes to move an object. In fact, the crane can move
on the x and y axes at the same time but at the same speed along each axis;
see Fig. 2.8.
31
Figure 2.8. Pafnuty Lvovich Chebyshev (1821–1894) was a Rus-

sian mathematician. His name can be alternatively transliterated
as Chebychev, Chebysheff, Chebychov, Chebyshov; or Tchebychev,
Tchebycheff (French transcriptions); or Tschebyschev, Tschebyschef,
Tschebyscheff (German transcriptions). The right part is a photo for
an overhead crane in Qingdao Beihai Shipbuilding Heavy Industry
in China. Stolen from Wiki and Bing image.
Definition 2.42 (generalization). Let x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Cn and p ∈ H.
• The `p -space: the set of infinite complex-valued sequences (x1 , x2 , . . .) with

convergent `p -norm
X 1/p
p
k(x1 , x2 , . . .)k = |xi | .
i
• The Lp -space: the set of functions f on X ⊆ R with convergent Lp -norm

Z 1/p
p
kf kp,X = |f (x)| dx .
X
Definition 2.43. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Let r ≥ 0.
• The open ball of radius r centerd at x ∈ X:

B(x, r) = {y ∈ X : d(x, y) < r}.
• The disk of radius r centerd at x ∈ X:
D(x, r) = {y ∈ X : d(x, y) ≤ r}.
• The sphere of radius r centerd at x ∈ X:
S(x, r) = {y ∈ X : d(x, y) = r}.
32 D.G.L. WANG
Example 2.44. The names in Definition 2.43 come from the Euclidean space.
• Dn : the unit disk in Rn , i.e., the disk of radius 1 centered at 0.

D1 is the interval [−1, 1], D2 is a plane disk, and D3 a ball.
• S n : the unit sphere in Rn+1 , i.e., the sphere of radius 1 centered at 0.
S 0 is the set {−1, 1}, S 1 is a circle, and S 2 a sphere.
However, they may rather surprising in other metric spaces.

√
• The unit ball in R2 equipped with ρ(1) is a closed square of side length 2.
• The unit ball in R2 equipped with ρ(∞) is a closed square of side length 2.
Definition 2.45. Let (X, d) be a metric space with A, B ⊆ X and x ∈ X.
• The diameter of A: diam(A) = supx,y∈A d(x, y).

• A is bounded: A is contained in a ball, i.e., ∃ r s.t. d(x, y) < r, ∀ x, y ∈ A.
• The distance between x and A: d(x, A) = inf a∈A d(x, a).
• The Hausdorff distance between A and B:

dH (A, B) = max sup d(a, B), sup d(A, b) .
a∈A b∈B
See Fig. 2.9.
Figure 2.9. The Hausdorff distance. Stolen from Wiki.
Remark 12. In computer graphics the Hausdorff distance is used to measure the
difference between two different representations of the same 3D object.
Theorem 2.46. Let A be a closed set. Then d(A, b) = 0 ⇐⇒ b ∈ A.

33
Proof. ⇐: Clear. ⇒: Since d(A, b) = 0, each ball centered at b has a nonempty

intersection with A. Hence b 6∈ Ac . Thus b ∈ Cl(A) = A.
Theorem 2.47. For every metric space, the Hausdorff distance is a metric on the
set of its closed bounded subsets.
Proof. We should verify the three conditions for a metric. Let (X, d) be a metric
space. Let A, B, C be closed bounded subsets of X.
(1) Symmetry and positivity. Clear from definition.

(2) Being definite. By Theorem 2.46, we can infer that
dH (A, B) = 0 ⇐⇒ sup d(a, B) = sup d(A, b) = 0
a∈A b∈B
⇐⇒ d(a, B) = d(A, b) = 0 for all a ∈ A and b ∈ B
⇐⇒ a ∈ B and b ∈ A for all a ∈ A and b ∈ B
⇐⇒ A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
⇐⇒ A = B.
(3) Subadditivity. Let r(A, B) = supa∈A d(a, B). Then

dH (A, B) = max r(A, B), r(B, A) .
To show the subadditivity of dH , it suffices to show subadditivity of the function r.
By the subadditivity of d, for all a ∈ A and all b ∈ B, we have
d(a, C) ≤ d(a, b) + d(b, C) ≤ d(a, b) + r(B, C).
It follows from the arbitrariness of b, we infer that
r(A, C) ≤ d(a, C) ≤ d(a, B) + r(B, C) ≤ r(A, B) + r(B, C).
Homework 2.6. Find a metric space and two balls in it s.t. the smaller ball
contains the bigger ball properly. What is the minimal number of points in such a
space? Show that the largest radius in such a space is at most twice the smaller
radius.
Homework 2.7. Show that the segment with endpoints a, b ∈ Rn can be described
as
{x ∈ Rn : ρ(a, x) + ρ(b, x) = ρ(a, b)}
under the Euclidean metric. How does the above set look if ρ = ρ(1) or ρ = ρ(∞) ?
34 D.G.L. WANG
• Given a metric d on X. The metric topology of (X, d), or the topology of X

generated by d:
ΩX,d = {O ⊆ X : ∀ x ∈ O, ∃ , B(x, ) ⊆ O}.
In other words, the collection of open balls in (X, d) is a base of Ωd .
• Given a topology Ω on X. X is metrizable: Ω is generated by a certain metric.
Homework 2.8. Let X be a set. Define the function d0 : X × X → R≥0 by

(
0, if x = y,
(2.3) d0 (x, y) =
1, if x 6= y.
(1) Show that d0 is a metric.

(2) Let x ∈ X. Find D(x, 1), D(x, 1/2), and S(x, 1/2) in this metric space.
(3) What is the metric topology of (X, d0 )?
Theorem 2.49. We have the following.
(1) Any metrizable indiscrete space is a singleton.
Proof. Let (X, ΩX ) be an indiscrete space. Then ΩX = {∅, X} from definition.

Suppose that |X| ≥ 2. Then X contains two distinct points, say, x and y. If
X is metrizable, say, ΩX is generated by some metric d. Then d(x, y) > 0 from
definition, and the set S = B(x, d(x, y)/2) is open. But x ∈ S and y 6∈ S, we
infer that S 6∈ ΩX , a contradiction! This completes the proof.
(2) A finite space is metrizable if and only if it is discrete.
Proof. Let (X, ΩX ) be a finite space. If X is discrete, then ΩX = 2X from

definition. Under the metric d0 defined by Eq. (2.3), every singleton x ∈ X
forms an open set since {x} = B(x, 1/2) ∈ ΩX . Hence every subset of X is open
under the topology generated by d0 . Conversely, suppose that ΩX is generated
by a metric d. Let
mx = min{d(x, y) : y ∈ X \ {x}}.
Since X is finite, we have mx > 0. Then every singleton {x} = B(x, mx /2) is
open. Thus ΩX is the discrete topology. This completes the proof.
Proposition 2.50. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Let x ∈ X and A, B ⊆ X.

35
(1) d(x, A) = 0 ⇐⇒ x ∈ A.
(2) dH (A, B) is finite if both A and B are bounded.
(3) dH (A, B) = 0 ⇐⇒ A = B.
(4) For every metric space, the Hausdorff distance is a metric on the set of its closed
bounded subsets.
Table 2.1. Openness & closeness of balls and spheres.
open ball disk sphere

Open YES MAYBE MAYBE
Closed MAYBE YES YES
Theorem 2.51. Two metrics d1 and d2 on X are equivalent if they generate the
same topology, denoted d1 ∼ d2 . If ∃ c, C > 0 s.t. c·d1 (x, y) ≤ d2 (x, y) ≤ C ·d1 (x, y),
∀ x, y ∈ X, then d1 ∼ d2 .
Proof. Write ΩX,di = Ωi for i = 1, 2. The desired equivalence says Ω1 = Ω2 .

First, we show that Ω2 ⊆ Ω1 . Since any open set O2 ∈ Ω2 is the union of some
open balls w.r.t. the metric d2 , it suffices to recast a typical ball of the form
B(x, r) = {z ∈ X : d2 (x, z) < r}
as a member in Ω1 , i.e., the union of open balls w.r.t. the metric d1 . Define
[
U (x, r) = y ∈ X : d1 (y, z) < L
z∈B(x,r)
where
r − d2 (x, z)
L= .
2C
Then U (x, r) ∈ Ω1 . We shall show that B(x, r) = U (x, r). On one hand, ∀ z ∈
B(x, r), since d1 (z, z) = 0 < L, we have z ∈ U (x, r). On the other hand, ∀ y ∈
U (x, r), ∃ z ∈ B(x, r) s.t. d1 (y, z) < L. Then
d2 (x, y) ≤ d2 (x, z) + d2 (y, z) ≤ d2 (x, z) + C· d1 (y, z) ≤ d2 (x, z) + C· L < r.
Thus y ∈ B(x, r). This proves B(x, r) = U (x, r) and Ω2 ⊆ Ω1 .
From premise, we have d1 (x, y) ≤ c−1 · d2 (x, y). Along the same lines, one may
show that Ω1 ⊆ Ω2 , which implies Ω1 = Ω2 immediately.
Homework 2.9. Let H = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1} ∪ {+∞}. The metrics ρ(p) defined in

Eq. (2.2) for p ∈ H are equivalent.
36 D.G.L. WANG
Hint. By Theorem 2.51.
Homework 2.10. Let d be a metric on a set X. Then the function d/(1 + d) is a

metric, and it is equivalent to d.
37
3. Continuous Maps & Homeomorphisms
3.1. Continuous maps.

Definition 3.1. Given (X, ΩX ) and (Y, ΩY ). Let f : X → Y be a map.
• f is open: open 7→ open, i.e., f (ΩX ) ⊆ ΩY .

• f is closed: closed 7→ closed.
• f is continuous: the preimage of any open set is open.
• f is continuous at a point x ∈ X: the set f −1 (V ) is a neighbourhood of x
for every neighbourhood V of f (x).
Example 3.2. Here are some continuous maps.
(1) The identity map. It is also open and closed.

(2) Any constant map. It is also open and closed.
(3) Any inclusion.
(4) Any projection.
Question 3.3. Consider (X, ΩR ) and (Y, ΩY ), where X = Y = [0, 2]. Is the
following functions f : X → Y continuous?
1) If ΩY = ΩR , and (
x, if x ∈ [0, 1);
f (x) =
3 − x, if x ∈ [1, 2].
Answer. No.
2) If ΩY is induced from the arrow, and

(
x, if x ∈ [0, 1];
f (x) =
x + 1, if x ∈ [1, 2].
Answer. Yes!!
Question 3.4. Given (X, ΩX ) and (Y, ΩY ).
1) If ΩX is discrete, then which maps X → Y are continuous?
Answer. All maps.

38 D.G.L. WANG
2) If ΩX is discrete, then which maps Y → X are continuous?
Answer. A map Y → X is continuous ⇐⇒ ΩY is discrete.
3) If ΩX is indiscrete, then which maps X → Y are continuous?
Answer. A map f : X → Y is continuous ⇐⇒ f is constant.
4) If ΩX is indiscrete, then which maps Y → X are continuous?
Answer. All maps.
Theorem 3.5 (Characterizations of map continuity). Given topological spaces

(X, ΩX ) and (Y, ΩY ). Let f : X → Y be a map. Then the followings are equivalent.
1) The preimage of any open set under f is open.

2) The preimage of any closed set under f is closed.
3) The preimage of any member of a base under f is open.
4) The preimage of any neighbourhood under f is a neighbourhood, i.e., f is
continuous at each point.
5) f (A) ⊆ f (A), ∀ A ⊆ X.
6) f −1 (B) ⊆ f −1 (B), ∀ B ⊆ Y .
Proof. Straightforward by definition: each of Items 2) to 4) is equivalent to Item 1).

Item 4) ⇐⇒ Item 5).
⇒. Let x ∈ A. Let V be a neighbourhood of f (x). By Item 4), the set f −1 (V )

is a neighbourhood in X. Since f −1 (V ) is a neighbourhood of x, we have
f −1 (M ) ∩ A 6= ∅, and
V ∩ f (A) = f f −1 (V ) ∩ A 6= ∅.

⇐. Let x ∈ X. Let V be a neighbourhood of f (x). Assume that Item 4) is false.

Then f −1 (V ) is not a neighbourhood of x. Define A = X \ f −1 (V ). Then x ∈ A.
It follows that f (x) ∈ f (A) ⊆ f (A). Thus f (A) meets every neighbourhood of
f (x). In particular, we have f (A) ∩ V 6= ∅, contradicting the definition of A.
Item 6) ⇐⇒ Item 2).
⇒. Let B be a closed subset of Y . Then B = B, and f −1 (B) ⊆ f −1 (B) = f −1 (B).

It follows that f −1 (B) = f −1 (B) is closed.
39
⇐. Since B ⊆ B, we have f −1 (B) ⊆ f −1 (B). Since B is closed, we infer that f −1 (B)

is closed. Since f −1 (B) is the smallest closed set containing f −1 (B), we derive
that f −1 (B) ⊆ f −1 (B).
Theorem 3.6. Continuous surjections preserve the property of being everywhere

dense.
Proof. Let f : X → Y be a surjective continuous map between topological spaces.

Let A be an everywhere dense set of X. Since f is surjective, we have
f (A) = f (X) = Y.
Since f is continuous, by Theorem 3.5 Item 5), we have f (A) ⊆ f (A). Therefore,
we obtain f (A) = Y , i.e., f (A) is everywhere dense.
Theorem 3.7. Let f1 , . . . , fl , g1 , . . . , gm , h1 , . . . , hn : X → R be continuous func-

tions. Let
  

 f1 (x) ≤ 0, . . . , fl (x) ≤ 0, 
 
A = x ∈ X : g1 (x) = 0, . . . , gm (x) = 0, and

 
h (x) ≥ 0, . . . , h (x) ≥ 0  
1 n
( ( )
f1 (x) < 0, . . . , fl (x) < 0,
B = x ∈ X:
h1 (x) > 0, . . . , hn (x) > 0.
Then A is closed and B is open.
Proof. The set A is the intersection of the preimages of the closed sets (−∞, 0 ]
or {0} or [ 0, ∞) under continuous functions, and hence closed. The set B is the
intersection of the preimages of the open sets (−∞, 0) or (0, ∞) under continuous
functions, and hence closed.
Corollary 3.8. The kernel {x ∈ X : f (x) = 0} of any continuous f : X → R is

closed.
Corollary 3.9. The set {x ∈ R : f (x) = x} of fixed points of any continuous
f : R → R is closed.
Lemma 3.10. Let f : X → R be a continuous function. Then ∀ p ∈ X, ∃ a

neighbourhood U of p s.t. f is bounded in U . If 0 6∈ f (X), then ∃ a neighbourhood V
of p in which
40 D.G.L. WANG
(i) the absolute value |f (x)| has a positive lower bound in V , and
(ii) f (x)f (p) > 0.
Proof. Let p ∈ X and > 0. Since f is continuous, ∀ > 0, ∃ a neighbourhood U

of p s.t. |f (x) − f (p)| < . Thus |f (x)| ≤ |f (p)| + , i.e., f is bounded in U .
If 0 6∈ f (X), then f (p) 6= 0, one may require the above < |f (p)/2|. Then
|f (x)| ≥ |f (p) − | > . Moreover, the inequality |f (x) − f (p)| < implies that
f (x)f (p) > 0.
Theorem 3.11. Let f, g : X → R be continuous functions. Then the functions

X → R defined by the following formulas are continuous:
x 7→ f (x) ± g(x),
x 7→ f (x)g(x),
x 7→ f (x)/g(x), if 0 6∈ g(X),
x 7→ |f (x)|,
x 7→ min{f (x), g(x)},
x 7→ max{f (x), g(x)}.
Proof. We show them individually. Let p ∈ X and > 0.
(1) The continuity of f − g can be obtained by considering the continuous functions

f and −g. Let h(x) = f (x) + g(x). For w ∈ {f, g}, since w is continuous, ∃ a
neighbourhood Uw of p s.t. |w(x) − w(p)| < /2, ∀ x ∈ Uw . Hence
|h(x) − h(p)| ≤ |f (x) − f (p)| + |g(x) − g(p)| < , ∀ x ∈ U,
where U = Uf ∩ Ug is a neighbourhood of p. In other words, ∀ open interval J
of R, h−1 (J) is a neighbourhood in X. This proves the continuity of h(x).
(2) Let h(x) = f (x)g(x). Since f is continuous, by Lemma 3.10, ∃ a neighbour-
hood Uf of p s.t.
|f (x)| < 1 and |g(p)| · |f (x) − f (p)| < /2.
Since g is continuous, ∃ a neighbourhood Ug of p s.t.
|g(x) − g(p)| < /2.
Therefore, one may infer that
|h(x) − h(p)| ≤ |f (x)| · |g(x) − g(p)| + |g(p)| · |f (x) − f (p)| < , ∀ x ∈ U,
where U = Uf ∩ Ug is a neighbourhood of p. This proves the continuity of h(x).
41
(3) By using the continuity of the product of continuous functions, it suffices to

show that the function h(x) = 1/g(x) is continuous. In fact, by Lemma 3.10, ∃
` > 0 and a neighbourhood U1 of p s.t. |g(x)g(p)| ≥ `. By the continuity of g, ∃
a neighbourhood U2 of p s.t. |g(x) − g(p)| < `. Therefore, we can deduce that
1 1 g(x) − g(p)
− = < , ∀ x ∈ U = U1 ∩ U2 .

g(x) g(p) g(x)g(p)

(4) Let h(x) = |f (x)|. By Lemma 3.10, ∃ a neighbourhood U1 of p s.t. f (x)f (p) > 0.
Since f is continuous, ∃ a neighbourhood U2 of p s.t. |f (x)−f (p)| < . Therefore,
we infer that
|h(x) − h(p)| = |f (x) − f (p)| < , ∀x ∈ U1 ∩ U2 .
(5) See Homework 3.1. Let h(x) = min{f (x), g(x)}.

(6) The continuity of the function max{f, g} = − min{−f, −g} can be obtained by
the continuity of the minimum of continuous functions.
Homework 3.1. Let f, g : X → R be continuous functions. Prove that the

functions x 7→ min{f (x), g(x)} is continuous.
Proof. Use the continuousness of sum and the continuousness of absolute value of
continuous functions, and the fact that
f (x) + g(x) |f (x) − g(x)|
min{f (x), g(x)} = − .
2 2

Theorem 3.12. A function

f : X → Rn

x 7→ f1 (x), . . . , fn (x)
is continuous ⇐⇒ so are all the functions f1 , f2 , . . . , fn .
Hint. The topology on Rn is generated by the infinity metric

ρ(∞) (x, y) = max{|x1 − y1 |, . . . , |xn − yn |}.
Observe that ρ(∞) (f (x), f (p)) < ⇐⇒ |fi (x) − fi (p)| < for each i.
42 D.G.L. WANG
Homework 3.2. If a function f : R → R is continuous, then so is the graph map

Γf : R → R2

x 7→ x, f (x) .
Theorem 3.13. For any subset A of a metric space (X, d), the function
dA : X → R
x 7→ d(x, A)
is continuous.

Hint. |dA (x) − dA (y)| = inf a∈A d(x, a) − inf a∈A d(y, a) ≤ d(x, y).

The definition of continuity usually studied in Calculus, when applicable, is

equivalent to the definition stated in terms of topological structures.
Theorem 3.14. Let f : (X, dX ) → (Y, dY ) be a map between metric spaces. Then
the followings are equivalent.
(1) f is continuous at a point a ∈ X.

(2) Each ball centered at f (a) contains the image of a ball centered at a.
(3) ∀ > 0, ∃ δ > 0, ∀ x ∈ X, the inequality dX (x, a) < δ implies
dY (f (x), f (a)) < .
3.2. Covers. What conditions on a cover of a topological space X ensure that the
continuity of a map f : X → Y follows from the continuity of its restrictions to
members of that cover? See Theorem 3.16.
• A cover or covering of X: a collection Γ of sets s.t. X ⊆ ∪A∈Γ A.

In this case, we say that Γ covers X.
• A subcover or subcovering of a cover Γ: a subfamily of Γ which covers X.
• A refinement of a cover Γ: a cover of X whose every member is contained in a
member of Γ.
• A partition of X: a cover Γ of X s.t. X = tA∈Γ A.
To partition X: to construct a partition of X.
43
• Suppose that X = ∪A∈Γ A is a topological space. We say that the cover Γ is

– fundamental: the following equivalence holds
a set O ⊆ X is open ⇐⇒ O ∩ A is open in A, ∀ A ∈ Γ.
– open: every member in Γ is open.

– closed: every member in Γ is closed.
– locally finite: every point in X has a neighbourhood meeting only a finite
number of members in Γ.
Theorem 3.16. Let f : X → Y be a map between topological spaces. Let Γ be a

fundamental cover of X s.t. f |A is continuous ∀ A ∈ Γ, then f is continuous.
Proof. Let O be an open set in Y . Since f |A is continuous, we have

f −1 (O) ∩ A = (f |A )−1 (O)
is open in A, ∀ A ∈ Γ. Since Γ is a fundamental cover, we find f −1 (O) is open in X.
Hence f is continuous.
Remark 13. Theorem 3.16 provides a way of proving the continuity of a map in
the spirit of divide and conquer.
Theorem 3.17 (Characterizations of fundamental covers). Let X be a set with a

cover Γ. Then
Γ is fundamental
⇐⇒ a set O ⊆ X is open, provided O ∩ A is open in A, ∀ A ∈ Γ
⇐⇒ a set F ⊆ X is closed, provided F ∩ A is closed in A, ∀ A ∈ Γ.
Proof. For the first equivalence, it suffices to check from right to left. In fact, when
O is open in X, by definition of the subspace topology, the intersection O ∩ A is
certainly an open set of A.
Let us show the second equivalence. ⇒: ∀ A ∈ Γ, the set (X \F )∩A = A\(F ∩A)
is open. Thus X \ F is open, i.e., F is closed. The converse statement can be
shown similarly.
Theorem 3.18 (Criteria for the fundamentality). A cover Γ is fundamental
1) if it has a fundamental refinement;

44 D.G.L. WANG
Proof. Let O ⊆ X. Suppose that O ∩ A is open in A, ∀ A ∈ Γ. Let Γ0 be a

fundamental refinement of Γ. Let B ∈ Γ0 . Then ∃ AB ∈ Γ s.t. B ⊆ AB . By
Theorem 2.11, we can regard the topology of AB ∩ B as the one induced from
AB . It follows that O ∩ B = O ∩ AB ∩ B is open in AB ∩ B = B. By the
arbitrariness of B, and since Γ0 is fundamental, we infer that O is open in X.
This proves that Γ is fundamental.
2) if it is open or finite closed;
Proof. Let O ⊆ X s.t. O ∩ A is open in A, ∀ A ∈ Γ. By Theorem 2.10, O ∩ A

is open in X, and so is the set ∪A∈Γ (O ∩ A) = O. By Theorem 3.17, Γ is
fundamental. In the same vein, every finite closed cover is fundamental.
3) if it is locally finite and closed;
Proof. Each point p ∈ X has an open neighbourhood Op meeting only a finite

number of members of Γ. Then the cover
Σ = {A ∩ Op : A ∈ Γ}
of Op is finite and closed, and thus fundamental. Let O ⊆ X be a set s.t. O ∩ A
is open in A, ∀ A ∈ Γ. We shall show that O is open in X.
In fact, let p ∈ X and A ∈ Γ. Consider the topology of A ∩ Op as the one
induced from the topology of A, we infer that
(O ∩ Op ) ∩ (A ∩ Op ) = (O ∩ A) ∩ Op
is open in A∩Op . By the arbitrariness of A, and since the cover Σ is fundamental,
we infer that the set O ∩ Op is open in Op , and thus open in X by Theorem 2.10.
Hence
[ [
O =O∩X =O∩ Op = (O ∩ Op )
p∈X p∈X
is open in X. This completes the proof.
4) if ∃ a fundamental cover Σ s.t. the cover ΣS = {A ∩ S : A ∈ Γ} of S is

fundamental ∀ S ∈ Σ;
Proof. Let O ⊆ X s.t. O ∩ A is open in A, ∀ A ∈ Γ. Let S ∈ Σ. Then O ∩ A ∩ S

is open in A ∩ S. Since the cover ΣS is fundamental, we infer that O ∩ S is open
in S. Since the cover Σ is fundamental, we derive that O is open in X. This
proves that Γ is fundamental.
5) if every point has a neighbourhood U s.t. the cover ΓU = {A ∩ U : A ∈ Γ} of U

is fundamental. In other words, the cover fundamentality is a local property.
45
Proof. ∀p ∈ X, let Up be a neighbourhood of p s.t. the cover ΓUp is fundamental.

We claim that the cover Σ = {Up : p ∈ X} of X is fundamental. In fact, suppose
that O ⊆ X s.t. O ∩ Up is open in Up , ∀ p ∈ X. Since Up is a neighbourhood
of p, ∃ open set Op s.t. p ∈ Op ⊆ Up . Therefore, O ∩ Op = O ∩ Up ∩ Op is open
in Op = Up ∩ Op , and thus open in X. Hence the set O = ∪p∈X (O ∩ Op ) is
open in X. This proves the claim. Now, by using Item 4), we obtain that Γ is
fundamental.
Remark 14. The above characterisations will be used in the proof of Theorem 4.37.
3.3. Homeomorphisms.
Definition 3.19. Given topological spaces X and Y .
• An invertible map f : X → Y is a homeomorphism: both f and f −1 are

continuous.
• X is homeomorphic to Y : ∃ a homeomorphism between them.
Remark 15. In this note the homeomorphism relation is denoted by ∼ =. This
notation is not commonly accepted. You may see any sign closed to but distinct
from the equal sign =, such as ∼, ', ≈ from other resources.
Theorem 3.20. Being homeomorphic is an equivalent relation.
Proof. The identity map of any topological space is a homeomorphism. Both

composition and inverse preserve homeomorphisms.
Theorem 3.21. Let h : (X, ΩX ) → (Y, ΩY ) be a homeomorphism. Let x ∈ A ⊆ X.
(1) A ∈ ΩX ⇐⇒ h(A) ∈ ΩY .
Proof. ⇐: A = h−1 h(A) is the preimage of the open set h(A) under the

continuous map h. ⇒: Define g = h−1 . h(A) = g −1 (A) is the preimage of the

open set A under the continuous map g −1 = h.
(2) A is closed ⇐⇒ h(A) is closed.

(3) h is commutative with the set operations Cl and Int.
(4) A is a neighbourhood of x ⇐⇒ h(A) is a neighbourhood of the point h(x).
46 D.G.L. WANG
Remark 16. Homeomorphic spaces are completely identical from the topological
point of view: a homeomorphism X → Y establishes a one-to-one correspondence
between “all phenomena” in X and Y that can be expressed in terms of topological
structures. This justifies our assertion in §1 that the topological spaces (X, ΩX )
and (Y, ΩY ) should be thought of as the same topological space.
When the notion of topological space had not yet been developed, mathemati-
cians studied only subspaces of Euclidean spaces, their continuous maps, and
homeomorphisms. Christian Felix Klein, in his famous Erlangen Program, classified
various geometries that had emerged up to that time, like Euclidean, Lobachevsky,
affine, and projective geometries, and defined topology as a part of geometry that
deals with properties preserved by homeomorphisms. Try to say some differences
between topology and geometry, and then check §1.2.
Figure 3.1. Christian Felix Klein (1849–1925) was a German math-

ematician. His 1872 Erlangen Program, classifying geometries by
their underlying symmetry groups, was a highly influential synthesis
of much of the mathematics of the day. Stolen from Wiki.
Theorem 3.22 (A characterization for homeomorphisms). A map f : X → Y

is a homeomorphism ⇐⇒ f is bijective and determines a bijection between the
topologies of X and Y .
Hint. Using Theorem 3.21.
Theorem 3.23 is an immediate corollary. We write it as a theorem for it helps

judge a homeomorphism.
Theorem 3.23. A continuous bijection is a homeomorphism ⇐⇒ it is closed.
Example 3.24. Most of the following can be deduced by using Theorem 3.22.
1) Every bijection on an indiscrete space onto itself is a homeomorphism.

47
2) Every bijection on a discrete space onto itself is a homeomorphism.

3) Every bijection on the cofinite space onto itself is a homeomorphism.
4) A discrete space and a non-one-point indiscrete space are not homeomorphic.
5) Spaces containing different numbers of points are not homeomorphic.
6) The spaces Z, Q, R, RT1 , and the arrow are pairwise non-homeomorphic.
Proof. Here are properties that distinguish each of the spaces from the remaining
ones: Z is discrete, Q is countable, each proper closed subset of RT1 is finite,
and any two nonempty open sets in the arrow have nonempty intersection.
Example 3.25. We have the following examples.
(1) The function f : [ 0, 1) → C defined by f (x) = e2πi is continuous but not open.
Proof. The image of the open set [ 0, 1/2) is not open.
(2) The function h : R → (0, 1) defined by h(x) = ex /(1 + ex ) is a homeomorphism.

(3) Every nondegenerate affine transformation of Rn is a homeomorphism.
Proof. Recall that an affine transformation f : Rn → Rn is given by the formula

y = f (x) = Ax + b, where A is a matrix and b a vector. f is nondegenerate if A
is invertible, whence
x = A−1 (y − b) = A−1 (y) − A−1 (b),
which means that f is a bijection and f −1 is also a nondegenerate affine transfor-
mation. Finally, f and f −1 are continuous, because they are given in coordinates
by linear formulas. This completes the proof.
(4) ∀ R > 0, the inversion

τ : Rn \ {0} → Rn \ {0}
x
x 7→ R· 2
|x|
is a homeomorphism.
Hint. τ is an involution. Use Theorems 3.11 and 3.12 to show the continuity.
(5) Let H = {z ∈ C : =z > 0} be the upper half plane. Let a, b, c, d ∈ R s.t. ad > bc.
Then the function
f: H →H
az + b
z 7→
cz + d
48 D.G.L. WANG
is a homeomorphism.

Hint. Since = f (x + yi) = (ad − bc)y/|cz + d|2 , we have f (H) ⊆ H. Find the
inverse and use Theorems 3.11 and 3.12 to show the continuity.
(6) The graph of a continuous real-valued function defined on an interval is homeo-

morphic to the interval.
Hint. The vertical projection determines a homeomorphism.
Question 3.26. Let a < b. Prove that
(1) [0, 1] ∼
= [a, b];
(2) [0, 1) ∼
= [a, b) ∼= (0, 1] ∼
= (a, b];
(3) (0, 1) ∼
= (a, b);
(4) (−1, 1) ∼= R;
(5) [0, 1) ∼
= [0, ∞) and (0, 1) ∼
= (0, ∞).
Proof. Use x 7→ a + (b − a)x and x 7→ tan(πx/2).
Question 3.27. Let N = (0, 1) ∈ S 1 be the North Pole of the unit circle. Prove
that S 1 \ {N } ∼
= R.
Proof. Define f : (1/4, 5/4) → S 1 \ {N } by f (x) = (cos(2πx), sin(2πx)). An

alternative proof which can be generalized is as follows. Define g : S 1 \ {N } → R
by g(x, y) = x/(1 − y). Its inverse is g −1 (x) = (2x/(x2 + 1), (x2 − 1)/(x2 + 1)).
Homework 3.3. Let p ∈ S n . The punctured sphere S n \ {p} is homeomorphic to

Rn .
Figure 3.2. Illustration for the stereographic projection. Stolen

from Google image.
49
Proof. Let p = (0, 0, . . . , 1) ∈ Rn+1 be the north pole of S n . Define two maps
f : S n \ {p} → Rn and g : Rn → S n \ {p} by

x1 xn
f (x1 , . . . , xn+1 ) = , ..., , and
1 − xn+1 1 − xn+1
|x|2 − 1

2x1 2xn
g(x1 , . . . , xn ) = , ..., , ,
|x|2 + 1 |x|2 + 1 |x|2 + 1
where |x|2 = ni=1 x2i . By Theorem 3.12, the maps f and g are continuous.
P
We claim that the map f is a homeomorphism. In fact, it is routine to check

that f ◦ g is the identity map on Rn , and that g ◦ f is the identity map on S n \ {p}.
The map f : S n \ {p} → Rn in the above proof is called the stereographic

projection. It is a particular mapping (function) that projects a sphere onto a
plane; see Fig. 3.2. It was known to Hipparchus (approx. BC 190–BC 120), and
originally as the planisphere projection. The term planisphere is still used to refer
to celestial charts; see Fig. 3.3.
Figure 3.3. A celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch
cartographer Frederik de Wit.
50 D.G.L. WANG
Example 3.28. D2 ∼
= I 2.
Proof. Let K = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x, y ∈ [−1, 1]}. We have the homeomorphisms

I2 → K
(x, y) 7→ (2x − 1, 2y − 1)
and
K → D2
max{|x|, |y|}
(x, y) 7→ p · (x, y).
x2 + y 2
Geometrically, this means that each segment joining the origin with a point on the
contour of the square is linearly mapped to the part of the segment that lies within
the circle.
Example 3.29. The following plane domains are homeomorphic.
(1) The whole plane R2 ;

(2) open square I 2 ;
(3) open strip {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x ∈ (0, 1)};
(4) open upper half-plane;
(5) open half-strip {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x > 0, y ∈ (0, 1)};
(6) open rectangle {(x, y) ∈ R2 : a < x < b, c < y < d};
(7) open quadrant: {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x, y > 0};
(8) the plane without the ray {(x, 0) ∈ R2 : x ≥ 0};
(9) open half unit ball;
(10) open sector {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 < 1, x > y > 0};
(11) unit open ball;
(12) open angle: {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x > y > 0}.
Proof. Use polar coordinates for the last two.
Example 3.30. Every simple (i.e., without self-intersections) closed polygon in R2

is homeomorphic to the circle S 1 . Every non-closed simple finite polyline in R2 is
homeomorphic to the unit interval I.
51
Hint. Map each edge of the polygon homeomorphically to a suitable arc of S 1 .

Map each edge of the polyline homeomorphically to a suitable part of I.
One of the classical problems in topology is the homeomorphism problem: to

find out whether or not two given topological spaces are homeomorphic. In order to
prove that two spaces are homeomorphic, it suffices to present a homeomorphism
between them. This is essentially what one usually does in this case. However, to
prove that two spaces are not homeomorphic, it is usually impossible to review all
the maps. We may look for a property or a characteristic shared by homeomorphic
spaces s.t. one of the spaces has it, while the other one does not.
Definition 3.31. Topological properties or topological invariants: proper-
ties and characteristics that are shared by homeomorphic spaces.
Obvious examples are the cardinality of the set of points and the set of open
sets. Less obvious properties are the main object of the forthcoming sections.
Example 3.32 (Not proved at this stage). Here are some pairs of spaces which
are not homeomorphic.
(1) Rm ∼6= Rn if m 6= n.
(2) Dp ∼
6= Dq if p 6= q.
(3) S p ∼
6= S q if p 6= q.
(4) The letters A and P are not homeomorphic.
(5) The punctured plane R2 \ {(0, 0)} is not homeomorphic to the plane with a
hole {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 ≥ 1}.
Definition 3.33. A continuous map f : X → Y is a (topological) embedding if

the submap f : X → f (X) is a homeomorphism. Denoted f : X ,→ Y .
Theorem 3.34. Any inclusion is an embedding. The composition of embeddings

is an embedding.
Question 3.35. Find topological spaces X and Y s.t. X can be embedded in Y ,

and Y can be embedded in X, but X 6∼
= Y.
Answer. Take X = I and Y = R.
Question 3.36. Is Q embeddable in Z?

52 D.G.L. WANG
Answer. No. The topology on Z is discrete but that on Q is not discrete.
Homework 3.4. Is a discrete space embeddable in an indiscrete space? How

about vice versa?
Definition 3.37. Given metric spaces (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ), with f : X → Y .
• f is an isometric embedding if dY (f (a), f (b)) = dX (a, b) ∀ a, b ∈ X.

• f is an isometry if it is a bijective isometric embedding.
Lemma 3.38. ∀ metric spaces (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ), ∃ a metric space Z s.t. X
and Y can be isometrically embedded in Z.
Proof. Consider the set W = X t Y of disjoint union of X and Y . Fix x0 ∈ X and

y0 ∈ Y . For x, y ∈ W , we define a function

dX (x, y),
 if x, y ∈ X;
f (x, y) = dY (x, y), if x, y ∈ Y ;

d (x, x ) + d (y, y ) + 1, if x ∈ X and y ∈ Y .
X 0 Y 0
We shall show that f is a metric on W . The conditions of being positive-definite

and symmetric are clear. It remains to show the triangle inequality for f w.r.t.
three elements in W . If the three elements are all in X, or all in Y , then the
subadditivity of X or Y itself works. Otherwise, we can suppose that x1 , x2 ∈ X
and y ∈ Y , and it suffices to show that
f (x1 , x2 ) + f (x1 , y) ≥ f (x2 , y) and f (x1 , y) + f (x2 , y) ≥ f (x1 , x2 ).
that is,
dX (x1 , x2 ) + dX (x1 , x0 ) ≥ dX (x2 , x0 ) and
dX (x1 , x0 ) + dX (x2 , x0 ) + 2dY (y, y0 ) + 2 ≥ dX (x1 , x2 ),
both of which hold for the triangle inequality w.r.t. the elements x0 , x1 , x2 in X.
Definition 3.39. Isometrically embedding two metric space in a single one, we

can consider the Hausdorff distance between their images. The infimum of such
Hausdorff distances over all pairs of isometric embeddings of metric spaces X and
Y in metric spaces is the Gromov-Hausdorff distance between X and Y .
Puzzle 3.40. Is the Gromov-Hausdorff distance a metric on the set of metric

spaces?
53
Figure 3.4. Mikhail Leonidovich Gromov (also Mikhael Gromov,

Michael Gromov or Mischa Gromov) (1943–present), is a French-
Russian mathematician known for work in geometry, analysis and
group theory. He is a permanent member of IHÉS (English: Insti-
tute of Advanced Scientific Studies, a French institute supporting
advanced research in mathematics and theoretical physics) in Paris
and a professor of Mathematics at New York Univ. Gromov has
won the Abel Prize in 2009 “for his revolutionary contributions to
geometry”. Stolen from Wiki.
4. Connectedness
4.1. Connected spaces. Being connected means, intuitively, being all in one
piece.
• X is connected: X has only two clopen subsets, i.e., ∅ and X.

• X is disconnected: X is not connected.
• A (connected) component of X: a maximal nonempty connected subset
of X.
• X is totally disconnected: X is disconnected, and every point of X is a
component.
Whenever the connectedness of a specific topological space is considered, please

ask yourself “how far is the truth away from my intuition?”
Example 4.2. Examples for connected spaces.
(1) The empty set ∅.

(2) Any singleton space.
54 D.G.L. WANG
(3) Any indiscrete space.

(4) The cofinite space.
(5) The arrow.
(6) Any two-element non-discrete space.
Example 4.3. Examples for totally disconnected spaces.
(1) Any discrete topological space X with |X| ≥ 2.
Proof. Let A ⊆ X s.t. |A| ≥ 2. Let S be a singleton subset of A. Then

A = S ∪ S c is the union of nonempty open sets of A, and thus disconnected.
Thus any connected component of X is a singleton.
(2) Q.
Proof. Let A ⊆ Q s.t. |A| ≥ 2. Let x, z ∈ A and x < z. Then ∃ y ∈ R \ Q s.t.

x < y < z. It follows that

(4.1) A = A ∩ (−∞, y) ∪ A ∩ (y, ∞)
is the union of nonempty open sets, and thus disconnected. Hence any connected
component of Q has at most one element.
(3) R \ Q.
Homework 4.1. Give an example of an uncountable closed totally disconnected

subset of the real line.
Answer. The Cantor set.
Theorem 4.4. Let X be a topological space. Then

X is disconnected
⇐⇒ ∃ nonempty open sets A and B s.t. X = A t B
⇐⇒ ∃ nonempty closed sets A and B s.t. X = A t B
⇐⇒ ∃ nonempty clopen sets A and B s.t. X = A t B
⇐⇒ ∃ a continuous surjection X → S 0 = {−1, 1}.
Proof. If X is disconnected, then X has a nonempty proper clopen subset, say, A.

Let B = Ac . Then B is nonempty and open, and X = A t B.
55
If X = A t B for some nonempty open A and B, then A = B c and B = Ac are

closed. Hence both A and B are clopen. In this case, we can define f : X → S 0 by
(
−1, if x ∈ A;
f (x) =
1, if x ∈ B.
Since A and B are nonempty, the function f is surjective. Since the preimage of
every subset of S 0 is open, we infer that f is continuous.
Suppose that ∃ a continuous surjection f : X → S 0 . Since the singleton {1} is a
clopen subset of S 0 , the preimgae A = f −1 (1) is clopen. Since f is surjective, we
have A 6= ∅ and A 6= X. This proves that X is disconnected.
Remark 17. As will be seen, Theorem 4.4 is powerful in proving the connectedness
of a space. For convenience, we call the last sufficient and necessary condition of
disconnectedness the S 0 -condition.
Theorem 4.5. The continuous image of a connected space is connected, i.e., con-
tinuous surjection preserves the connectedness. As a consequence, the connectedness
is a topological property, and the number of components is a topological invariant.
Proof. Let f : X → Y be a continuous surjection. If Y is disconnected, by Theo-

rem 4.4, ∃ a continuous surjection g : Y → S 0 . Since the composition g ◦f : X → S 0
is a continuous surjection, by Theorem 4.4, X is disconnected, a contradiction.
Since any homeomorphism is a continuous surjection, the connectedness is preserved
by homeomorphisms and thus a topological property.
Question 4.6. Let Ω1 , Ω2 be topologies on a set X s.t. Ω1 ⊆ Ω2 .
1) Does the connectedness of (X, Ω1 ) imply the connectedness of (X, Ω2 )?
Answer. No. For instance, take Ω1 to be indiscrete and take Ω2 to be discrete.
2) Does the connectedness of (X, Ω2 ) imply the connectedness of (X, Ω1 )?
Answer. Yes. Assume that (X, Ω1 ) is disconnected. Then (X, Ω1 ) has a

nonempty proper clopen subset, say, A. Since Ω1 ⊆ Ω2 , the set A is clopen
in Ω2 . Hence (X, Ω2 ) is disconnected.
When A ⊆ M ⊆ X, it is safe to say that “A is connected” without

specifying the ambient topology (ΩM or ΩX ) from which ΩA is induced. This
is because the connectedness of a space relies only on the topology of that space,
while the topology of A induced from ΩM coincides with that from ΩX ; see
Theorem 2.11.
56 D.G.L. WANG
Theorem 4.7. Clopen sets “separate” connected sets. In other words, if A is

clopen in X, and if C is connected in X, then either C ⊆ A or C ⊆ X \ A.
Proof. If not, then C ∩ A is a nonempty clopen subset of C, contradicting the

connectedness of C.
Theorem 4.8. Let Γ be a family of connected sets. If a connected set C meets

every member in Γ, then ∪A∈Γ A ∪ C is connected.
Proof. Let X = ∪A∈Γ A ∪ C. Suppose that X = U t V where U and V are clopen.

By Theorem 4.7, the connected set C is contained in either U or V . W.l.o.g. we
can suppose that C ⊆ U . For any A ∈ Γ, since A ∩ U 6= ∅, we infer that A ⊆ U by
Theorem 4.7. Hence [
V =V ∩X = (V ∩ A) = ∅.
A∈Γ
This proves the connectedness of X.
An alternative proof of Theorem 4.8. If X is disconnected, by Theorem 4.4, ∃ a

continuous surjection f : X → S 0 . Let A ∈ Γ. Let xA ∈ C ∩ A. W.l.o.g., we can
suppose that f (xA ) = 1. By Theorem 4.5, we infer that
f (x) = 1 ∀ x ∈ C ∪ A.
For any other A ∈ Γ, let x ∈ C ∩ A . Since x0 ∈ C, we have f (x0 ) = 0. By
0 0 0
Theorem 4.5, we find

f (x) = 1 ∀x ∈ A0 .
This proves that f (x) = 1 ∀ x ∈ X, contradicting that f is a surjection.
Corollary 4.9. Let {Ak }k∈Z be a family of connected sets s.t. Ak meets Ak+1 , ∀ k.
Then the union ∪k∈Z Ak is connected.
Proof. By Theorem 4.8, we can show by induction that the set Bn = ∪nk=−n Ak is
connected, ∀ n ∈ N. Using Theorem 4.8 again, we obtain the connectedness of the
union ∪k∈Z Ak = ∪n∈N Bn .
Theorem 4.10. Any point in a topological space is contained in a unique component.

As a consequence, two connected components either are disjoint or coincide. In
particular, any connected space has only one component.
Proof. The union of connected components which contains p is the unique compo-
nent. It is connected by Theorem 4.8.
57
Theorem 4.11. A subset of R is connected ⇐⇒ it is an interval.
Proof. Let A ⊆ R. If A is not an interval, then ∃ x, z ∈ A and y ∈ Ac s.t. x < y < z.

Then Eq. (4.1) holds true, and the set A is disconnected. Below we present two
proofs for the connectedness of any interval.
By the bisection method. Assume that an interval J is disconnected. Then ∃
nonempty closed sets U and V s.t. J = U t V . W.l.o.g., we can suppose that ∃
a0 ∈ U , b0 ∈ V s.t. a0 < b0 . For n ∈ N, we write cn = (an + bn )/2 and define
(
(an , cn ), if cn ∈ V ;
(an+1 , bn+1 ) =
(cn , bn ), if cn ∈ U .
We obtain a sequence an in U and a sequence bn in V . It is clear that an increases
and bn decreases, and that sup an = inf bn . Since both U and V are closed, this
limit lies in U ∩ V , a contradiction.
By the S 0 -condition. Assume that A is a disconnected interval. By Theorem 4.4,
∃ a continuous surjection f : A → S 0 . Then
G
f −1 (±1) = A ∩ J,
J∈Γ±
where each Γ± is a nonempty collection of disjoint open intervals, and

J− ∩ J+ = ∅, ∀ J± ∈ Γ± .
It follows that G
A = f −1 (−1) ∪ f −1 (1) = A ∩ J.
J∈ Γ− ∪Γ+
Since the collection Γ− ∪ Γ+ contains at least two disjoint open intervals, the set A
is not an interval, a contradiction.
Corollary 4.12. Let X be a connected space. Let f : X → R be a continuous

function. Then the image f (X) is an interval of R.
Proof. By Theorems 4.5 and 4.11.
Corollary 4.13. Continuous functions map intervals to intervals.

Corollary 4.14 (Intermediate Value Theorem). Any continuous function
f : [a, b] → R
takes every value between f (a) and f (b).
58 D.G.L. WANG
Definition 4.15. A set A ⊆ Rn is convex: ∀ a, b ∈ A, we have

[a, b] = {x ∈ Rn : x = (1 − t)a + tb for some t ∈ I} ⊆ A.
Theorem 4.16. Any convex set in Rn is connected. In particular, the sets Rn , B n

and Dn are connected.
Proof. Let A be a convex set in Rn with x0 ∈ A. Then the interval [a, x0 ] is

connected for any a ∈ A. Then the union A = ∪a∈A [a, x0 ] is connected by
Theorem 4.8. In particular, the real line is convex and hence connected.
Question 4.17. Find all connected subspaces A, with |A| ≥ 2,
1) of the arrow;
Answer. Any subset. Assume that A ⊆ [ 0, ∞) is disconnected. By Theorem 4.4,

∃ a continuous surjection f : A → S 0 . Note that any open set in A consists of
the elements of A that are larger than some number M , and that any closed
set in A consists of the elements of A that are smaller than or equal to some
number m. Therefore, the clopen set f −1 (1) in A has to be either the empty set
or the whole set A, contradicting that f is surjective.
2) of the cofinite space;
Answer. Any infinite subset. On one hand, any finite set A with |A| ≥ 2 is the
union of two nonempty finite subsets. Since a subset is finite ⇐⇒ it is closed.
By Theorem 4.4, we infer that A is disconnected. On the other hand, assume
to the contrary that an infinite set A is disconnected. By Theorem 4.4, ∃ a
continuous surjection f : A → S 0 . Then each of the preimages f −1 (±1) is closed
in A. Hence A = f −1 (−1) ∪ f −1 (1) is finite, a contradiction.
Theorem 4.18. Every open set of R has a countable number of components.
Proof. Every open set of R is a union of disjoint open intervals, each of which
contains a representative rational point.
Homework 4.2. Let A0 ⊇ A1 ⊇ · · · be an infinite decreasing sequence of closed

connected sets in the plane R2 . Is ∩n≥0 An connected?
Theorem 4.19. Suppose that both A ∪ B and A ∩ B are connected. Then both of
A and B are connected if either both A and B are open or both A and B are closed.
59
Proof. Consider the ambient space C = A ∪ B. From premise, C is connected. By

the symmetry position of A and B, it suffices to show that A is connected. Assume
to the contrary that A is disconnected. Then
A = U t V,
where U and V are nonempty clopen sets in A. Since A ∩ B is a connected subset
of A, we infer that either A ∩ B ⊆ U or A ∩ B ⊆ V . W.l.o.g., we suppose that
A ∩ B ⊆ U . Since A ∪ B is connected, in order to obtain a contradiction, it suffices
to show that V is clopen.
In fact, if both A and B are open (resp., closed), then both U and V are open
(resp., closed) by Theorem 2.10. On the other hand, the complement V c = U ∪ B
is the union of open (resp., closed) sets and also open (resp., closed).
Remark 18. The condition of being open or closed is necessary. This can be seen
by the example A = Q and B = R \ Q.
Theorem 4.20. If A is connected and everywhere dense in X, then X is connected.
Proof. Let X = U t V where U and V are open. Then

A = A ∩ X = A ∩ (U t V ) = (A ∩ U ) t (A ∩ V ).
It follows from the connectedness of A that either U ∩ A = ∅ or V ∩ A = ∅. By
Theorem 2.25, any everywhere dense set meets every nonempty open set. Therefore
U = ∅ or V = ∅. This proves the connectedness of X.
An alternative proof of Theorem 4.20. Suppose not. By Theorem 4.4, ∃ a continu-

ous surjection f : X → S 0 . By Theorem 4.5, we can suppose w.l.o.g. that f (a) = 1
∀ a ∈ A. By Theorem 2.25, the open set f −1 (−1) meets A, a contradiction.
Corollary 4.21. If A is connected and A ⊆ B ⊆ A, then B and A are connected.
Proof. Since A is everywhere dense in A, we infer that A is connected. Since the

set A is everywhere dense in B. Thus B is connected by Theorem 4.20.
Corollary 4.22. Any component of a topological space is closed.
Proof. Let C be a component. By Corollary 4.21, the closure C is connected. By

Theorem 4.10, C = C is closed.
Example 4.23. S n is connected.

60 D.G.L. WANG
Proof. By Homework 3.3 and Theorem 4.16, we have S n \ {0} ∼

= Rn is connected.
By Corollary 4.21, S n is connected.
Question 4.24. Are the following subsets of R2 connected?
(1) The set Q2 = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x, y ∈ Q}.
Answer. No. Any projection is continuous; the continuous image of any con-
nected set is connected; the projection of Q2 onto one coordinate is Q, which is
totally disconnected.
(2) The set {(x, y) ∈ R2 : {x, y} ∩ Q 6= ∅}.
Answer. Yes! Any two points are joined by a polyline with at most 3 segments.

(3) The set Q2 ∪ (Qc )2 , where (Qc )2 = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x, y 6∈ Q}.
Answer. Yes! Let lk = {(x, kx) : x ∈ R} and X = ∪k∈Q\{0} lk . Then each line lk
is connected. It is clear that X ⊂ Q2 ∪ (Qc )2 ⊂ X = R2 . By Corollary 4.21, the
set Q2 ∪ (Qc )2 is connected.
Simple constructions assigning homeomorphic spaces to homeomorphic ones, e.g.,

deleting one or several points.
Example 4.25. R1 ∼
6= Rn for n > 1.
Example 4.26. The following spaces are pairwise non-homeomorphic:
I, [ 0, 1), R, S 1.
Proof. The number of distinct points removing each of which yields a connected
space for I, [0, 1), R and S 1 are pairwise distinct, i.e., 2, 1, 0 and ∞ resp.
Homework 4.3. Let S be the set of points on the spiral

1
r = exp , φ ≥ 0,
1 + φ2
in the polar representation; see Fig. 4.1. We know that S is connected. Let T ⊆ S 1 .
Prove or disprove that S ∪ T is connected.
61
Figure 4.1. The spiral (r, φ).
Puzzle 4.27. Give a topological classification of the letters of the alphabet:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z,
regarded as subsets of R2 , where the arcs comprising the letters are assumed to
have zero thickness.
Hint. The answer depends on th graphics of the letters.
Theorem 4.28 (Extendability of connected sets). We have the following.
1) If A and B are connected and A ∩ B 6= ∅, then A ∪ B is connected.
Proof. See Homework 4.4.
2) Let A be a connected subset of a connected space X. Then A ∪ B is connected

if B is a clopen subset of Ac .
Proof. Let B be a clopen subset of Ac and let C = A ∪ B. Assume to the

contrary that C is disconnected. Then ∃ open sets U and V s.t.
C ⊆ U ∪ V, U ∩ C 6= ∅, V ∩ C 6= ∅, and U ∩ V ∩ C = ∅.
Let W = U ∪ V . By Theorem 2.10, both the sets U and V are clopen in W .
Since A is connected, A ⊆ W , we infer from Theorem 4.7 that either A ⊆ U or
A ⊆ V . W.l.o.g., let us suppose that A ⊆ U . Let
D = V ∩ C.
Then D 6= ∅. We shall show that D is a clopen subset of X, which yields an
immediate contradiction to the premise that X is connected.
62 D.G.L. WANG
In fact, consider the topological space Ac with a subset V . Since B is open

in Ac from premise, the intersection D = V ∩ B is an open subset of V . Since V
is open in X, we infer by Theorem 2.10 that D is open in X. On the other hand,
consider the topological space Ac with a subset U c . Since B is closed in Ac from
premise, the intersection D = U c ∩ B is closed in U c . Since U c is closed in X,
we infer by Theorem 2.10 that D is closed in X. This completes the proof.
Homework 4.4. If A and B are connected and A∩B 6= ∅, then A∪B is connected.
4.2. Path-connectedness.
• A path in X: a continuous map I → X, denoted γ.

The beginning or initial point of γ: the point γ(0).
The end or final point of γ: the point γ(1).
In this case, we say that γ connects γ(0) with γ(1).
A path joining x ∈ X and y ∈ X: a path γ s.t. γ(0) = x and γ(1) = y.
• The inverse path of γ: the path
γ −1 : I → X
t 7→ γ(1 − t).
• A stationary path: a constant map I → X.
• X is path-connected: any two of its points can be connected by a path.
• A path-connected component or arcwise connected component of X: a
maximal path-connected subset of X.
Remark 19. The terminology “inverse path” with its notation γ −1 are abused since
they were used to denote the inverse map of γ. Fortunately, inverse maps rarely
appear in contexts involving paths, when we need to explain.
Remark 20. The elements of the fundamental group are constructed using paths.
Theorem 4.30. Any path-connected space is connected.
Proof. Let X be path-connected. Assume to the contrary that X is disconnected.

By Theorem 4.4, ∃ a continuous surjection f : X → S 0 . Let x ∈ f −1 (−1) and
y ∈ f −1 (1). Since X is path-connected, ∃ a continuous g : I → X connecting
x and y. Then the composition h = f ◦ g : I → S 0 is a continuous surjection,
contradicting Theorem 4.5.
63
Theorem 4.31. A continuous image of a path-connected space is path-connected.

As a consequence, path-connectedness is a topological property, and the number of
path-connected components is a topological invariant.
Proof. Let X be path-connected. Let f : X → Y be a continuous map. Let

yi = f (xi ) for i = 1, 2. Let u : I → X be a path connecting x1 and x2 . Then the
composition h = f ◦ u : I → Y is a continuous map connecting y1 and y2 .
Theorem 4.32. If each point of a connected space X has a path-connected neigh-

bourhood, then X is path-connected.
Proof. Let p ∈ X with a path-connected neighbourhood N . Let C be the path-

connected component of X containing p. Then N ⊆ C. It follows that p is an
interior point of C, and C is open. If X has two path-connected components C1
and C2 , then it is the union of at least two nonempty open sets, contradicting its
connectedness.
Corollary 4.33. For open sets of Euclidean spaces, path-connectedness is equivalent

to connectedness.
Example 4.34. Here are some examples for path-connected spaces.
(1) The image of a path, e.g., I.
Proof. Let f : I → X be a path. Let x, y ∈ I. Define g : I → f (I) by

g(t) = (1 − t)f (x) + tf (y).
Then g is continuous. It follows that f (I) is path-connected.
(2) Rn .
Proof. Let x, y ∈ Rn . Define f : I → Rn by f (t) = (1 − t)x + ty.
(3) S n .
Proof. Let x, y ∈ S n . Let p ∈ S n s.t. p 6= x and p 6= y. By Homework 3.3, ∃

a homeomorphism h : S n \ {p} → Rn . Since Rn is path-connected, ∃ a path
γ : I → Rn connecting h(x) and h(y). Then the map f = h−1 ◦ γ : I → S n \ {p}
is continuous s.t. f (0) = x and f (1) = y.
Example 4.35. S 0 is not path-connected.

64 D.G.L. WANG
Proof. If not, then ∃ continuous map f : I → S 0 . By Corollary 4.13, the image

f (I) is an interval, a contradiction!
Example 4.36. Let X be a topological space with A ⊆ X. Let ι : A → X be the

inclusion. Then
a map u is a path in A ⇐⇒ the map ι ◦ u is a path in X.
As a consequence, A is path-connected
⇐⇒ any two points in A are connected by a path s : I → X with s(I) ⊆ A.
Theorem 4.37. Let x, y, z ∈ X. Let α be a path joining x to y, and β a path

joining y to z. Then the map
γ: I → X
(
α(2t), if 0 ≤ t ≤ 1/2
t 7→
β(2t − 1), if 1/2 ≤ t ≤ 1
is a path. In other words, the map γ is continuous.
Proof. The cover {[ 0, 1/2 ], [ 1/2, 1 ]} of I is finite and closed, thus it is fundamental
by Theorem 3.18. Since α and β are continuous, by Theorem 3.16, the map γ is
continuous.
Definition 4.38. Let x, y, z ∈ X. Let α be a path joining x to y, and β a path

joining y to z. The path γ defined by in Theorem 4.37 is called the product of α
and β, denoted αβ.
Corollary 4.39. The union of a family of pairwise intersecting path-connected

sets is path-connected.
Proof. Let x ∈ A, y ∈ B, and z ∈ A ∩ B. Then ∃ a path u connecting x and z,

and a path v connecting z and y. By Theorem 4.37, the product uv is a path
connecting x and y.
Corollary 4.40. Every point belongs to a path-connected component. Two path-

connected components either coincide or are disjoint. Two points belong to the
same path-connected component ⇐⇒ they are connected by a path.
Some properties of connectedness do not carry over to the case of path-connectedness.

65
Homework 4.5. Find an example of a path-connected set whose closure is not

path-connected, and an example of a path-connected component that is not closed.
For the properties that do carry over, proofs are usually easier in the case of
path-connectedness.
Homework 4.6. Suppose that both A ∪ B and A ∩ B are path-connected. Then
both of A and B are path-connected if either both A and B are open or both A
and B are closed.
66 D.G.L. WANG
5. Separation Axioms
We consider natural restrictions on the topological structure making the structure

closer to being metrizable. They are called “Separation Axioms”. As will be seen,
metric spaces satisfy all of the separation axioms; but in fact, studying
spaces that satisfy only some axioms helps build up to the notion of full metrisability.
The separation axioms that were first studied together in this way were the
axioms for accessible spaces, Hausdorff spaces, regular spaces, and normal spaces.
Topologists assigned these classes of spaces the names T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 , respectively,
where the letter T originates from the German word Trennungsaxiom,
which means separation axiom. Later this system of numbering was extended
to include T0 , Te , Tπ , T5 , and T6 . The idea was supposed to be that every Ti space
is a special kind of Tj space if i > j. But this is not necessarily true, as definitions
vary. For example, a T3 space may do not satisfy T2 .
We will restrict ourselves to the axioms T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 .
5.1. Axioms T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 .

Definition 5.1. Given a topological space X.
• The Kolmogorov axiom or the zeroth separation axiom, or T0 : at least

one of any two distinct points of this space has a neighbourhood that does not
contain the other point.
X is a Kolmogorov space or T0 space: X satisfies the Kolmogorov axiom.
Figure 5.1. Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov (1903–1987) was a

Soviet mathematician who made significant contributions to the
mathematics of probability theory, topology, intuitionistic logic, tur-
bulence, classical mechanics, algorithmic information theory and
computational complexity. Stolen from Wiki.
67
• The Tychonoff axiom, or first separation axiom, or T1 : each one of any

two distinct points has a neighbourhood that does not contain the other point.
X is an accessible space or T1 space: X satisfies the Tychonoff axiom.
Figure 5.2. Andrey Nikolayevich Tychonoff (also Tikhonov, Ty-

chonov, Tihonov, and Tichonov) (1906–1993) was a Soviet and Rus-
sian mathematician and geophysicist known for important contri-
butions to topology, functional analysis, mathematical physics, and
ill-posed problems. Stolen from Wiki.
• The Hausdorff axiom, or T2 : any two distinct points have disjoint neighbour-
hoods.
X is a Hausdorff space: X satisfies the Hausdorff axiom.
Figure 5.3. Felix Hausdorff (1868–1942) was a German mathemati-

cian who is considered to be one of the founders of modern topology
and who contributed significantly to set theory, descriptive set theory,
measure theory, and functional analysis. Stolen from Wiki.
• The third separation axiom, or T3 : every closed set and every point of its
complement have disjoint neighbourhoods.
X is a regular space: X satisfies both T1 and T3 .
68 D.G.L. WANG
• The fourth separation axiom, or T4 : any two disjoint closed sets have disjoint
neighbourhoods.
X is a normal space: X satisfies both T1 and T4 .
Remark 21. We do not use the terminology “a Tychonoff space” to denote a T1
space, since it stands for a T3 1 space in some textbooks, in which any closed set
2
and any point in its complement can be separated by a continuous function; see
Theorem 5.19 for an analogue.
Remark 22. In some textbooks a regular space is defined to be a topological space
satisfying T3 , and a normal space is defined to be a topological space satisfying T4 .
Theorem 5.2. Let X be a topological space. Then X satisfies T0

⇐⇒ any two different points of X have different closures
⇐⇒ X contains no indiscrete subspaces consisting of two distinct points
⇐⇒ X contains no indiscrete subspaces consisting of more than one point.
Theorem 5.3. Let X be a topological space. Then X satisfies T1

⇐⇒ every singleton in X is closed
⇐⇒ every finite set in X is closed
⇐⇒ every point is the intersection of all its neighbourhoods.
The last condition in Theorem 5.3 can be compared with a characterisation of

Hausdorff spaces; see Theorem 5.4.
Theorem 5.4. A space X is Hausdorff
⇐⇒ every point is the intersection of the closures of all its neighbourhoods.
Proof. Let y 6= x.
⇒. Since X is Hausdorff, ∃ Nx ∩ Ny = ∅, where Nw is a neighbourhood of w ∈ {x, y}.

It follows that y 6∈ Nx . Hence y 6∈ ∩x∈N N .
c
⇐. Since y 6∈ ∩x∈N N , ∃ N s.t. x ∈ N and y 6∈ N . Then the open set N is a
neighbourhood of y, without intersection with the neighbourhood N of x.
Theorem 5.5. Normal ⇒ Regular ⇒ T2 ⇒ T1 ⇒ T0 .
Proof. By definition or Theorem 5.3.

69
Theorem 5.6. Regular spaces and normal spaces can be characterized as follows.
• A topological space is regular ⇐⇒ it satisfies T2 and T3 .

• A topological space is normal ⇐⇒ it satisfies T2 and T4 .
Example 5.7. Here are some threshold examples subject to Theorem 5.5.
1) Non-T0 : any indiscrete space with at least two points.

2) T0 but not T1 : the Sierpiński space.
3) T1 but not T2 : the cofinite space.
4) T2 but not regular: the space X = R with the coarsest topology containing the
standard topology on R and the closed set A = {1/n : n ∈ Z+ }.
Proof. The point 0 and the set A cannot be separated by neighbourhoods.
5) Regular but not normal: The Moore space; see Theorem 5.16.
6) Normal: any discrete space and any metric space.
Proof. Let A and B be disjoint closed sets in a metric space (X, d). Consider
U = {x ∈ X : d(x, A) < d(x, B)} and V = {x ∈ X : d(x, A) > d(x, B)}.
It is clear that A ⊆ U , B ⊆ V and U ∩ V = ∅. By Theorem 3.13, both U and V
are open. Hence X is normal.
7) T2 but not T3 : *******

8) T2 but not T4 : *******
9) T3 but not T1 : any indiscrete space. Another example is the real line with
two zeros, denoted X = R ∪ {00 }, with a base consisting of all open intervals
(a, b) ⊆ R and modified intervals (a, b)0 = (a, 0) ∪ {00 } ∪ (0, b), where a < 0 < b.
10) T3 but not T2 : see Theorem 5.6 and Item 9).
11) T3 but not T4 : see Item 5).
12) T4 but not T1 : an indiscrete space or the arrow.
13) T4 but not T2 : see Theorem 5.6 and Item 12).
14) T4 but not T3 : the Sierpiński space.
70 D.G.L. WANG
5.2. Hausdorff spaces.

Definition 5.8. Let A = {an }n be a sequence of points of a topological space X.
A limit of A is a point each of whose neighbourhoods contains all members of A
that have sufficiently large indices, i.e., a point p ∈ X s.t.
∀ neighbourhood U of p, ∃ N > 0 s.t. an ∈ U , ∀ n ≥ N .
In this case, we say that the sequence converges or tends to p as n tends to ∞.
See Definition 2.12 for the definition of a limit point of X.
Theorem 5.9. Any sequence in a Hausdorff space has at most one limit.
Proof. Let A = {an }n be a sequence in a Hausdorff space X. Assume that A has

distinct limits p and q. Since X is Hausdorff, ∃ a neighbourhood U of p and a
neighbourhood V of q s.t.
(5.1) U ∩ V = ∅.
Since p is a limit, ∃ N1 > 0 s.t. an ∈ U for n > N1 . Since q is a limit, ∃ N2 > 0 s.t.
an ∈ V for n > N2 , contradicting Eq. (5.1).
Example 5.10. Each point in the cofinite space is a limit of the sequence of
natural numbers.
Proof. Let x ∈ R with a neighbourhood U . Since the set U c is finite, the number
Mx = max{y : y ∈ U c } is well defined. Therefore, we have n ∈ U ∀ n > Mx . In
other words, the point x is a limit of the sequence N.
Definition 5.11. Let f, g : X → Y be maps.
• The coincidence set of f and g: C(f, g) = {x ∈ X : f (x) = g(x)}.

• A fixed point of f : x ∈ X s.t. f (x) = x, if Y = X.
Theorem 5.12. Let f, g : X → Y be continuous maps, where Y is Hausdorff.

Then the coincidence set of f and g is closed.
Proof. We shall show that the complement of the coincidence set is open. Let x ∈
X \ C(f, g), i.e., f (x) 6= g(x). Since Y is Hausdorff, ∃ an open neighbourhood U of
f (x) and an open neighbourhood V of g(x) s.t. Eq. (5.1). Let W = f −1 (U )∩g −1 (V ).
Then x ∈ W ⊆ X. Since f and g are continuous, we infer that W is open. It
suffices to show that W ⊆ X \ C(f, g). Let y ∈ W . Then f (y) ∈ U and g(y) ∈ V .
By Eq. (5.1), we infer that f (y) 6= g(y). This completes the proof.
71
Corollary 5.13. Let f, g : X → Y be continuous maps, where Y is Hausdorff.

Suppose that X has an everywhere dense set A s.t. fA = gA . Then f = g.
Proof. By Theorem 5.12, the coincidence set C(f, g) is closed. Since fA = gA ,

we have A ⊆ C(f, g). By Theorem 2.19, we infer that X = A ⊆ C(f, g). Hence
C(f, g) = X, i.e., f = g.
Corollary 5.14. The fixed-point set of a continuous map from a Hausdorff space
to itself is closed.
Proof. Consider the identity map together, and use Theorem 5.12.
Remark 23. See Corollary 3.9.
Homework 5.1. Find an example showing that the Hausdorff condition in Corol-
lary 5.14 is essential.
Answer. Let X be the arrow. The fixed-point set of the transformation on X

defined by x 7→ x + sin x is {2kπ : k ∈ N}, which is not closed.
5.3. Regular spaces & normal spaces.

Theorem 5.15. Let X be a topological space. We have the following.
• X satisfies T3 ⇐⇒ every neighbourhood of every point p ∈ X contains the

closure of a neighbourhood of p.
• X satisfies T4 ⇐⇒ every neighbourhood of every closed set F ⊆ X contains
the closure of some neighbourhood of F .
Proof. First we prove the equivalence for T3 . ⇒. Let W be a neighbourhood of

p. Then ∃ open set O s.t. p ∈ O ⊆ W . Applying T3 to the point p and the closed
set Oc , we obtain disjoint open sets U and V s.t. p ∈ U and Oc ⊆ V . Since U ⊆ V c
and V c is closed, we infer by Theorem 2.16 that U ⊆ V c . In conclusion, we have
p ∈ U ⊆ U ⊆ V c ⊆ W.
⇐. Let F be a closed set and p ∈ F c . Then F c is a neighbourhood of p. From
premise, ∃ an open set U s.t. p ∈ U ⊆ U ⊆ F c . Then the open set (U )c is a
neighbourhood of F which is disjoint with the neighbourhood U of p.
Replacing p by a closed set gives a proof for the other equivalence.
72 D.G.L. WANG
Space 10. Let H be the upper half plane, and N = H ∪ R the closed upper half
plane. The Moore space or Nemytskii space is the space N with the topology
generated by the base

β = ΩH ∪ By (x, y) ∪ {(x, 0)} : x ∈ R, y > 0 ,
where ΩH is the subspace topology of H induced from the standard topology of R2 ,
and By (x, y) is the open ball centred at (x, y) with radius y.
Figure 5.4. Robert Lee Moore (1882–1974) was an American math-

ematician known for his work in general topology and the Moore
method of teaching university mathematics. The right part is an open
neighbourhood of the Moore plane, tangent to the x-axis. Stolen
from Wiki.
Theorem 5.16. The Moore space is regular but not normal.
Proof. By Theorem 5.3, the Moore space satisfies T1 since every point is the
intersection of all its neighbourhoods. By Theorem 5.15, it satisfies T3 since
{By/2 (x, y/2) ∪ (x, 0)} ⊂ Dy (x, y) = By (x, y) ∪ {(x, 0)},
where Dy (x, y) is the disk centred at (x, y) with radius y. Now, from definition,
the Moore space is regular. Below we shall show that it is not normal.
From definition, the subspace topology of R induced from N is discrete. It
follows that any subset of R is closed in R. Since R is a closed subset of N , we
infer by Theorem 2.10 that any subset of R is closed in N . In particular, the sets Q
and R \ Q are closed. In order to show that N is not normal, it suffices to show
that any neighbourhood of R \ Q in N meets any neighbourhood of Q in N .
73
Let U be an open neighbourhood of R \ Q. For each x ∈ R \ Q, fix a number r(x)

s.t. Br(x) (x, r(x)) ⊆ U . Define
Zn = {x ∈ R \ Q : r(x) > 1/n}.
It is clear that ∪n∈Z+ Zn = R \ Q. Consider the standard topology on R. Note that
[
Q= {k/n : k ∈ Z}
n∈Z+
is the union of a countable number of nowhere dense sets. By Theorem 2.29, ∃ m s.t.
the set Zm is not nowhere dense in R. By Theorem 2.28, ∃ a set O, which is open
in R, s.t. O0 ∩ Zm 6= ∅, ∀ open set O0 ⊆ O. By Theorem 2.25, ∃ an open interval J
s.t. Zm is everywhere dense in J. Let q ∈ J ∩ Q. For any open set V containing Q,
∃ rq > 0 s.t. Brq (q, rq ) ⊂ V . Since Zm is everywhere dense in J, ∃ x ∈ Zm ∩ J s.t.
|x−q| < min(rq , 1/m). Then B1/m (x, 1/m) ⊆ U and B1/m (x, 1/m)∩Brq (q, rq ) 6= ∅.
It follows that U ∩ V 6= ∅. This proves that N is not normal.
Theorem 5.17. The Moore space can be embedded in a normal space s.t. the
complement of the image is a singleton.
Proof. Let N∗ = N ∪ {x∗ }. Define the topology Ω∗ on N∗ to be obtained from the

topology Ω on N by adding the sets of the form {x∗ } ∪ U , where U ∈ Ω contains
all but a finite number of points in R. One may verify that (N∗ , Ω∗ ) is a normal
space.
Urysohn characterized normal spaces as spaces in which any two disjoint closed
subsets can be separated by a continuous function; see Theorem 5.19.
Lemma 5.18. Let A and B be nonempty disjoint closed subsets of a normal
space X. Then ∃ a collection {Or }r∈Λ of open subsets of X, where
Λ = {k/2n ∈ I : k, n ∈ Z},
s.t. A ⊆ O0 , B = O1c , and Op ⊆ Oq , ∀ p < q.
Proof. By Theorem 5.15, A has an open neighbourhood O0 s.t. O0 ⊆ O1 . Now

let O0 plays the role of A, the closed set O0 has an open neighbourhood O1/2
s.t. O1/2 ⊆ O1 . Along the same line, the set O0 has a neighbourhood O1/4 s.t.
O1/4 ⊆ O1/2 , and the set O1/2 has a neighbourhood O3/4 s.t. O3/4 ⊆ O1 . Continuing
in this way, one obtains a desired collection {Or }r∈Λ .
Theorem 5.19 (Urysohn’s Lemma). Let A and B be nonempty disjoint closed

subsets of a normal space X. Then ∃ a continuous function f : X → I s.t.
f (A) ⊆ {0} and f (B) ⊆ {1}.
74 D.G.L. WANG
Figure 5.5. Pavel Samuilovich Urysohn (1898–1924) was a Soviet

mathematician of Jewish origin who is best known for his contribu-
tions in dimension theory, and for developing Urysohn’s Metrization
Theorem and Urysohn’s Lemma, both of which are fundamental
results in topology. Stolen from Wiki.
Proof. Keeping the notation in Lemma 5.18, we define

(
1, if x 6∈ Or , ∀ r,
f (x) =
inf{λ ∈ Λ : x ∈ Oλ }, otherwise.
Then f (A) ⊆ {0} and f (B) ⊆ {1}. We shall show that f is continuous; see
Homework 5.2.
Remark 24. One clever part of the proof is the indexing by dyadic fractions for
open sets.
Homework 5.2. Show that the function f in the proof of Theorem 5.19 is contin-
uous.
Hint. {x : f (x) < s} = ∪t<s Ot and {x : f (x) ≤ s} = ∩t>s Ot .
Theorem 5.20 (Tietze Extension Theorem). Let F be a closed subset of a normal

space X. Let f : F → [−1, 1] be a continuous function. Then ∃ a continuous
function g : X → [−1, 1] s.t. g|F = f .
Proof. For convenience, we trisect the closed interval In = [−2n /3n , 2n /3n ] to the
union (−Jn ) ∪ Kn ∪ Jn of three closed intervals of the equal length |In |/3, where
n
2n 2n 2n
n
2n

− 2 + 2
Jn = − n , − n+1 , Kn = − n+1 , n+1 , and Jn = n+1 , n .
3 3 3 3 3 3
75
Note that I0 = I. Let f0 = f . By Theorem 3.5, the sets

A− −1 −
0 = f0 (J0 ) and A+ −1 +
0 = f0 (J0 )
are disjoint and closed in F . By Theorem 2.10, they are closed in X. By Theo-
rem 5.19, ∃ a continuous function g0 : X → K0 s.t.
g0 (A−
0 ) ⊆ {−1/3} and g0 (A+
0 ) ⊆ {1/3}.
Let f1 = f0 − g0 : F → R. By Theorem 3.11, the function f1 is continuous. It is

clear that f1 (F ) ⊆ I1 .
Again, the sets A± −1 ±
1 = f1 (J1 ) are closed in X. By Theorem 5.19, ∃ a continuous
function g1 : X → K1 s.t. g1 (A±1 ) ⊆ {±2/9}. Then the function f2 = f1 − g1 : F →
R is continuous and f2 (F ) ⊆ I2 .
Continuing in this way, ∃ a continuous function gn : X → Kn s.t.
gn (A± n
n ) ⊆ {±2 /3
n+1
},
where A± −1 ±
n = fn (Jn ). We obtain a continuous function fn+1 = fn − gn : F → R
s.t. fn+1 (F ) ⊆ In+1 .
n n
Pfnn = f − g1 − g2 − · · · − gn−1 : F → In satisfies |fn (F )| ≤ 2 /3 .
Now, the function
The limit limn→∞ i=1 gi converges to a continuous function g : X → [−1, 1] and
g|F = f .
5.4. Countability axioms. In this subsection, we study topological properties

that are additionally imposed on a topological structure in order to make the
abstract situation under consideration closer to special situations. The restrictions
require something to be countable.
Definition 5.21. Given (X, Ω) with p ∈ X.
• A (neighbourhood) base at p: a collection Σ of neighbourhoods of p s.t. each

neighbourhood of p contains a neighbourhood from Σ.
• X is first countable or satisfies the first axiom of countability: X has a
countable neighbourhood base at each point.
• X is second-countable or satisfies the second axiom of countability: Ω
has a countable base.
• X is separable if X contains a countable dense subset.
Theorem 5.22. The second axiom of countability implies both the first one and
the separability.
76 D.G.L. WANG
Proof. From definition, it is straightforward that the second countability implies

the first countability. Let β = {Bi }i∈N be a countable base of a space X. Let
pi ∈ Bi . We claim that the set A = {pi }i∈N is dense. In fact, any open set O is
the union of some members Bi . Suppose that Bj ⊆ O. Then pj ∈ O ∩ A. By
Theorem 2.25, the set A is dense.
Homework 5.3. Find a first countable space and a separable space which are not
second countable.
Answer. An uncountable discrete space is first countable but not second countable.
The cofinite space is separable but not second countable.
Example 5.23. The arrow is second countable.
Theorem 5.24. Any metric space is first countable.

Theorem 5.25. For metrizable spaces, separability ⇐⇒ the second axiom of
countability.
Proof. By Theorem 5.22, it suffices to show that any separable metric space is
second countable. Let A be an everywhere dense set of a metric space (X, d). By
Theorem 2.32, the collection {Br (x) : x ∈ A, r ∈ Q+ } is a countable base of X.
Homework 5.4. Find a metric space which is not second countable.
Corollary 5.26. Rn is second-countable.
Proof. The set Qn is countable and everywhere dense in Rn .
Theorem 5.27. The continuous image of a separable space is separable.
Proof. Direct from Theorem 3.6.
Homework 5.5. Construct an example proving that a continuous image of a

second countable space may be not second countable.
Answer. Consider id : R → RT1 .
Definition 5.28. A Lindelöf space is a topological space in which every open

cover has a countable subcovering.
77
Figure 5.6. Ernst Leonard Lindelöf (1870–1946) was a Finnish

mathematician, who made contributions in real analysis, complex
analysis and topology. Stolen from Wiki.
Theorem 5.29 (Lindelöf ’s lemma). Any second-countable space is Lindelöf.
Proof. Let X be a second countable space, with a countable base B and an open
cover Γ. Let Λ = {B ∈ β : B ⊆ Vi for some Vi ∈ Γ}. For each B ∈ Λ, take a set
Vi ∈ Γ s.t. Bi ⊆ Vi . Then Λ is a cover of X, and {Vi }i∈N is a countable subcovering
of Γ.
Corollary 5.30. Each base of a second countable space contains a countable
subbase.
Proof. Let X be a second countable space with a countable base β0 and a base β.
By Theorem 5.29, each set in β0 is the union of a countable number of sets in β.
78 D.G.L. WANG
6. Compactness
6.1. Compact spaces. Compactness is a sort of topological counterpart for the

property of being finite in the context of set theory.
Definition 6.1. A topological space is compact if its every open cover has a finite
subcovering.
Remark 25. The word compactness was used for the weaker property that any
countable open cover contains a finite subcovering. The modern notion of com-
pactness was introduced by Alexandrov and Urysohn in 1923; see Fig. 6.1. They
Figure 6.1. Pavel Sergeyevich Alexandrov (1896–1982) was a Soviet

mathematician, sometimes romanised Paul Alexandroff or Aleksan-
drov. He wrote about 300 papers, making important contributions
to set theory and topology. Stolen from Wiki.
suggested for it the term bicompactness. This notion turned out to be fortunate; it
has displaced the original one and even took its name, i.e., ”compactness”. Another
deviation from the terminology used here comes from Bourbaki: we do not include
the Hausdorff property in the definition of compactness, while Bourbaki does.
Theorem 6.2. A subset A ⊆ X is compact ⇐⇒ each cover of A with sets open

in X contains a finite subcovering.
Proof. ⇒: Let A be a compact subset of X. Let O be a cover of A with sets open

in X. Then the collection {O ∩ A : O ∈ O} is an open cover of A, and has a finite
cover, say, {O ∩ A : O ∈ O0 }, where O0 is a finite subset of O. In other words, we
have A ⊆ ∪O∈O0 (O ∩ A) = A ∩ ∪O∈O0 O. It follows that A ⊆ ∪O∈O0 O.
⇐: Let O be an open cover of A. By the subspace topology, each member in O
can be written as O ∩ A, where O is an open set of X. Let O0 be the collection of
these open sets O. From premise, ∃ a finite subset O00 of O0 s.t. A ⊆ ∪O∈O00 O. It
follows that A ⊆ A ∩ ∪O∈O00 O = ∪O∈O00 (O ∩ A).
79
Example 6.3. Give (X, Ω).
(1) X is compact if Ω is finite. In particular, every subset of a finite or indiscrete

space is compact.
(2) If X is discrete, then X is compact ⇐⇒ X is finite.
(3) Every subset of the cofinite space is compact.
(4) A subset A of the arrow is compact ⇐⇒ inf A ∈ A.
(5) R is not compact. The set [ 0, 1) is not compact in R.
(6) The set {0} ∪ {1/n : n ∈ Z+ } is compact in R.
Proof. Any open set containing the singleton {0} does not contain only a finite
number of elements in {1/n : n ∈ Z+ }.
(7) I.
Proof. Let O be an open cover of I. Assume that I is not compact. Then I

has no finite subcovering of O. Let I1 be an interval of [0, 1/2] and [1/2, 1]
without finite subcovering of O. Then we bisect I1 and let I2 be one of the two
subintervals which does not have a finite subcovering of O. Continuing in this
way, we obtain a sequence {In }n∈N of nested closed intervals no of which have
a finite subcovering of O, where I0 = I. It is clear that ∩n∈N In is a singleton,
say, s. Let O ∈ O which covers s. Then the set O covers all but a finite number
of the intervals In . In particular, O covers an interval In with sufficiently large
subscript n, a contradiction.
(8) Any cube J n = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn : xi ∈ J}, where J ∈ R is a closed interval.
Proof. Same to the previous. Subdivide the cube into 2n smaller ones at Step n.

(9) Suppose that X has topologies Ω1 and Ω2 s.t. Ω1 ⊆ Ω2 . If (X, Ω2 ) is compact,

then so is (X, Ω1 ). It is not true in general vice versa.
Theorem 6.4. If A and B are compact, then A ∪ B is compact.
Homework 6.1. Find an example that both A and B are compact but A ∩ B is
not compact.
Theorem 6.5. Any closed subset of a compact space is compact.

80 D.G.L. WANG
Theorem 6.6. A continuous image of a compact space is compact. As a conse-

quence, compactness is a topological property.
Theorem 6.7. A second countable space is compact ⇐⇒ any of its countable

open cover contains a finite subcovering.
Proof. Immediate from Theorem 5.29.
Definition 6.8. A collection of subsets of a set is said to have the finite inter-
section property if each finite subcollection has a nonempty intersection.
Lemma 6.9. A collection Σ of subsets of a set X has the finite intersection property
⇐⇒ @ finite Σ0 ⊆ Σ s.t. the complements of sets in Σ0 cover X.
Theorem 6.10. A space is compact ⇐⇒ every collection of its closed subsets

with the finite intersection property has a nonempty intersection.
Proof. Let X be a topological space.

⇒: Suppose that X is compact. Let F be a collection of closed subsets of X with
the finite intersection property. If ∩F ∈F F = ∅, then the collection {F c : F ∈ F} is
an open cover of X, and it has a finite subcovering, say, {F c : F ∈ F 0 }, where F 0 is
a finite subset of F. In other words, we have ∪F ∈F 0 F c = X. Applying de Morgan’s
law, we obtain ∩F ∈F 0 F = ∅, contradicting the finite intersection property.
⇐: Assume that X is not compact. Then ∃ an open cover O of X which does
not contain a finite subcovering. By Lemma 6.9, the collection {Oc : O ∈ O} of
closed sets has the finite intersection property. From premise, we have ∩O∈O Oc 6= ∅.
Applying de Morgan’s law, we obtain ∪O∈O O = 6 X, contradicting the assumption
that O is a cover of X.
Theorem 6.11. Any compact subset of a metric space is bounded.
Proof. Let p be a point of the subset. Then the open cover {Bn (p)}n∈Z+ has no
finite subcovering.
Homework 6.2. Find a closed and bounded, but noncompact set in a metric
space.
Answer. Let X = [0, 1) with the subspace topology induced from R. Then X
induces the metric from the standard metric of R. Then the set X is closed and
bounded. It is not compact; see Eg. 6.3.
81
6.2. Interaction of compactness with other topological properties.

Lemma 6.12. Let A be a compact subset of a Hausdorff space X, and let b ∈ Ac .
Then ∃ disjoint open sets U and V of X s.t. A ⊆ U and b ∈ V .
Proof. ∀ a ∈ A, since X is Hausdorff, ∃ an open neighbourhood Ua of a and an

open neighbourhood Va of b s.t. Ua ∩ Va = ∅. Since A is compact, the open cover
∪a∈A Ua of A contains a finite subcovering, say, {Ua : a ∈ A0 }, where A0 is a finite
subset of A. Let
U = ∪a∈A0 Ua and V = ∩a∈A0 Va .
Then the sets U and V and open and disjoint s.t. A ⊆ U and b ∈ V .
Theorem 6.13. Any compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.
Proof. Let A be a compact subset of a Hausdorff space X. By Lemma 6.12, every

point b ∈ Ac is an interior point. Hence Ac is open and A is closed.
Remark 26. In Hausdorff spaces, the compactness is stronger than closedness.
Corollary 6.14. The intersection of any family of compact subsets of a Hausdorff

space is compact.
Proof. Let X be a Hausdorff space with a collection {Kλ : λ ∈ Λ} of compact subsets.

By Theorem 6.13, every set Kλ is closed. Thus the intersection J = ∩λ∈Λ Kλ is
closed. Let o ∈ Λ. Now J is a closed subset of the compact set Ko . By Theorem 6.5,
J is compact.
Remark 27. Cf. Homework 6.1.
Theorem 6.15. Any compact Hausdorff space is normal.
Proof. Let X be a compact Hausdorff space with disjoint closed sets A and B. By
Theorem 6.5, both sets A and B are compact. Since A is compact, by Lemma 6.12,
∀ b ∈ B, ∃ an open neighbourhood Ub of A and an open neighbourhood Vb of b
s.t. Ub ∩ Vb = ∅. Since B is compact, the open cover ∪b∈B Vb of B has a finite
subcovering, say, {Vb : b ∈ B 0 } where B 0 is a finite subset of B. Let
U = ∩b∈B 0 Ub and V = ∪b∈B 0 Vb .
Then both sets U and V and open, A ⊆ U , B ⊆ V and U ∩ V = ∅. This proves
the normality of X.
82 D.G.L. WANG
Theorem 6.16. Let X be a Hausdorff space, let {Kλ : λ ∈ Λ} be a family of its

compact subsets, and let U be an open set containing ∩λ∈Λ Kλ . Then ∃ a finite
Λ0 ⊆ Λ s.t. ∩λ∈Λ0 Kλ ⊆ U .
Proof. Let λ0 ∈ Λ. Let J = ∩λ∈Λ Kλ . By Theorem 6.5, the closed set Kλ0 \ U is
compact. On the other hand, applying de Morgan’s law, we infer that
Kλ0 \ U ⊆ U c ⊆ J c = ∪λ∈Λ Kλc .
It follows that the open cover {Kλc : λ ∈ Λ} of the set Kλ0 \U has a finite subcovering,
say, {Kλc : λ ∈ Λ0 }, where Λ0 is a finite subset of Λ. Hence ∩λ∈Λ0 Kλ ⊆ U .
Corollary 6.17. Let {Kn }n∈N be a decreasing sequence of nonempty compact

connected sets in a Hausdorff space. Then the intersection ∩n∈N Kn is nonempty
and connected.
Proof. By Theorem 6.5, every set Kn is a closed subset of the compact set K1 .
It is clear that the collection {Kn } satisfies the finite intersection property. By
Theorem 6.10, the intersection J = ∩n≥1 Kn is nonempty. Assume to the contrary
that J is disconnected. Then J = F1 t F2 for some closed sets F1 and F2 . By
Theorem 6.15, the set K1 is normal. Therefore, ∃ an open neighbourhood Ui of Fi
(i = 1, 2) s.t. U1 ∩ U2 = ∅. Let U = U1 ∪ U2 . Now we have J ⊆ U .
By Theorem 6.16, ∃ a finite subset A ⊂ N s.t. ∩n∈A Kn ⊆ U , that is, Km ⊆ U ,
where m = maxn∈A n. Therefore, the set Km is the disjoint union of open sets
U1 ∩ Km and U2 ∩ Km of Km . If U1 ∩ Km = ∅, then F1 ⊆ J ⊆ Km ⊆ U2 , a
contradiction. Hence U1 ∩ Km = ∅, and U2 ∩ Km = ∅ for the same reason. This
contradicts the connectedness of Km and completes the proof.
Theorem 6.18. A subset of Rn is compact ⇐⇒ it is closed and bounded.
Proof. Let A ⊆ Rn .
⇒. Suppose that A is compact. Since Rn is a metric space, by Theorem 6.11, A
is bounded. Since Rn is Hausdorff, by Theorem 6.13, A is closed.
⇐. Let A be closed and bounded. Then ∃ a cube J n containing A. From Eg. 6.3,
we see that any cube is compact. By Theorem 6.5, A is compact.
Question 6.19. Which of the following sets are compact?
(1) [0, 1).

(2) rayR+ = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 0}.
83
(3) S n .
(4) any ellipsoid.
(5) Q ∩ I.
Theorem 6.20. A continuous map from a compact space to a Hausdorff space is

closed.
Proof. Let F be a closed set in a compact space X. Let f : X → Y be a continuous

map, where Y is Hausdorff. By Theorem 6.5, the set F is compact. By Theorem 6.6,
the image f (F ) is compact. By Theorem 6.13, the set f (F ) is closed.
Theorem 6.21. A continuous bijection of a compact space onto a Hausdorff space

is a homeomorphism.
Proof. Direct from combining Theorems 3.23 and 6.20.
Theorem 6.22 is a corollary of Theorem 6.21. We write it as a theorem for

its significance in identifying a quotient space with a space; see the proof of
Theorem 7.40.
Theorem 6.22. Any continuous injection from a compact space to a Hausdorff
space is an embedding.
Corollary 6.23. A continuous real-valued function on a compact space is bounded

and attains its maximal and minimal values.
Corollary 6.24. Let A ⊆ Rn . Then A is compact ⇐⇒ iff each continuous

real-valued function on A is bounded.
Proof. ⇒. By Corollary 6.23.

⇐. By Theorem 6.18, it suffices to show that A is bounded and closed. In fact,
by Theorem 3.13, the function d(0, x) is continuous. Since it is bounded from
premise, A is bounded. On the other hand, assume that A is not closed. Then
∃ x0 ∈ A \ A. It follows that the continuous function 1/d(x0 , x) is unbounded, a
contradiction.
Theorem 6.25. In any metric space, a compact subset and a closed subset have
zero distance ⇐⇒ they meet.
84 D.G.L. WANG
Proof. Let (X, d) be a metric space with a compact subset A and a closed subset F
s.t. A ∩ F = ∅. By Theorem 3.13 and Corollary 6.23, the continuous function dF (x)
attains its minimum, say, m. In other words, ∃ x ∈ A s.t. dF (x) = m. Note that
m = d(A, F ) from definition of the distance between two subsets. It is clear that
m ≥ 0. If m = 0, by Theorem 2.46, we infer that x ∈ F , contradicting A ∩ F = ∅.
Hence m > 0.
Corollary 6.26. Any open set containing a compact set A of a metric space
contains a neighbourhood of A.
Theorem 6.27 will be applied several times in later sections.

Theorem 6.27 (Lebesgue’s number lemma). Let (X, d) be a compact metric
space with an open cover F. Then ∃ δ > 0 (called a Lebesgue number of F) s.t.
any subset of X of diameter less than δ is contained in some member of F.
Figure 6.2. Henri Léon Lebesgue (1875–1941) was a French math-

ematician most famous for his theory of integration, which was a
generalization of the 17th century concept of integration. Stolen
from Wiki.
Proof. If X ∈ F, then any δ > 0 is qualified. Below we can suppose that X 6∈ F.

Let {A1 , . . . , An } be a finite subcovering of F. Then Aci 6= ∅ for each i. By
Theorems 3.11 and 3.13, the function
f: X →R
n
1X
x 7→ d(x, Aci )
n i=1
is continuous.
85
Since X is compact, by Corollary 6.23, f attains its minimum, say, m. Let

δ = m/2. By Theorem 6.5, the set Aci is compact. By Theorem 6.25, we have
f (x) = 0 ⇐⇒ d(x, Aci ) = 0, ∀i ⇐⇒ x ∈ ∩ni=1 Aci .
But {A1 , . . . , An } is a cover of X, @ x ∈ ∩ni=1 Aci . In other words, δ > 0.
Let A ⊆ X s.t. diam A < δ. Take a ∈ A. Then A ⊆ Bδ (a). Since f (a) ≥ 2δ, ∃
1 ≤ i ≤ n s.t. d(a, Aci ) ≥ 2δ. It follows that A ⊆ Bδ (a) ⊆ Ai .
Puzzle 6.28. Is the closure of a compact set always compact?
Answer. No. For example, consider the topology {O ∪ {0} : O ∈ ΩR } ∪ {∅} of R,

where ΩR is the standard topology on R. It is clear that {0} = R.
86 D.G.L. WANG
7. Product Spaces & Quotient Spaces
7.1. Product spaces.

Definition 7.1. Given two sets X and Y . Let f : X → Y .
• The Cartesian product or direct product or product of X and Y :

X × Y = {(x, y) : x ∈ X, y ∈ Y }.
One simply denotes {a} × Y by a × Y , and denotes X × {b} by X × b.
• A fibre of X × Y : a subset of X × Y which has the form a × Y or X × b.
• The diagonal map on X: the map
∆: X → X × X
x 7→ (x, x).
The diagonal of X × X: the set ∆(X) = {(x, x) : x ∈ X}.
• The graph of f : the set Γf (X) = {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ X} ⊆ X × Y .
Remark 28. The terminology “graph” here is somehow different from one’s intuition.
It requires that the set Γf ∩ (x × Y ) is a singleton ∀ x ∈ X.
Question 7.2. Is it true that (A1 × B1 ) ∩ (A2 × B2 ) = (A1 ∩ A2 ) × (B1 × B2 )?
Answer. Yes.
Definition 7.3. Given (X, ΩX ) and (Y, ΩY ). Let p = (x, y) ∈ X × Y .
• An elementary open set of X × Y : a set U × V where U ∈ ΩX and V ∈ ΩY .

An elementary neighbourhood of p: an elementary open set containing p.
• The product topology in X × Y : the topology generated by the set of
elementary open sets.
• The product space or product of X and Y : the set X × Y with the product
topology.
Remark 29. For any subspaces A and B of spaces X and Y , the product topology
on A × B coincides with the subspace topology induced from X × Y .
Remark 30. The space Y × X is canonically homeomorphic to X × Y .
Theorem 7.4. If A ⊆ X and B ⊆ Y are closed, then so is A × B ⊆ X × Y .
Proof. (A × B)c = (Ac × Y ) ∪ (X × B c ).

87
Theorem 7.5. The product of connected spaces is connected.
Proof. Let X, Y be connected spaces with pi = (xi , yi ) ∈ X × Y for i = 1, 2. By

using classical homeomorphisms, we infer that the fibres X × y2 and x1 × Y are
connected. By Theorem 4.8, the set W = (X × y2 ) ∪ (x1 × Y ) ⊆ X × Y is connected.
Since pi ∈ W for i = 1, 2, the product X × Y is connected.
By a similar argument, we obtain Theorem 7.6.

Theorem 7.6. Let X, Y be connected spaces with proper subsets A and B resp.
Then (A × B)c is connected.
Theorem 7.7. The product of Hausdorff spaces is Hausdorff.
Proof. Let X and Y be Hausdorff spaces with xi ∈ X and yi ∈ Y (i = 1, 2). Let

pi = (xi , yi ). Suppose that the points p1 and p2 are distinct points in X×Y . W.l.o.g.,
we supposes that x1 = 6 x2 . Since X is Hausdorff, ∃ an open neighbourhood U of x1
and an open neighbourhood V of x2 s.t. U ∩ V = ∅. Then the disjoint sets U × Y
and V × Y are open neighbourhoods of p1 and p2 resp.
Lemma 7.8. ∀ A ⊆ X and B ⊆ Y , we have

A×B =A×B and (A × B)◦ = A◦ × B ◦ .
Remark 31. Recall from Remark 8 that the closure and interior resemble dual to
each other.
Theorem 7.9. The product of regular spaces is regular.
Proof. Let X and Y be regular spaces. Let p = (x, y) ∈ X × Y with an elementary

neighbourhood U × V .
Since X is regular, by Theorem 5.15, ∃ an open neighbourhood S of x s.t. S ⊆ U .
For the same reason, ∃ an open neighbourhood T of y s.t. T ⊆ V . It follows that
the set W = S × T is an elementary neighbourhood of p. By Lemma 7.8, we have
W = S × T ⊆ U × V . By Theorem 5.15, the space X × Y is regular.
Remark 32. Cf. Theorem 7.7. The product of normal spaces is not necessarily
normal.
Theorem 7.10. The product of separable spaces is separable.

88 D.G.L. WANG
Proof. Let A and B be countable dense subset of X and Y resp. Then A × B is

countable and dense in X × Y .
Theorem 7.11. The product of second countable spaces is second countable.
Proof. Let X, Y be spaces with bases U and V resp. It suffices to show that the set
{U × V : U ∈ Σ, V ∈ Γ}
is a base of X × Y . In fact, this is true if each elementary open set of X × Y is a
union of sets of such form. Indeed,
[ [ [
Uα × Vβ = (Uα × Vβ ).
α β α,β
Theorem 7.12. The product of path-connected spaces is path-connected.
Proof. Let X and Y be path-connected spaces with (xi , yi ) ∈ X × Y (i = 0, 1).

Let u be a path joining x0 and x1 . Let v be a path joining y0 and y1 . Then the
map
f: I →X ×Y

t 7→ u(t), v(t)
is a path joining the points (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ).
Theorem 7.13. The product of compact spaces is compact.
Proof. Let X and Y be compact spaces. Let {Uλ × Vλ : λ ∈ Γ} be a cover of X × Y

consisting of elementary open sets. Since Y is compact, each fibre x × Y has a finite
subcovering {Uγx ×Vγx : γ ∈ Γx }, where Γx is a finite subset of Γ. Put W x = ∩λ∈Γx Uλx .
Since X is compact, the cover {W x : x ∈ X} has a finite subcovering {W x : x ∈ X 0 },
where X 0 is a finite subset of X. Then {Uλx × Vλx : x ∈ X 0 , λ ∈ Γx } is the required
finite subcovering.
Theorem 7.14. The product space (R1 )n coincides with the space Rn . The product
space I × I × · · · × I (n times) coincides with the subspace I n of Rn .
Proof. A base of R1 × R1 is the collection of open rectangles, which is also a base

of R2 . One may show by induction that (R1 )n = Rn . As subspaces we have
I × I × · · · × I( n times) = I n .
89
Theorem 7.15. A map f : X → Y is continuous ⇐⇒ the restriction

prX Γ (X) : Γf (X) → X
f
is a homeomorphism.

Proof. The restriction h = prX Γ (X) is obviously a bijection. The inverse map
f
h−1 : X → Γf (X) is continuous ⇐⇒ so is the map
g: X → X × Y

x 7→ x, f (x) ,
which is true because g −1 (U × V ) = U ∩ f −1 (V ). Conversely, the map
−1
f = prY ◦ prX Γ (X)
f
is the composition of continuous maps.

Remark 33. See Theorem 3.5 for six characterisations of continuous maps.
Theorem 7.16. The projection pr : X × Y → X is closed if Y is compact.
Proof. Let F be a closed set in X × Y . Let x ∈ pr(F )c . ∀ y ∈ Y , the point

(x, y) ∈ F c has an open neighbourhood Uy × Vy . Since the fibre x × Y is compact,
the open cover {Uy × Vy : y ∈ Y } has a finite subcovering {Uyi × Vyi : i = 1, . . . , n}.
It is clear that the set U = ∩ni=1 Uyi is an open neighbourhood of x, and that it is
disjoint with pr(F ). Hence pr(F )c is open and pr(F ) is closed.
Corollary 7.17. Let f : X → Y be a map, where Y is compact. If the graph Γf (X)

is closed, then f is continuous.
Proof. By Theorem 7.16, the projection pr X : X × Y → X is a closed map. Since

the set Γf (X) is closed, the restriction prX Γ (X) is a closed map. By Theorem 3.23,
f
it is a homeomorphism. By Theorem 7.15, the map f is continuous.
Remark 34. The compactness condition in Corollary 7.17 is essential, which can be
seen from the function
f: R→R
(
0, if x = 0;
x 7→
1/x, otherwise.
90 D.G.L. WANG
Definition 7.18. Let gi : Xi → Yi (i = 1, 2) be maps. The Cartesian product

of g1 and g2 is the map
g1 × g2 : X1 × X2 → Y1 × Y2

(x1 , x2 ) 7→ g1 (x1 ), g2 (x2 ) .
Theorem 7.19. The Cartesian product of continuous maps is continuous.
Hint. (g1 × g2 )−1 (B1 × B2 ) = g1−1 (B1 ) × g2−1 (B2 ).
Theorem 7.20. The Cartesian product of open maps is open.
Hint. (g1 × g2 )(A1 × A2 ) = g1 (A1 ) × g2 (A2 ).
Theorem 7.21. A space X is Hausdorff

⇐⇒ the diagonal ∆(X) is closed in X × X.
Proof. ⇒. Let (x, y) ∈ ∆(X)c . Then x 6= y. Since X is Hausdorff, ∃ an open

neighbourhood U of x and an open neighbourhood V of y s.t. U ∩ V = ∅. Then
(U × V ) ∩ ∆(X) = ∅. This proves that ∆(X)c is open. ⇐. Let x and y be
distinct points in X. Then (x, y) ∈ ∆(X)c . Since ∆(X) is closed, ∃ an elementary
neighbourhood U × V of (x, y) s.t. U × V ⊆ ∆(X)c , that is, U ∩ V = ∅. This
proves that X is Hausdorff.
Remark 35. See Theorem 5.4 for a characterisation of Hausdorff spaces.
Corollary 7.22. Let f : X → Y be a continuous map where Y is a Hausdorff

space. Then the graph Γf (X) is closed in X × Y .
Proof. The map f × idY is a composition of continuous maps. By Theorem 7.21,

the diagonal ∆(Y ) is closed, and so is the graph
Γf (X) = (f × idY )−1 ∆(Y ) .

Remark 36. Cf. Theorem 5.12 and Corollary 7.17.
Theorem 7.23. Any metric d : X ×X → R is continuous w.r.t. the metric topology.

91
Proof. By the subadditivity, we have

d B/2 (x), B/2 (y) ⊆ d(x, y) − , d(x, y) + .
By Theorem 3.5, the metric d is continuous at every point (x, y), and hence
continuous.
Definition 7.24. Let X, Y, Z be sets and let f : Z → X × Y . The compositions

prX ◦f and prY ◦f are called factors or components of f , where prX : X ×Y → X
and prY : X × Y → Y are the projections.
Theorem 7.25. f : Z → X × Y is continuous ⇐⇒ so is each component of f .
Proof. ⇒. For W ∈ {X, Y }, the function prW ◦ f is a composition of continuous

maps. ⇐. Let A ∈ ΩX and B ∈ ΩY . Then
f −1 (A × B) = (prX ◦ f )−1 (A) ∩ (prY ◦ f )−1 (B)
is open in Z.
Theorem 7.26. We have R2 \ {0} ∼

= S 1 × R.
Proof. Define a map

φ : S 1 × R → R2 \ {0}
(s, t), r 7→ (ser , ter ).

It is continuous with the continuous inverse

φ−1 : R2 \ {0} → S 1 × R

x y p
2 2
(x, y) 7→ p , p , ln x + y .
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

Definition 7.27. Given a collection X = {(Xλ , Ωλ ) : λ ∈ Λ} of topological spaces.
• The Cartesian product or direct product or product of spaces in X :

Y [

= Xλ = f : Λ → Xλ f (λ) ∈ Xλ , ∀ λ ∈ Λ .
Q
λ∈Λ λ∈Λ
• The λth projection: the function

prλ : → Xλ
Q
f 7→ f (λ).
92 D.G.L. WANG
• The product topology (or Tychonoff topology) on , denoted ΩQ :

Q
(1) the initial topology w.r.t. the projections prλ ; i.e.,

(2) ΩQ = h pr−1
λ (Ωλ ) | λ ∈ Λ i; or
Q
(3) every member in ΩQ is a union of sets of the form λ Oλ where Oλ ∈ Ωλ and
Oλ 6= Xλ for only finitely many λ.
• The product space of X : (Q, ΩQ ).

Q
• The box topology on : ΩB = h λ Ωλ i.
Q
Remark 37. The product topology makes the product space a categorical product
of its factors, whereas the box topology is too fine; this is the sense in which the
product topology is a “natural topology”.
Remark 38. The definitions of product of two sets in Defs. 7.1 and 7.27 are
compatible.
7.2. Quotient spaces.

• An equivalence relation on X: a binary relation ∼ on X which is reflexive,

symmetric and transitive.
• A setoid: a set Y with an equivalence relation ∼ on it, denoted (Y, ∼).
• An equivalence class of X w.r.t. ∼: [a] = {x ∈ X : x ∼ a}.
• The quotient set or set of equivalence classes of X w.r.t. ∼:
X/∼ = {[x] : x ∈ X}.
Remark 39. The bracket symbol depends on the equivalence relation which is
not indicated from the symbol itself. We will make it clear when more than one
equivalence relations are considered at the same time on a set.
Recall that a partition of a set determines a unique equivalence relation ∼ on

that set and vice versa.
Definition 7.29. Let X be a set with a partition S. Let A ⊆ X.
• The quotient set X/S: the quotient set X/∼, where ∼ is the equivalence
relation determined by S uniquely.
93
• The canonical projection or factorisation map on X w.r.t. S: the map

pr : X → X/S
x 7→ [x],
where [x] is an equivalence class of X w.r.t. S.
• A is saturated w.r.t. S: ∃ B ⊆ X/S, s.t.
[
pr−1 [x] .

A=
[x]∈B
• The saturation of A w.r.t. S: the set pr−1 pr(A) , i.e., the smallest saturated

set containing A w.r.t. S.
• S is open: the saturation of each open set is open, i.e., the canonical projection
X → X/S is a open.
• S is closed: the saturation of each closed set is closed, i.e., the canonical
projection X → X/S is a closed.
Proposition 7.30. A set A is saturated ⇐⇒ A is equal to its saturation.
Definition 7.31. Given (X, Ω) with a partition S of X.
• The quotient space or identification space of X w.r.t. S: (X/S, ΩS ), where

ΩX/S = {U ⊆ X/S : pr−1 (U ) ∈ Ω}
is the quotient topology or identification topology of X/S.
Remark 40. From definition, the quotient topology is the final topology w.r.t. the
canonical projection pr : X → X/S. More explicitly, a set A in X/S is a collection
of equivalence classes [x]. It is open ⇐⇒ its “flattened set” is open in X.
Question 7.32. Give an explicit description of the quotient space of I by the

partition consisting of the intervals [0, 1/3], (1/3, 2/3] and (2/3, 1].
Answer. Denote X/S = {a, b, c}, where

pr−1 (a) = [0, 1/3], pr−1 (b) = (1/3, 2/3] and pr−1 (c) = (2/3, 1].
Then ΩX/S = {0, {c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}.
Proposition 7.33. A set in a quotient space X/S is closed ⇐⇒ it is the preimage

of a closed set in X under the projection pr : X → X/S.
94 D.G.L. WANG
Theorem 7.34. Any quotient space of a connected space is connected. Any quotient
space of a path-connected space is path-connected. Any quotient space of a separable
space is separable. Any quotient space of a compact space is compact.
Proof. Any quotient space of one of the spaces under consideration is the continuous
image of a space of that kind. See Theorems 4.5, 4.31, 5.27 and 6.6.
Homework 7.1. Is it true that any quotient space of a Hausdorff space is Haus-
dorff?
Answer. The quotient space of R by the partition {R≥0 , R<0 } is not Hausdorff.
Definition 7.35. Let f : X → Y be a map, where X and Y are sets with partitions
S and T resp.
• If f is constant on each member of S, then ∃! a map

f /S : X/S → Y
[x] 7→ f (x),
called the quotient map, or identification map, or factor map of f w.r.t. S.
• If ∀ [x] ∈ S, ∀ x0 ∈ [x], ∃! [y] ∈ T s.t. f (x0 ) ∈ [y], then ∃! a map
f /(S, T ) : X/S → Y /T
[x] 7→ [f (x)],
called the quotient map, or identification map, or factor map of f w.r.t.
S and T . In other words, the map f /(S, T ) is the one makes the diagram
f
X −−−−−−−−→ Y
 
pr1 y
 pr
y 2
f /(S,T )
X/S −−−−−−−−→ Y /T
commutative.
Proposition 7.36. Keep the notation in Def. 7.35. If f is open, then so is the
quotient map f /S.
Proof. For each open set U ⊆ X/S, the image f /S(U ) = f pr−1 (U ) is open as

the image of the open set pr−1 (U ) under the open map f .
95
Theorem 7.37. Keep the notation in Def. 7.35. If f : X → Y is continuous, then

f /(S, T ) : X/S → Y /T is continuous.
Proof. Using the commutative diagram, we see that an open set in Y /T corresponds
to an open set in Y , whose preimage under f is open in X, and determines an
open set in X/S.
Corollary 7.38. Keep the notation in Def. 7.35. If f : X → Y is continuous, then
f /S : X/S → Y is continuous.
Definition 7.39. A map f : X → Y determines a partition of the set X into

nonempty preimages of the elements of Y . This partition is denoted by S(f ). The
map
f /S(f ) : X/S(f ) → Y
[x] 7→ f (x)
is injective, and called the injective quotient or injective factor of f .
Theorem 7.40 (Identifying a quotient space with a known space). If f : X → Y

is a continuous map from a compact space X to a Hausdorff space Y , then the
injective factor f /S(f ) is a topological embedding.
Proof. By Theorem 7.34, the quotient space X/S(f ) is compact. By Corollary 7.38,
the map f /S(f ) is continuous. By Theorem 6.22, the factor f /S(f ) is an embedding.

An accurate literal description of a partition can often be somewhat cumbersome,

but usually it can be shortened and made more understandable by a more flexible
vocabulary. For instance, by phrasing as factorise, pass to a quotient, attach, glue
together, identify, contract, paste, and so on.
Definition 7.41. Let A ⊆ X. Let S be the partition of X consisting the set A
and all singletons in Ac . Then the quotient set X/S is denoted simply as X/A,
and called the contraction of A to a point.
Proposition 7.42. Keep the conditions in Def. 7.41. If A is closed, then S is

closed.
Proof. Let pr : X → X/S be the canonical projection. If A∩S = ∅, then pr(A) = A

is open in X/S. Otherwise A ∩ S 6= ∅, then pr(A)c = (A ∪ S)c is open, which
implies that pr(A) is closed.
96 D.G.L. WANG
Definition 7.43. Let A, B ⊆ X s.t. A ∩ B = ∅ with a homeomorphism f : A → B.

Then passing to the quotient of X by the partition into singletons in (A ∪ B)c
and two-element sets {x, f (x)} where x ∈ A, we glue or identify the sets A and B
via the homeomorphism f . The quotient space can be denoted as
X/[a ∼ f (a) ∀ a ∈ A] or X/[a ∼ f (a)].
Some partitions are easily described by a picture, especially if the original space
can be embedded in the plane. In such a case, we draw arrows on the segments to
be identified to show the directions to be identified.
Example 7.44. We have I/[0 ∼ 1] ∼
= S 1 . In other words, the quotient space
∼
=
Figure 7.1. Illustration for the homeomorphism I/[0 ∼ 1] ∼

= S 1.
of I by the partition consisting of {0, 1} and singletons for all other points in the
interval (0, 1) is homeomorphic to a circle; see Fig. 7.1.
Proof. By Theorem 7.40, the quotient map f /[0 ∼ 1] of the map

f : I → S1
t 7→ e2πti
is a homeomorphism.
Example 7.45. We have Dn /S n−1 ∼ = S n . In other words, contracting the boundary

of an n-dimensional ball to a point, we obtain an n-dimensional sphere.
Hint. Consider the map

f : Dn /S n−1 → S n

x1 xn
[(x1 , . . . , xn )] 7→ sin(rπ), . . . , sin(rπ), − cos(rπ) ,
r r
pPn
2
with r = i=1 xi .
97
Figure 7.2. Illustration for the homeomorphism

I 2 /[(0, t) ∼ (1, t) ∀ t ∈ I] ∼
= S 1 × I.
Example 7.46. We have I 2 /[(0, t) ∼ (1, t) ∀ t ∈ I] ∼ = S 1 × I. In other words,

gluing the side edges of a square by identifying points on the same hight produces
a cylinder; see Fig. 7.2.
Example 7.47. We have (S 1 × I)/[(z, 0) ∼ (z, 1) ∀ z ∈ S 1 ] ∼

= S 1 × S 1 . In other
words, gluing the base circles of a cylinder by identifying pairs of points on the
same element gives a torus.
Hint. Consider the product map f × idI where f is defined in the proof of Eg. 7.44.

Example 7.48. We have I 2 /[(0, t) ∼ (1, t), (t, 0) ∼ (t, 1)] ∼ = S 1 × S 1 . In other
words, identifying the sides of a square according to the left part of Fig. 7.3 produces
a torus.
Theorem 7.49 (Transitivity of factorisation). Let S be a partition of a space X,
and let S 0 be a partition of the space X/S. Then the quotient space (X/S)/S 0 is
canonically homeomorphic to X/T , where T is the partition of X into preimages
of elements of S 0 under the projection X → X/S.
Proof. It follows from investigating the topologies of spaces in the commutative

diagram
pr1
X −−−−− −→ X/S
 
pr2 y
 pr
y 3
q
X/T −−−−−−−→ (X/S)/S 0
where q is defined by an obvious bijection.
98 D.G.L. WANG
Figure 7.3. Illustration for the homeomorphism

I 2 /[(0, t) ∼ (1, t), (t, 0) ∼ (t, 1)] ∼
= S 1 × S 1.
Definition 7.50. The Möbius strip or Möbius band: the quotient space
I 2 /[(0, t) ∼ (1, 1 − t)]. In other words, this is the quotient space of the square I 2
by the partition into centrally symmetric pairs of points on the vertical edges of I 2 ,
and singletons that do not lie on the vertical edges. The Möbius strip is obtained,
so to speak, by identifying the vertical sides of a square in such a way that the
directions shown on them by arrows are superimposed; see Fig. 7.4.
Figure 7.4. The square to be glued and a Möbius strip.
Definition 7.51. The Klein bottle: I 2 /[(t, 0) ∼ (t, 1), (0, t) ∼ (1, 1 − t)].
Remark 41. The Klein bottle cannot be embedded in R3 .
Definition 7.52. The projective plane: identifying each boundary point of the
disk D2 with its antipodal point.
Remark 42. The projective plane cannot be embedded in R3 . Gluing together
a disk and a Möbius strip via a homeomorphism between their boundary circles
results in a projective plane.
99
Appendix A. Some elementary inequalities
Theorem A.1 (Jensen’s inequality). Let x1 , . . . , xn ∈ R be in the domain of

a real function f . Let wi ≥ 0 s.t. ni=1 wi = 1. Then we have
P
X n X n
f w i xi ≤ wi f (xi ), if f is convex and
i=1 i=1
n
X n
X
f w i xi ≥ wi f (xi ), if f is concave,
i=1 i=1
where each of the equalities hold if and only if either x1 = x2 = · · · = xn , or the

function f is linear.
Theorem A.2P (Weighted power mean inequality). Let p > 0. Suppose that
wi ≥ 0 s.t. ni=1 wi = 1. Denote by
n
X 1/p
p
Mp = w i xi
i=1
the p-th weighted power mean of positive numbers xi > 0. Then the function Mp is
increasing in p, i.e., Mp ≤ Mq whenever p < q, where the equality holds if and only
if x1 = x2 = · · · = xn .
Proof. Consider the function f (x) = xq/p . Since

00 q q
f (x) = · − 1 · xq/p−2 > 0,
p p
the function f (x) is convex. By Jensen’s inequality we find
X n q/p n
X Xn n
X
p p
w i xi =f wi x i ≤ wi f (xpi ) = wi xqi .
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
Raising both sides to the power of 1/q yields the desired inequality. The equality
holds if and only if all the numbers xi are equal because that is the equality
condition for Jensen’s inequality.
Definition A.3. Let H = {x ∈ R : x ≥ 1} ∪ {+∞}.
• Hölder conjugate of p ∈ H: q ∈ H s.t. 1/p + 1/q = 1, i.e., p + q = pq.

100 D.G.L. WANG
Lemma A.4 (Young’s inequality for products). Let p, q > 1 be Hölder con-
jugates of each other. Suppose that a, b ≥ 0. Then
ab ≤ ap /p + bq /q,
where the equality holds if and only if ap = bq .
Proof. Let t = 1/p. Then 1 − t = 1/q. By using the concavity of the logarithm
function, we infer that
log tap + (1 − t)bq ≥ t log ap + (1 − t) log(bq ) = log(ab),

with the equality holds if and only if ap = bq . Young’s inequality follows by

exponentiating.
Theorem A.5 (Hölder’s inequality). Let p, q > 1 be Hölder conjugates of each

other. For any x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Cn and y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) ∈ Cn , we have
n
X
|xi yi | ≤ kxkp · kykq ,
i=1
where the equality holds if and only if the vectors

xp = (xp1 , . . . , xpn ) and y q = (y1q , . . . , ynq )
are linearly dependent.
Proof. It is w.l.o.g. to suppose that kxkp = kykq = 1. Lemma A.4 gives

(A.1) |xi yi | ≤ |xi |p /p + |yi |q /q
p q
for any i, where the equality P holds if and only if |xi | = |yi | . Adding Ineq. (A.1)
for i = 1, . . . , n, we obtain |xi yi | ≤ 1 as desired.
The p = 2 case of Hölder inequality is the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.
Theorem A.6 (Minkowski’s inequality). For x, y ∈ Rn and p ≥ 1, we have

kx + ykp ≤ kxkp + kykp .
Proof. If p = 1, then Minkowski’s inequality reduces to the subadditivity of the

absolute value function. If kx + ykp = 0, then Minkowski’s inequality holds for the
nonnegativity of any norm. Below we can suppose that
p>1 and kx + ykp > 0.
Let q be the Hölder conjugate of p. Then (p − 1)q = p and 1/q = (p − 1)/p. Let
z = (|x1 + y1 |p−1 , . . . , |xn + yn |p−1 ).
101
Then we have
X 1/q X (p−1)/p
kzkq = |xi + yi |(p−1)q = |xi + yi |p = kx + ykp−1
p .
By Theorem A.5, we can deduce that

X X X
kx + ykpp = |xi + yi |p ≤ |xi | · |xi + yi |p−1 + |yi | · |xi + yi |p−1
≤ kxkp · kzkq + kykp · kzkq
= (kxkp + kykp ) · kx + ykp−1
p .
By canceling the positive factor kx + ykp−1

p we obtain Minkowski’s inequality.
School of Mathematics and Statistics, Beijing Institute of Technology, 102488

Beijing, P. R. China
Email address: kwgl@icloud.com

Lecture Notes On General Topology

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LECTURE NOTES ON GENERAL TOPOLOGY

BIT, SPRING 2018

DAVID G.L. WANG

1.1. Who cares topology?

Figure 1.1. A solution to Question 1.2. Screenshot from a video of

Answer. Yes. See Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.2. Illustration of one version of the necklace splitting

Figure 1.3. Illustration of one version of the necklace splitting

Figure 1.4. A simple, closed, polygonal curve inscribing a square.

Figure 1.5. August Ferdinand Möbius (1790–1868) was a German

Homework 1.1. Make a Möbius strip by yourself.

• It is qualitative, not quantitative? People think of science as a quantitative

• Geometry (from ancient Greek): geo=earth, metry=measurement.

Figure 1.7. Screenshot from a video of Robert MacPherson’s talk

• Geometry calls its objects configurations (circles, triangles, etc.)

Figure 1.8. Map of Königsberg in Euler’s time showing the actual

1.3.3. Euler characteristic. χ = v − e + f ; see Fig. 1.9.

Figure 1.9. Stamp of the former German Democratic Republic

Theorem 1.5 (Euler’s polyhedral formula). Let P be a polyhedron s.t.

• Any two vertices of P can be connected by a chain of edges.

Then the Euler number or Euler characteristic χ = 2 for P .

• 1750: first appear in a letter from Euler to Christian Goldbach (1690–1764).

1.4. Topological equivalence. = homeomorphism; see Section 1.6.

See Fig. 1.11.

• The starting point for modern topology.

Figure 1.10. The Plotonic solids. Stolen from Wiki.

• χ = 2 belongs to S 2 , rather than to particular polyhedra → define χ for S 2 .

1.5. Surfaces. What exactly do we mean by a “space”?

contributed significantly to set theory, descriptive set theory, measure theory,

A function f : Em → En is continuous if given any x ∈ Em and any neighbour-

(a) If x ∈ X and U ∈ Nx , then x ∈ U .

Then we call every subset U ∈ Nx a neighbourhood of x. The assignment

• The Euclidean space En .

1.7. The classification theorem and more.

Theorem 1.8 (Classification theorem). Any closed surface is homeomorphic to S 2

• ∼=: construct a homeomorphism; techniques vary.

See Fig. 1.12.

See Fig. 1.13.

Figure 1.12. Marie Ennemond Camille Jordan (1838–1922) was

Figure 1.13. Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer (1881–1966), usually

2.1. Topological structures. We redefine topological spaces as follows, which

Space 2. A discrete topological space: (X, 2X ).

Space 3. A particular point topology (X, Ω):

Figure 2.1. Waclaw Franciszek Sierpiński (1882–1969) was a Polish

Space 4. An excluded point topology (X, Ω):

Space 5. The real line (R, ΩR ):

Space 6. The cofinite space (R, ΩT1 ):

Space 7. The arrow (X, Ω):

Space 8. The Sierpiński space (X, Ω):

“Think geometrically, prove algebraically.” — John Tate

Figure 2.2. John Tate (1925–) is an American mathematician, dis-

a) A is neither open nor closed;

Answer. The interval [ 0, 1) in R.

Question 2.6. A topology can be defined by assigning neighbourhoods or open

Answer. Yes. Here is a list of axioms for assigning closed sets:

(i)’ ∅ and X are closed;

2.2. Subspace topology.

Question 2.8. Describe the topological structures induced

Answer. The discrete topology.

Answer. All sets of the form {n ∈ N : n ≥ a} where a ∈ N.

3) on the two-element set {1, 2} by ΩT1 ;

Answer. The discrete topology.