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Article history: Voltage control is an important method for regulating the feeder voltages in a distribution network.
Received 13 January 2015 Various voltage control methods are used by distribution network operators (DNOs) in order to maintain
Received in revised form the network voltages to be within an acceptable voltage level. Traditionally, on-load tap changer (OLTC)
8 January 2016
and automatic voltage control (AVC) relays are often employed in regulating the network voltages. How-
Accepted 3 May 2016
ever, the traditional voltage control techniques are no longer suitable when renewable energy (RE) sources
are connected to the network because of the possibility of bidirectional power flows. The presence of
Keywords: reverse power flow will affect the feeder voltage profiles and influence the voltage control scheme prac-
Power transformer ticed in the distribution system. This paper presents an overview on the various OLTC voltage control
On-load tap changer transformers
schemes which are used to control the voltage in distribution networks containing RE sources.
Distribution systems
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Automatic voltage control relay
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
2. Traditional voltage control scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
2.1. Voltage control with load tap changer (LTC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
2.2. Voltage control with line drop compensation (LDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
2.3. Grading time (GT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
3. Enhanced voltage control AVC relay scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
3.1. Source drop compensation (SDC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
3.2. Pre-emptive tap changer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
4. Voltage control scheme for OLTC in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
4.1. Master-follower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
4.2. True circulating current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
4.3. Negative reactance compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
4.4. Transformer automatic paralleling package (TAPP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
5. Modern voltage control scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
5.1. Enhanced transformer automatic paralleling package (Enhanced TAPP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
5.2. SuperTAPP nþ relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
5.3. Intelligent AVC relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
5.3.1. ANN controller based AVC relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
5.3.2. Fuzzy logic controller based AVC relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159
n
Corresponding author at: Power Quality Research Group, Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000 Kajang,
Selangor, Malaysia. Tel.: þ60 129353924; fax: þ60 3 56295477.
E-mail addresses: charlzray@yahoo.com (C.R. Sarimuthu), vigna@uniten.edu.my (V.K. Ramachandaramurthy).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.016
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161 1155
1. Introduction normally consists of initial delay and inter tap delay. The initial
delay ranges from 10 to 120 s and the inter tap delay for each step
Electrical power distribution systems are normally operated at tap changer operation is from 5 to 60 s [8].
multiple voltage level. The voltage levels differ based on the amount
of power generated by RE sources and load variations in the net-
work. These different voltage levels are kept within acceptable 2.2. Voltage control with line drop compensation (LDC)
limits by including an OLTC transformer where the substation sec-
ondary bus voltage is kept stable by adjusting the tap position [1]. In an OLTC operation, normally LTC is provided with LDC func-
Tap position adjustment is necessary to physically alter the ratios of tion to control the voltage at a remote point. Besides monitoring the
the transformer for voltage regulation. The OLTC operate by chan- transformer's terminal voltage, this function includes the mea-
ging the number of turns in one winding of the transformer to keep surement of the secondary current [9]. The measurement is used to
the transformer output voltage within predicted limits.
simulate the voltage drop along the feeder impedance that exists
The OLTCs are motorized mechanical switching arrangements
between the transformer terminal and the load point [10].
that adjust the transformer turns ratio, typically in steps of 1.25% or
In order to keep the correct voltage level at the load side, line
1.43%, whilst the transformers are in use and carrying a load [2]. The
resistance R and line reactance X is used to increase the regulated
OLTC transformer is normally applied in the distribution networks
to step down from 33 kV to 11 kV or 6.6 kV. Each OLTC transformer voltage at the transformer terminal. Voltage control at a nominal
is linked to an AVC relay in order to increase or decrease the voltage load point rather than at the transformer terminal is achieved
by changing the tap position of transformer [3]. using LDC.
However, the operation of AVC relay can be affected by the
possible existence of bidirectional power flows when RE sources are
connected to the network. Innovation is required in OLTC voltage 2.3. Grading time (GT)
control scheme in order to support the current implementation of
smart grid incorporating RE sources such as wind, solar and AVC relay with LDC function operates in between different
hydrogen [4]. Studies on the size, operating power factor mode voltage levels in power supply networks. If a downstream tap
[5,6], and location of RE sources in the network are needed in order changer is allowed to operate before an upstream tap changer,
to design an innovative OLTC voltage control scheme to cope with then the OLTCs might work against one another and become
the increasing RE sources connected into the distribution network. unstable. In order to correct this situation, the GT is introduced
(Figs. 2 and 3).
GT ensures that the initial time delay is longer for the down-
2. Traditional voltage control scheme stream controllers compared to the upstream controllers. The
different initial time delay for downstream and upstream con-
Traditionally, the voltage control in distribution networks
trollers are required to ensure that upstream operations are given
without RE sources is performed using OLTC, shunt capacitors,
preference and carried out first. This time grading strategy
shunt reactors, static var compensation etc. This paper will focus
requires the upstream transformer to finish its operation before
on voltage control strategies involving OLTCs in distribution net-
work connected with RE sources. Without RE sources connected in the down-stream transformer restores the voltage level.
a distribution system, the power flow is assumed to be unidirec-
tional and the set-values for the OLTCs are chosen according to the
voltage drop along the feeder. Based on the set-values, the voltage
at the secondary of the OLTC transformer is changed in order to
prevent the voltage along the feeder from breaching the lower
voltage limit and not exceeding the upper voltage limit. The
change in voltage at the secondary of the OLTC transformer is
achieved when the AVC relay initiates a signal to the tap changer
system to change its tap position.
4.1. Master-follower The advantage of NRC scheme is that it can operate with
transformers at different positions in the networks and it does not
In the master-follower method, all paralleled transformers are need to be identical anymore due to the independent action of
retained on the same tap position. In this method, one master each transformers. However, the NRC fails to operate satisfactorily
transformer changes the tap position to a satisfactory voltage level when the power factor changes from a set point. Integration of
and then other transformers follow the same actions as the master irregular RE sources into the network effects the NRC operation.
[14]. The master-follower scheme can be used with LDC and Apart from that, negative value of XLDC setting could cause poor
operates under varying power factor, reverse power flow and with performance of LDC. An increased value of RLDC is needed in order
presence of RE sources. The drawback of this method is that cir- to maintain the performance of LDC.
culating current will flow between paralleled transformers using
this method unless the transformers are equal with the same 4.4. Transformer automatic paralleling package (TAPP)
impedance, number of taps and incoming voltage. It is impossible
to use this scheme across a network because connections between The transformer automatic paralleling package (TAPP) scheme
AVC relays are required. is developed from the NRC scheme. The TAPP scheme reduces the
amount of circulating current between transformer T1 and trans-
4.2. True circulating current former T2. The reduction is achieved by dividing the measured
current into circulating current and load transformer current.
In true circulating current scheme, identical transformers as in the Circulating current in the TAPP scheme uses techniques based on
master-follower scheme are used. If the tap positions of the trans- the target power factor (pftarg) as shown in Fig. 6.
former are different, then circulating current will flow between the Problems due to poor performance of LDC with NRC are elimi-
transformers. The circulating current is formulated as follows: nated in the TAPP scheme by using two separate circuits. The circuits
are used for LDC and compounding purpose. However, the drawback
ICIRC ¼ ðIT1 –IT2 Þ=2 ð1Þ
of TAPP scheme is that the load power factor deviation will result in
The biasing in opposite polarities is used to correct the OLTC to an error in the controlled voltage due to knowledge of the load
adjust the relay setting voltage. Therefore the circulating current is current being considered as circulating current. The set power factor
minimized [14]. This scheme is applicable with LDC and it per- is the necessary factor to make the voltage control to be satisfactory.
forms well under varying power factor, reverse power flow and
with integration of RE sources. The disadvantages of this scheme
are that it is difficult to parallel transformers which are not in the 5. Modern voltage control scheme
same site and as the paralleled transformers must have similar
impedance, incoming voltage and connections [2]. The integration of RE sources into distribution network will
affect the flow of power and the voltage profiles in the distribution
4.3. Negative reactance compounding system [16]. The integration of RE sources will result in an increased
voltage at the point of connection. The steady-state voltage rise that
The negative reactance compounding (NRC) method helps to occurs when connecting RE sources to distribution networks has
maintain similar tap positions for paralleled transformers by been studied in [17]. This rise in voltage level affects the operation
changing the polarity of reactance of LDC setting – XLDC [15]. The of AVC relay and causes voltage regulation problems since the AVC
following formulas show the relationship between LDC settings relay voltage reference is no longer proper for an effective operation
and negative reactance compounding (NRC) setting: of AVC relay. Due to this reason, improved voltage control scheme
are the topic of on-going research to accommodate the presence of
ZLDC ¼ RLDC þ jXLDC ð2Þ
RE sources connected to distribution networks.
Fig. 5. Operating principle of NRC [14]. Fig. 6. Principle of TAPP scheme [14].
1158 C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161
Table 1
Summarized voltage control strategies of on-load tap changer transformers for networks without RE source connection.
Without DG
Load tap changer (LTC) [7] Detects voltage at the end of the feeder and compares it with the Difficult to detect voltage at a remote point along the feeder.
set value. If the voltage detected is not within allowable level
then the tap position is adjusted to ensure the voltage at the
feeder end is higher than the minimum allowed voltage and the
sending-end voltage is lower than the maximum allowed
voltage.
Line Drop Compensation (LDC) Includes secondary current measurement to simulate the voltage Can be used to control voltage at a nominal load point.
[11] drop along the feeder impedance that exists between transfor-
mer terminal and load.
Grading Time (GT) [11] Coordinates the operation of upstream and downstream tap Could potentially prolong the voltage discrepancy for the
changer by applying time delay. The upstream tap changer is duration of the time delay because downstream tap changer
allowed to perform first before the downstream tap changer has to wait until upstream tap changer has completed its
start to operate. operation.
Source Drop Compensation (SDC) Downstream tap changer is allowed to over-ride the grading Optimizes the time grading strategy.
[13] time delay if the voltage at the regulation point is within its
dead-band.
Pre-emptive tap changer [13] Involves two types of time settings to allow local AVC relay to Downstream tap changer is allowed operate irrespective of
correct one tap but then grade it with upstream OLTC if any any upstream tap changer operations required.
further tap-changers are required.
Master –follower [14] Tap changer position for transformer operated in parallel are Circulating current will flow between parallel transformers
retained on the same tap position. unless the transformers have the same impedance, number of
taps and incoming voltage.
True circulating current [14] Circulating current is minimized when biasing in opposite Difficult to parallel transformers which are not in the same site
polarities is used to correct the OLTC for adjusting the relay and the paralleled transformers must have similar impedance,
setting voltage. incoming voltage and connections.
Negative Reactance Compound- Maintains similar tap position for paralleled transformers by Can operate with transformers in different positions in the
ing (NRC) [14] changing the polarity of reactance of LDC setting. networks and it does not need to be identical anymore.
Unable to operate satisfactorily when the power factor chan-
ges from a set point due to integration of irregular RE sources
into the network.
Transformer automatic parallel- Reduces the circulating current between paralleled transformers Error occurs in the controlled voltage due to load current being
ing package (TAPP) [14] by using numerical techniques based on the target power factor. considered as part of circulating current when the load power
factor deviates from the set power factor.
Table 2
Summarized voltage control strategies of on-load tap changer transformers for networks with RE source connection.
With DG
Enhanced transformer automatic This scheme is the combination of TAPP and circulating current Adjustment to the tap position is done for minimizing the
paralleling package (Enhanced method. circulating current but unable to provide effective voltage
TAPP) [19] setting to control the voltage profile in the network with DG.
SuperTAPP n þ relay [20] Additional current measurement on the feeder with DG and a Able to eliminate the error from the LDC performance
ratio which represents the load share between feeders with DG caused by DG.
to those without DG is used to estimate the DG output at
remote point on the feeder.
ANN controller based AVC relay [23] Data obtained from load flow studies under various operating Performs well only after satisfactory training and testing.
condition is used to train the AVC relay.
Fuzzy logic controller based AVC Fuzzy logic controller is used in calculating the voltage of Fuzzy logic AVC relay setting does not require re-adjustment
relay [7] AVC relay. when DG is connected into the network.
Relay setting might need to be changed if it is used in dif-
ferent network.
State estimation based AVC relay Network data, load data and a few real time measurements are Does not require electrical measuring equipment at each
[32] used to estimate the voltage at each node of the network. node of the network.
Data accuracy affects the relay performance.
generation by RE sources. The decision to connect or disconnect RE source is forced off due to a disturbance. Intelligent AVC relays
the RE sources to solve the multi-objective problem as above is which enables faster tap changes has certain drawbacks that
done using artificial intelligent method [49]. Relationship between restrict their implementation in real-time applications. In future,
active / reactive power loss and generated power from RE sources extensive research into improving these intelligence techniques is
are discussed in [50].Sudden connection or disconnection of still required to ensure effective implementation of intelligent AVC
relays in real-time applications.
smaller RE sources producing reactive power at a constant power
factor can result in a relatively large voltage change that will 7. Conclusion
persist until recognized by the utility voltage regulating system
[51]. The solution for this includes faster tap-changing voltage This paper has reviewed the existing OLTC voltage control
regulators and requiring the load to be disconnected whenever the scheme as well as the new voltage control techniques. The voltage
C.R. Sarimuthu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1154–1161 1161
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