Well Control April 11 2018

1 ADVANCED DRILLING ENGINEERING SPRING 2015
2
3
4 WELL CONTROL
In controlling the pressure in the drilled well, the drilling engineer is primarily
concerned with two subsurface pressures which are the hydrostatic pressure and the
formation pore pressure. Formation pore pressure is the force exerted by fluids in a
formation. Since it is usually measured at the bottom of the hole with the well shut
in, it is then called the bottom hole pressure is also called the bottom hole flowing
pressure. In drilling operations, the hydrostatic pressure is the force exerted by the
drilling fluid in the well bore. When the formation pressure is greater than the
hydrostatic pressure, formation fluids may enter the wellbore. If formation fluids
enter the wellbore because formation pressure is higher than the hydrostatic pressure,
a kick has occurred and if it is not controlled a blowout may occur. To control the
well, a proper balance between pressure in the formation and pressure in the wellbore
must be maintained; hydrostatic pressure should be equal to or slightly higher than
formation pressure.
4.1 ORIGIN OF FORMATION PORE PRESSURE
Understanding the origin of pressure, the relationship between pressure versus depth,
and the effects of pressure on the wellbore is the first step towards a thorough
understanding of the principles of well control. One generally accepted theory of how
pressure originates in subsurface formations relates to how sedimentary basins are
formed. As layer upon layer of sediments are deposited, overburden pressure on the
layers increases, and compaction occurs. As compaction occurs the pore space will be
smaller than originally when water is deposited (decreased porosity) and hence the
trapped fluids tend to migrate to lesser pressured areas in order to create a balanced
pressure situation in the compacted area. If the expelled water finds an a geological
structure outcrops to the surface then the path of water migration extend to surface or
zones near the earth surface creating what is called an artesian water carrying
formation. If the migration of the water is restricted by any geological barrier an
overpressured formation will be formed in the earth subsurface. In order to properly
control oil or gas well during drilling it therefore necessary to understand the
concepts and the determinations of subsurface pressure exit in the bore hole. These
subsurface pressures are known as overburden pressure or sometimes referred to as
underground geostatic load, the formation pore pressure which is divided into
categories normal or hydrostatic and abnormal pore pressure.
Overburden Pressure:
The total pressure at any depth resulting from the combined weight of formation
rocks and fluids (water, oil or gas) is known as the overburden pressure. Overburden
pressure can be expressed from the following equation:
WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

Weight of minerals + weight of fluids
Overburden Pressure =
Area
For homogeneous formation strata the porosity of the formation are assumed to be
uniform and the following the equation is applied for calculating the overburden
pressure:
(1 - ) DA  g +  DA  fl
 ob = 4-1
A
 ob  1   D  g   D  fl 4-2
Where
ob = total overburden pressure, lb/ft2
 = porosity, fraction
D = depth, ft
g = average density of minerals, lb/ft3
fl = average density of salt water, lb/ft3
If pressure is expressed in psi and density as specific gravity,
 ob  0.433 1   D  g  0.433  D  fl 4-3
Where
ob = total overburden pressure, psi
g = average specific gravity of minerals.
The overburden pressure gradient for uniform sediment compaction in (psi/ft) is:
 ob
= 0.433 (1 - )  g + 0.433   fl 4-4
D
Rewriting the above equation in the following form

G ob = 0.433 (1 - )  g +   fl  4-5
Substitution of the bulk density equation into the above equation
 b   g 1   +  fl  4-6
The overburden pressure gradient Gob can be obtained from the following equation:
Gob  0.433  b 4-7

Where
g = the grain density
 = the formation porosity
fl = the pore fluid density
Where
b = Rock bulk density read from density log, gm/cc
0.433 conversion factor from gm/cc to psi /ft
Realizing the following bulk density read from the density log (figure 4-1) and
substituting it in the above overburden pressure gradient equation
Figure 4-1: Generalized shale density plot
In homogeneous subsurface deposited formations, the overburden pressure gradient is

considered to be 1 psi / ft. Overburden pressure can vary in different areas because
the amount of pore space and the density of rocks vary from place to place.
Regardless of the actual value of the overburden pressure, as it increases, compaction
of the sediments occur, and the porosity of the rock layer decreases.

As compaction occurs, any fluids in the formation are squeezed into permeable
layers, such as sandstone or carbonate rock layer. If the permeable layer into which
the fluids are squeezed is continuous to the surface, that is if the layer eventually
outcrops on the surface, pressure higher than normal cannot form. If however a
layer’s fluid is trapped because of faulting or some other anomaly, pressure higher
than normal can form; the formation can become overpressured. Higher than normal
formation pressure can result from several geological conditions. In some cases, the
same conditions that trap hydrocarbons can also cause higher than normal pressure.
Examples of such geological conditions are faults, large structures, massive shale
beds, massive salt beds and charged sands.
Matrix Pressure:
It is the pressure holding rock grains together and it is related to the strength and
compaction of the rock. In sedimentary rocks the overburden pressure increases
linearly with depth and the gradient is assumed to be 1 psi/ft. The following figure 4-
4 represents the subsurface formation pressures versus depth.
Formation Fluid Pressure:
It is the pressure of the fluid either oil, gas or water which exists within the pores of a
rock formation. Formation fluid pressures encountered when drilling generally fall
into three categories; normal, abnormally high, and subnormal pressures. Normal
formation fluid pressure is usually related to the hydrostatic head of the water or fluid
extending from the surface to the formation.
Abnormally high pressure or geopressures are those pressures greater than the
hydrostatic pressures of the formation fluid. Abnormally high pressure gradients
range from 0.465 psi/ft to 1.0 psi/ft. Subnormal pressures are those pressures less
than the hydrostatic pressure of the formation and have pressure gradient less than
0.433 psi/ft (the hydrostatic gradient of a column of fresh water).
In subsurface formations, fluid flows from any region to another because of 1) the
difference in potential energy of formation fluids resulting from the total overburden
weight of formation rocks; 2) the presence of a fluid pressure differential across rock
membrane. There are two energy environments in the subsurface, hydrostatic and
hydrodynamic. A hydrostatic environment implies equilibrium in the potential energy
of the formation fluids; a hydrodynamic environment implies that an imbalance exists
in the potential energy of the formation fluids as that fluid is flowing in an attempt to
reach hydrostatic equilibrium.

Figure 4-2: Subsurface formation pressures
Hydrostatic pressure (normal pressure):
It is the pressure exerted by the weight of a column of a fluid and is generally defined
as follows:
P  0.052  f  D 4-8
Where
P= hydrostatic pressure, psi
f = fluid density, ppg
D= depth, ft
The hydrostatic pressure at any given depth can also be calculated from the following
equation
 dp 
P= xD 4-9
 dD 
Where
dp/dD =fluid pressure gradient psi/ft

The hydrostatic pressure at any given depth can also be calculated using the specific
gravity of the fluid from the following equation:
Phyd = 0.433  sp. gr.  D 4-10
The normal fluid pressure gradient ranges from 0.433 psi/ft for fresh water to 0.465
psi/ft for salt water. The normal pressure gradient in the subsurface varies from one
geological region to another because sub-surface fluids contain variable amounts of
dissolved solids and gases and are subjected to different temperatures and pressures.
The fluid density increases with higher salinity and higher pressure but decreases
with higher temperatures.
The following table 4-1 illustrates the values of the hydrostatic (normal) pressure for
several areas of active drilling in the world. The normal pore pressure can also be
calculated from the average water salinity collected from the normally compacted
formations above the overpressured zones in water wells or in normally pressure
formation in water zones in drilled oil wells in the area. The following table
illustrates the relation between the salinity and equivalent density and pressure
gradients.
Table 4-2: Normal Formation Pressure Gradients for Several

Areas of Active Drilling
Pressure Equivalent
Gradient Water Density
(psi/ft) (kg/m3)
West Texas 0.433 1.000
Gulf of Mexico coastline 0.465 1.074
North Sea 0.452 1.044
Malaysia 0.442 1.021
Mackenzie Delta 0.442 1.021
West Africa 0.442 1.021
Anadarko Basin 0.433 1.000
Rocky Mountains 0.436 1.007
California 0.439 1.014
Hydrodynamic Pressure:
A hydrodynamic pressure exists when there is an imbalance in the potential energy of

the formation fluids and that those fluids are flowing in accordance to Darcy’s law in
attempts to reach hydrostatic equilibrium. Potential energy is generated by the weight
of the water, the weight of the sediments, or both. The first situation is encountered
when the intake of an artesian aquifer is higher than the depth of the aquifer and the
hydrostatic head is measured from the aquifer to a given point below the ground
level.

The second situation is encountered when the interstitial waters at a depth support the
weight of the water to the surface. If compaction of the sediments occurs, due to
more deposition or subsidence, as excess water accumulates within the formation
rocks, the weight of sediments generate a potential energy in the deeper water and a
hydrodynamic flow is initiated, with fluid moving vertically or laterally toward areas
of lesser potential energy in accordance with Darcy’s law. If the fluid flow is
inhibited so that the interstitial fluid assumes more of the weight of the overlaying
rocks, then abnormal pressure will be generated within the confined fluid.
Formation fluids pressure should be estimated before drilling a well in order to

control and overcome problems encountered during drilling operations. These
problems are lost circulation, blowout, stuck pipe and hole instability. An accurate
knowledge of formation pressure is necessary in order to select the proper mud
weights and the best casing setting depths. If casing is set too high, an unplanned
additional casing string will be required to reach the objective depth, resulting in
much higher well cost and a greatly reduced final well size. If casing is not set when
it is needed, an underground blowout or lost circulation may occur.
Estimates of formation pore pressures made before drilling are based primarily on [1]
correlation of available data from nearby wells and [2] seismic data; this is the case
for wildcat wells, which only seismic data may be available. When planning
development wells, emphasis is placed on data from previous drilling experiences in
the area. Techniques for detecting and estimating abnormal formation pressure often
are classified as [1] predictive methods, [2] methods applicable while drilling and [3]
verification methods. Initial wildcat well planning must incorporate formation
pressure information obtained by a predictive method. Those initial estimates are
updated constantly during drilling. After drilling the target interval, the formation
pressure estimates are checked again before casing is set, using various formation
evaluation methods.
Mud circulating (dynamic) pressure (Equivalent circulation density, ECD)
In order for the mud to be circulate from the surface into the drilling string and
then through the annulus and back again to the surface the pump should provide
an additional amount of energy to overcome the friction force created between
the mud and the surfaces and the wall of the well as well as to overcome the
internal energy inside the moving fluid. It is therefore important to calculate the
total system pressure losses and convert to an equivalent density and then add to
the original density in the well in order to determine the final mud circulating
density.
This procedure is done in order to control the equivalent circulating density to

be always less than the formation fracture pressure. The calculation of the
pressure losses in the system is dependent on the flow rate in the well which is
the slow kill rate and then appropriate equation are selected according to type of

the mud in the hole and also according on the condition of the flow inside the
drill string and in the annulus.
dP/dDSystemfriction
ECD = Old mud weight  4-11
0.052
Where
ECD = Mud equivalent circulating density, ppg
(dp/dD)friction = Frictional pressure
4.2 Causes of Kicks and Blowouts
Insufficient mud weight usually occurs when drilling in abnormal pressure

formations without increasing the mud weight. Failure to keep the hole full - about
25% of all kicks and blowouts occur while pulling the drill pipe. Crews should know
the volumes of mud that should be added to the hole as drill pipe and drill collars are
removed from the hole. Drill collars need special watching; they can displace 5 times
the mud volume of an equal length of drill pipe. Pump stroke counters and/or trip
tanks can be used to monitor mud volume requirements.
4.3 Swabbing and surgepressures
Swabbing
Swabbing is caused by:
a. Balled bits
b. Pulling pipe too fast.
c. Poor mud properties - high viscosity and high gel strength.
d. Hole size reduction due to swelling or heaving shales.
Swabbing pressure is the Pressure caused by pulling pipe, collars, bits out of the hole
faster than the rate of mud replacing the volume of space of the pipes. Swabbing also
is defined as the reduced effect on hydrostatic head caused by the upward motion of
drill pipe during the trips and connections.
A primary cause of well kicks and blowouts or loss of primary well control is the
result of pressure reduction in the hole caused by the pulling of the drill string. This
pressure reduction is often sufficient to allow formation fluids to enter the hole.
Swabbing can be recognized by hole not taking the correct amount of fluids to
balance pipe displacement. However, swabbing may be difficult to detect as the hole
may be taking some fluid but not the proper amount to offset pipe displacement. For
this reason an accurate measuring device is necessary to accurately measure the fluid
volume added to the hole when the drill string is being pulled.

In order to offset the effect of swabbing it is necessary to have sufficient hydrostatic
head to prevent the influx of formation fluids and gas while pulling the drill string. A
common method is the use of a trip margin. A trip margin is the incremental weight
of drilling fluid necessary to counterbalance the swabbing pressure. It may be also to
compensate for the circulating annular pressure losses.
As long as circulation is maintained the formation pressure of 5400 psi is

counterbalanced by the sum of the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure and the annular
pressure losses of 200 psi or :
5400 psi = 0.052 (10.0 PPG)x(10000 ft)+ 200 psi
If there were no swab pressure effects, the trip margin required would be only the
additional fluid density required to offset the annular pressure losses. This is also
referred to as the circulation margin,
Circulation margin = 200/(0.052x10000) = 0.4 ppg
If it is assumed that there are no annular pressure losses, but the trip swab pressure is
300 psi. The trip margin required for this situation is the increment of fluid density
necessary to counterbalance swab pressures only, or:
Trip margin = 300/(0.052x10000) = 0.6 ppg
If both swab pressures and annular pressure losses must be compensated for by the
trip margin. The total trip margin for this example would be calculated as follows:
Total tip margin = 200/(0.052x10000) +300/(0.052x10000) = 1.0 ppg
Surging
Surging is the increased effect on hydrostatic head caused by the downward motion
of drill pipe during trips and connections. The downward motion of the drill string
during trip and connections generates increases in annular pressure and if this
increase pressure is great enough in combination with the hydrostatic head already
present, lost circulation problems and other unstable hole conditions may occur. In
addition, due to setting time of the mud in the hole, the viscosity, gel strengths and
yield point of the mud will have generally increased and these increased properties of
the mud will increase the effect of surging. Pressure surges are negative allowing
inflow of formation fluids into the borehole.
Actual surge pressures are difficult to determine and are a function of many factors
such as viscosity, gel strength and yield point of the mud, rate of lowering the drill
string into the wellbore, hole size in relation to drill string size. In order to minimize

the effect of surging, mud properties and the rate of lowering the drill string into the
borehole are the most easily controlled.
Surge pressure may be slightly reduced by periodically breaking circulation on a trip

in the hole. This fluid movement will help reduce viscosity and yield point of part of
the mud system to allow easier passage of the drill pipe. Observing the rate of mud
return through the flow line while lowering the drill string into the borehole will also
give some idea of the proper rate of lowering the pipe to minimize surging.
Generally if the rate of mud returns is lower than during normal drillstring operations,
the rare of lowering the drill pipe into borehole is not excessive. However it must be
noted that this rule does not hold if the zones in the borehole are taking fluid during
drill pipe lowering operations. For this reason, adequate measuring devices for
determining the amount of mud return are necessary to accurately determine if week
zones in the borehole are actually taking fluid during pipe lowering operations. If it is
determined that week zones are taking fluid, the rate of lowering the pipe into the
borehole may have to be reduced.
To minimize surging the following steps should applied:

1) run the pipe into the hole at a slow rate
2) keep the mud in the system in good condition with viscosity and gel
strength at a minimum
3) break circulation periodically while tripping into the hole
4) Be sure that the volume of mud coming out of the hole equals the volume
of pipe being run in.
5) Watch closely for tight spots in the hole. Since the mud’s gel strength is
related to swabbing and surging in that the higher the gel strength, the
greater the pressure required to get the mud flowing again.
The following steps are used in order to calculate the effect of the swab and surge
pressures resulted from the pipe running or pipe movement in the hole on the gel
strength property of the mud. The equivalent mud velocity in the annulus can be
calculated after determining the average speed movement of the pipe (vp) which is
calculated form the following two equations:
90  L s
Vp  4-12
t
or
60  L j
Vp  4-13
t
Where
Ls= stand length, ft
t = time from slips to slips, sec
Lj =joint length, ft
t = time through rotary table, sec

If the pipe run into the hole closed the following equation is used:
 d dp 
V   0.45   V

 
d 2 h  d 2 dp   p

4-14
If the pipe run into hole open the following equation is used:
 d 2 dp - d 2 dp i 
  V
V   0.45 

 
d 2 h  d 2 dp  d 2 dp i   p

4-15
Where
V = equivalent mud velocity, ft/min
Dh= hole diameter, in
Dp= drill pipe or drill collar outside diameter, in
Dpi = drill pipe or drill collar inside diameter , in
Vp = average maximum speed of the pipe movement, ft/min
Calculate the maximum pipe velocity from the following equation:
Vm = 1.5 x v 4-16
Calculate the shear rate of the mud (m) moving around the pipe as follows:
2 .4  v m
m  4-17
vm  dp
Calculate the shear stress (g) of the mud moving around the pipe as follows:
 g  k m n 4-18
Calculate the pressure increase or decrease resulted from the surge or swab
pressure from the equation below. The following equation is used to calculate the
surge and swab pressures necessary to overcome the gel strength of the drilling
fluid (gel breaking pressure). Remember to compare the gel breaking pressure in
each section of the annulus to the swab or surge pressures. Use the higher pressure
to find the equivalent mud weight.
4L g
Psurge  4-19
1200 (d h  d dp )
Where
Psurge = pressure required to break the gel strength, psi
g = 10 minutes gel strength of the drilling fluid, lbf/100 ft2
Dh= hole diameter, in

Ddp= outside pipe diameter, in
L = Length of annular section ft
The following steps are used in order to calculate the effect of the swab and surge
pressure resulted from the pipe running or pipe movement in the hole on the increase
or decrease in the mud density in the hole. This procedure also is to calculate the
equivalent mud density (EMD) resulting from either the swab or surge pressures. The
annular pressure losses resulted for swabbing or surging can be calculated from the
frictional pressure loss equation used in the mud hydraulics except using the velocity
of the mud in the annuls with the velocity the mud caused by the pipe movement
either upward movement or downward movement. And it is calculated from the
above two equations. The following equation is used to calculate the pressure losses
for the swab or surge pressure around the drill pipe considering the flow in the
annular space of the drill pipe to be laminar:
n
 2.4  Vm 2n  1  kL
Pa     
 dh  dp
 3n  300 d h  d p   4-20
The following equation is used to calculate the pressure losses for the swab or surge
pressure around the drill collars considering the flow in the drill collar annulus to be
turbulent. First the equivalent mud flow rate is calculated as follows:
q

vm dh 2  dp2 
4-21
24.5
0.000077   m 0.8  q 1.8  PV 0.2  L

PS  4-22
(d h  d dp ) 2  (d h  d dp )1.8
Where
n= mud flow behavior index
k= mud consistency index
V= Fluid velocity, ft/min
Vp= pipe velocity, ft/min
Vm= maximum pipe velocity, ft/min
Ps= pressure loss, psi
L= pipe length, ft
dh = hole diameter, in
dp= drill pipe or drill collar outside diameter, in
di =drill pipe or drill collar inside diameter, in
PV = plastic viscosity, cp
q= equivalent mud flow rate, gpm
m= mud density, ppg

The equivalent mud weight (EMW) resulted from surging or swabbing is calculated
form the following equations:
For Surge pressure

EMW   
 Pa
4-23
0.052  TVD
For Swab pressure

EMW   
 Pa
4-24
0.052  TVD
Where
EMW = Equivalent mud weight, lbm/gal
 = mud density lbm/gal
Sum p = sum of the pressure losses in each section of the annular interval psi
TVD = true vertical depth, ft
4.4 Lost circulation
With subsequent loss of fluid head loss of circulation is caused by:
1. High mud weights

2. Surging pressures when running pipe - going into the hole too fast, or high
pump pressures.
Underground blowout –
Underground blowout is occurred when flow of higher pressure formation or well

fluid into a zone of lost circulation.
4.5 Detection of abnormal pressure zones by logs:
The method uses the borehole measurements of the density, resistivity and the travel
transient time in the formation measured by the electrical and sonic logs. These logs
are run after part or the entire hole is drilled. In overpressured formations the
resistivity reading of the electrical log is decreased because of the reduction in
compaction (less rock more water) and the transient time of the sonic log is increased
(slower speeds through more porous rock). Electrical logs can be used for the
identification of abnormal pressure zone by reading the resistivity values from the log
across more shale sections and plotting these values versus depth through
hydropressured, transition and geopressured zones. The sonic log has been used
successfully as a pressure evaluation tool. The technique utilizes the difference in
travel times between high porosity overpressure zones and low porosity, normal
pressure zones. The basic relationship between travel times and depth.

When drilling in normally pressured zones, the bulk density values read from the
density log of the drilled rocks should increase due to compaction, or porosity
reduction. As high formation pressures are encountered, the associated high
porosities will cause a deviation in the expected bulk density trend. A typical plot of
bulk densities is seen in figure 4-1.
A normal curve is drawn through the hydropressured values in order to determine the
normal gradient line. Any deviation from this gradient line is an indication of drilling
through overpressured formations. Abnormal pressure gradients must be identified
during drilling or if possible during well planning to adequately protect against a
blowout. The recognition of an abnormal gradient is important in determining mud
and casing programs.
The top of the pressure transition zone is that point where pore pressure increases
above normal. The length of abnormal pressure zone that can be drilled safely is
dependent on the fracture pressure of normal formations and the length of surface
casing or last casing set.
Abnormal pressure can be recognized by:
1. Reduction in seismic wave velocity

2. Drilling rate increases with constant weight on the bit and rotary speed.
3. Sloughline shale (correlate with drilling rate).
4. Shale density (deviation of shale from normal compaction) density will
decrease.
5. Gas in the mud - a “normal pressure” base line should be established.
6. Chloride trends - increasing chloride content of the mud.
7. Changes in mud properties:
a - Increase in yield strength - flocculation.
b - Decreases in mud weight
c - Increases in mud temperature.
8. Increases in bentonite content of shale - deviation from normal compaction
trends.
9. Increases in conductivity readings on wireline logs from a normal base.
10. Decreases in sonic log velocity from a normal base.
4.6 Indications of A Well Kick
In addition to the symptoms listed above for the detection of abnormal (high)
pressure trends, warnings that a kick is occurring are:
A. A gain of fluid into the mud pits - a pit level increase, most noticeable
when drilling or out of the hole. Detect visually or with a pit level alarm.
B. Failure of the hole to take the required volume of fluid when pulling drill
pipe. This can be detected by the pump stroke counter on the trip tank.
C. Excess of mud going back to pits when running pipe.

D. Appearance of gas, oil or water cut mud. Detect visually or by measuring
mud properties.
E. Sudden increase in drilling rate.
F. Sudden reduction in pump pressure or weight on the bit.
The greatest danger in drilling in abnormal pressure is losing circulation into another
formation open in the wellbore. It is important to:
A. Recognize early in the drilling the symptoms of high pore pressure.

B. Know the fracture gradients below last string of pipe in the well.
C. Estimate the actual magnitude of pore pressure.
4.7 Determination of Formation Pore Pressure Using Drilling Rate Data
Estimation of pore pressure while drilling is accomplished by the measurements of

drilling parameters while drilling. These parameters include the drilling rate, the
weight on bit, speed of the rotary table and the bit diameter. The top of abnormal
pressure formations can be detected by measuring the density of shale cuttings and
realizing that abnormally pressured shales have a lower bulk density than normally
compacted shales for the same depth. Another indicator is the measurement of the
returned mud temperature. An increase in the temperature is an indication of an
exposure of the mud to hotter shale rocks in the transition zone. Gas in the returned
mud can also give an indication of drilling with an overbalance caused by the
entering of formation fluids into the well bore.
The dc exponent method of detecting and predicting the magnitude of pressure

abnormalities while drilling has proven to be very useful and an easy field evaluation
technique. The value of formation pressure information obtained from the method
during drilling should reduce the incidence of blowouts and can also significantly
reduce the use of unnecessarily heavy muds, thereby contributing to increases in
penetration rate and reduction of drilling costs.
It has long been known that maximum penetration rates can be attained when the mud
hydrostatic pressure is approximately equal to the formation pressure. Many drilling
variables other than formation type and formation pore pressure affect the bit
penetration rate. Some additional parameters which affect the penetration rate are:
1. bit type
2. bit diameter
3. bit nozzle sizes
4. bit wear
5. weight on bit
6. rotary speed
7. mud type
8. mud density
9. effective mud viscosity

10. solids content and size distribution in mud
11. pump pressure and pump rate
Changes in these variables affecting penetration rate can mask the effect of changing
lithology or increasing formation pore pressure. Thus, it is often difficult to detect
formation pressure changes using only penetration rate data. It should be emphasized
that penetration rate changes are often difficult to interpret and should be used in
conjunction with other indicators of formation pressure.
The drilling rate is a function of weight on bit, rotary speed, bit size and formation
characteristics. Under controlled conditions of these parameters, the drilling rate in
shales decreases with depth. This is due to the increase in the degree of compaction
of shales with depth. An increase in drilling rate is an indication of drilling through a
transition zone and approaching an overpressured formation. Empirical models of the
rotary drilling process have been proposed to mathematically compensate for the
effect of changes in the uncontrollable drilling factors variables and set up the model
for the most important adjustable variables affecting penetration rate. One of the first
empirical models of the rotary drilling process was published by Bingham in 1965.
The relationship between these parameters can be represented by the following
equation:
d
R W
=K  4-25
N D
In 1966, Jorden and Shirley proposed using the Bingham model to normalize
penetration rate. R, for the effect of changes in weight on bit, W, rotary speed, N, and
bit diameter, Db, through the calculation of a d-exponent defined by:
 R 
ln  
d=  KN 
W 4-26
ln  
D
Jorden and Shirley simplified the above equation by assuming the formation
drillability is relatively constant (K=1).
 R 
log  
d=  60N 
 12 W  4-27
log  6 
 10 D 
 d 
Where
d = weight on bit exponent
R = penetration rate, ft/hr
N = rotary speed, rpm

W = weight on bit, lbm
Db = bit diameter, in
K = formation drillability, K = 1
In 1971, Rehm and McClendon proposed modifying the d-exponent to correct for the
effect of mud density changes as well as changes in weight on bit, bit diameter and
rotary speed. After an empirical study, Rehm and McClendon computed a modified d-
exponent, dc, using.
 Normal pressure gradient 

d c = d   4-28
 Actual Mud weight 
Where
dc = modified d-exponent
Calculate dc for every 10 to 100 ft interval depending on the compaction of the drilled
formations, 10 ft interval for hard formations and 100 ft interval for soft formations.
The d-exponent equation can be used to detect the transition from normal to
abnormal pressure if the drilling fluid density is held constant. The technique
involves plotting values of d obtained in a given type of low permeability formation
as a function of depth. Shale is nearly always the formation type selected. Drilling
data obtained in other formation types simply are omitted from the calculation. In
normally pressured formation, the d-exponent tends to increase with depth. After
abnormally pressured formations are encountered, a departure from the normal
pressure trend occurs in which the d-exponent increases less rapidly with depth. In
many cases, a complete reversal of the trend occurs and the d-exponent begins
decreasing with depth.
Figure 4-2 which are a plot of the dc exponent versus depth shows a recognizable
trend through normally pressured formations and recognizable deviation from this
trend as abnormal pressures are encountered. Basically in transition zones and in
overpressured formations, plot of dc exponent versus depth shows a decreasing trend
with depth.
The formation pore pressure can be calculated from the modified d- exponent using a
method proposed by Eaton (1976) as shown in the following equation:
1.2
Pf  ob   ob Pn   d co 
    
D  D
D D   d cn 
4-29
Where
Pf/D = formation fluid gradient psi/ft
ob /D = Overburden pressure gradient psi/ft
Pn/D = Normal formation pressure gradient for the area psi/ft
dco / dcn = observed dc at given depth
dcn = dc read from the normal trend line at the given depth

Figure 4-3: Typical d exponent plot
The formation pore pressure can also be calculated from the d- exponent data using
the equation proposed by Zamora (1972). Zamora recommended using a linear scale
for the depth but logarithmic scale for the dc values when constructing a graph to
estimate the formation pore pressure quantitatively.
 P   P   d cn 

  =     4-30
 D  f  D  n  d co 
4.8 Theoretical determination of fracture gradient:
The fracture gradients are determined theoretically if the geological conditions

of the formation are known. These conditions include (1) depth of the zone of
interest, (2) formation fluid pressure within that zone and (3) the rock type, i.e.
sand, shale, etc. Since shale is considered to fracture at lower pressure than
other rock types under comparable conditions, then a discussion limited to
shales would provide the most conservative estimate of the formation fracture

pressure. Hubbert, Eaton, Mathews and Kelly proposed theoretically methods of
determining the formation fluid pressure gradients and the formation fracture
gradients.
Proper mud weights should be used in drilling wells in order to avoid fracturing
of encountered formations and hence prevent lost circulation. There, a
correlation between bottom hole pressure and formation fracture gradient
should be found in order to determine when and where an intermediate casing
string might be needed.
Two correlations are presented here for the calculation of formation fracture gradient
which are as follows:
1. Hubbert and Willis proposed a correlation for the determination of fracture

gradient based only overburden pressure and formation pore pressure. This
equation is used if the Poisson ratio values for the formation to be analyzed are
not available,
1 2P 
FG   ob  f  4-31
3 D D 
2. The second correlation is proposed by Eaton and it is presented as follows:

The fracture gradient is calculated using the Eaton's equation, which is
considered to give accurate results compared to the other methods, as follows:
     ob Pf  Pf
FG      4-32
1    D D D
Where
FG = fracture pressure gradient, psi/ft
 = Poisson’s ratio
Pf /D = Formation pore pressure gradient, psi/ft
ob/D = Overburden pressure gradient, psi/ft
The overburden pressure gradient is calculated using the density log readings as
follows:
 ob
 0.433   b 4-33
D
Where
b = Average rock bulk density read from density log
The Poisson’s ratio is determined from laboratory experiment on a core sample or

calculated theoretically from sonic log transient travel time using the following
equation:

2
1  t s 
  1
2  t 
  c 4-34
2
 t s 
 
 t   1
 c
Where
tc =sonic compressional wave transit time
ts = sonic shear wave transit time
4.9 Field determination of fracture gradient:
It is a common procedure to pressure test each new casing seat to determine the
minimum fracture gradient below the casing shoe. This practice is usually done
because of the inability of any theoretical procedure to account for all the
possible formation characteristics. The most common procedure used for the
field determination of fracture gradient is the leak off test (often called the
pressure integrity test). The procedure used in the test is to close the annulus
and gradually apply pressure to the shut-in system until the formation initially
accepts fluid, then start pumping slowly at a rate of about 0.3 to 0.5 bbl/min
and record the pressure regularly. Figure 1.9 illustrates the subsurface
formation pressures. Figures 1.10 and 1.11 illustrate the results of the test.
Pressures are recorded at

the initial leak-off
Pressure
Drilling fluid compression

and pressurization
Required fill up
volume prior to
compression
Volume Pumped
Figure 4-4: Leak off test plot

Example:
Casing was set at 3000 ft in a well. The operator wishes to perform a leak off test to
determine the fracture gradient at 3000 ft. If the mud weight in the well was 9.0 ppg,
what is the fracture gradient at the casing seat.
Solution:
1. Close the blow out preventors and rig up a low volume pump (close annulus).
2. Apply pressure to the well and record the results as follows
Vol. pumped, bbl Pressure

0 0
1 15
11/2 42
2 77
21/2 120
3 160
31/2 200
4 235
41/2 275
5 320
51/2 330
6 335
1. The results are plotted in the figure below. It appears that the formation will began
to fracture at 320 psi.
9.0 x 0.052 x 3000  320
Fracture gradient = 3000 = 0.575 psi/ft
FG = 0.575 = 11.1 ppg

0.052

Figure 4-5: Leak off test plot field data
Example
(1) (2) (3) Eaton equation method

Depth Formation pore Formation fracture
d-exponent dco dcn pressure gradient pressure gradient
ft (4) psi/ft (5) ppg (6) psi/ft (7) ppg
165 1.16 1.16 1.255 0.495 9.51 0.663 12.75
426 1.22 1.23 1.275 0.469 9.02 0.646 12.42
982 1.34 1.32 1.320 0.446 8.57 0.631 12.13
1490 1.35 1.33 1.360 0.460 8.84 0.640 12.30
1838 1.38 1.35 1.390 0.466 8.96 0.644 12.38
2272 1.39 1.36 1.420 0.476 9.14 0.650 12.51
2392 1.65 1.63 1.430 0.354 6.81 0.569 10.95
2844 1.45 1.40 1.460 0.474 9.11 0.649 12.49
3012 1.92 1.86 1.480 0.274 5.26 0.516 9.92
3253 1.74 1.70 1.500 0.358 6.88 0.572 11.00
3410 1.77 1.71 1.510 0.360 6.92 0.573 11.02
3435 2.16 2.11 1.510 0.175 3.36 0.450 8.65
3498 1.86 1.82 1.520 0.313 6.03 0.542 10.43
3798 1.83 1.76 1.540 0.349 6.72 0.566 10.89
4155 1.80 1.72 1.570 0.382 7.34 0.588 11.30
4241 2.01 1.90 1.575 0.309 5.94 0.539 10.37
4320 1.98 1.89 1.580 0.314 6.05 0.543 10.44
4688 1.68 1.61 1.610 0.449 8.63 0.633 12.17
4879 1.83 1.75 1.630 0.400 7.69 0.600 11.53
5023 1.76 1.68 1.640 0.430 8.27 0.620 11.92

5220 1.85 1.73 1.650 0.416 8.00 0.611 11.74
5470 1.81 1.67 1.670 0.446 8.57 0.631 12.13
5706 1.81 1.66 1.690 0.459 8.83 0.640 12.30
5904 1.88 1.72 1.710 0.443 8.53 0.629 12.09
6049 1.92 1.77 1.720 0.427 8.22 0.618 11.89
6177 1.94 1.79 1.730 0.423 8.14 0.616 11.84
6197 1.54 1.43 1.730 0.562 10.80 0.708 13.61
6253 1.76 1.61 1.740 0.495 9.53 0.664 12.76
6284 1.81 1.67 1.740 0.473 9.10 0.649 12.48
6296 1.81 1.68 1.740 0.471 9.06 0.647 12.45
6520 1.83 1.69 1.755 0.471 9.05 0.647 12.45
6693 1.95 1.81 1.770 0.434 8.34 0.623 11.97
6753 1.74 1.61 1.770 0.508 9.77 0.672 12.92
6804 1.98 1.83 1.780 0.428 8.24 0.619 11.90
7041 1.86 1.72 1.790 0.472 9.08 0.648 12.46
7191 1.96 1.81 1.810 0.447 8.59 0.631 12.14
7355 2.00 1.85 1.820 0.435 8.37 0.623 11.99
7578 1.87 1.72 1.840 0.488 9.39 0.659 12.67
7730 1.89 1.75 1.850 0.484 9.30 0.656 12.61
7911 1.90 1.76 1.860 0.483 9.28 0.655 12.60
8010 2.00 1.85 1.870 0.454 8.73 0.636 12.23
8209 1.99 1.86 1.890 0.458 8.80 0.638 12.28
8430 1.98 1.83 1.900 0.471 9.06 0.647 12.45
8612 1.93 1.79 1.920 0.493 9.49 0.662 12.73
8688 1.99 1.84 1.920 0.473 9.10 0.649 12.48
8713 2.08 1.92 1.930 0.449 8.63 0.633 12.17
8773 1.81 1.67 1.930 0.535 10.29 0.690 13.27
8782 2.13 1.97 1.930 0.433 8.32 0.622 11.96
8918 2.02 1.87 1.940 0.472 9.07 0.648 12.46
9079 2.06 1.91 1.950 0.462 8.89 0.641 12.33
9199 2.12 1.96 1.960 0.446 8.58 0.631 12.13
9246 2.40 2.22 1.970 0.363 6.98 0.575 11.07
9256 1.54 1.41 1.970 0.629 12.10 0.753 14.47
9345 2.01 1.57 1.980 0.582 11.20 0.721 13.87
9456 2.11 1.52 1.990 0.599 11.52 0.733 14.09
9590 2.17 1.57 1.995 0.586 11.28 0.724 13.93
9699 2.13 1.54 2.000 0.596 11.46 0.731 14.05
9855 2.15 1.57 2.020 0.593 11.40 0.728 14.01
10116 2.06 1.54 2.040 0.606 11.65 0.737 14.18
10295 1.92 1.43 2.060 0.642 12.35 0.762 14.65
10440 2.00 1.50 2.070 0.625 12.02 0.750 14.42
10598 2.03 1.47 2.080 0.636 12.23 0.757 14.56
10647 2.09 1.51 2.090 0.625 12.01 0.750 14.42
10686 1.61 1.15 2.090 0.730 14.03 0.820 15.76
10705 1.90 1.37 2.090 0.666 12.80 0.777 14.95
10726 2.11 1.45 2.095 0.645 12.40 0.763 14.67
10843 2.03 1.33 2.105 0.683 13.13 0.788 15.16
10950 2.19 1.36 2.115 0.674 12.95 0.782 15.05
11006 2.23 1.37 2.120 0.672 12.93 0.781 15.03
11157 2.24 1.41 2.130 0.664 12.77 0.776 14.92
11190 2.15 1.33 2.140 0.687 13.22 0.792 15.22

11225 1.78 1.05 2.140 0.765 14.70 0.843 16.21
11250 1.81 1.05 2.140 0.766 14.73 0.844 16.23
11280 2.11 1.22 2.145 0.718 13.81 0.812 15.61
11416 2.18 1.27 2.150 0.707 13.60 0.805 15.48
11477 2.22 1.40 2.160 0.671 12.90 0.780 15.01
11564 2.35 1.49 2.170 0.649 12.48 0.766 14.73
11626 2.37 1.49 2.170 0.648 12.46 0.765 14.71
11723 2.34 1.45 2.180 0.661 12.72 0.774 14.89
11802 2.48 1.54 2.180 0.637 12.25 0.758 14.58
11810 2.26 1.40 2.190 0.677 13.01 0.784 15.09
11894 2.38 1.50 2.195 0.651 12.52 0.767 14.76
11973 2.30 1.29 2.200 0.710 13.65 0.807 15.51
0 0
Normal dc trend
abnormal dc section
1000 1000
Linear (Normal dc trend)
2000 Fresh water shales 2000
3000 3000
Apparent normal
4000 4000 dcn trend line
Depth = 11910*dc - 13931
5000 R2 = 0.9243 5000
depth, ft
6000 Limey shales Region

Depth, ft
6000
dc-exponent changes resulting from

7000 Normal- 7000 formation pressure increases while
pressure mud weight remains constant,
envitoment i.e., decreasing differential pressure
8000 8000
9000 Pressure 9000

top
dc-exponent shifts due to
10000 Normal trent 10000 mud weight increases
Abnormally
high
11000 11000
pressure
environmen
12000 t 12000
13000 13000
50
00
50
00
50
00
5
0.
1.
2.
0.
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
dc-exponent dc-exponent
a) Screened and fitted data plot b) All calculated data
FIGURE 44: Plot dc versus depth for Geopressure detection and screen/fitting data to
draw dcn normal trend line as in (column 3 in Table 13)

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Depth, ft
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
11000
Pore pressure estimated
Eaton:Fracture gradeint
12000 Mud weight used
Danies:Fracture gradient
FIT formation integrity test
13000
2
10
12
14
16
18
20
Pressure, ppg

4.10 Detection of abnormal pressure zones by logs:
The method uses the borehole measurements of the density, resistivity and the travel
transient time in the formation measured by the electrical and sonic logs. These logs
are run after part or the entire hole is drilled. In overpressured formations the
resistivity reading of the electrical log is decreased because of the reduction in
compaction (less rock more water) and the transient time of the sonic log is increased
(slower speeds through more porous rock). Electrical logs can be used for the
identification of abnormal pressure zone by reading the resistivity values from the log
across more shale sections and plotting these values versus depth through
hydropressured, transition and geopressured zones. The sonic log has been used
successfully as a pressure evaluation tool. The technique utilizes the difference in
travel times between high porosity overpressure zones and low porosity, normal
pressure zones. The basic relationship between travel times and depth.
When drilling in normally pressured zones, the bulk density values read from the
density log of the drilled rocks should increase due to compaction, or porosity
reduction. As high formation pressures are encountered, the associated high
porosities will cause a deviation in the expected bulk density trend. A typical plot of
bulk densities is seen in figure 4-1. The overpressure formation can also be
recognized by the analysis of the sonic log travel transit time (figure 4-2). The sonic
log reading shows an increasing trend across the overpressured zone. The same
analysis for identifying the location of the overpressued zones can also be known
form the trend of the resistivity log. A decreasing trend of the resistivity log readings
is an indication of drilling through an overpressureed formation (figure 4-3).
In all curves from the three logs, a normal curve is drawn through the hydropressured
values in order to determine the normal gradient line. Any deviation from this
gradient line is an indication of drilling through overpressured formations. Abnormal
pressure gradients must be identified during drilling or if possible during well
planning to adequately protect against a blowout. The recognition of an abnormal
gradient is important in determining mud and casing programs. The top of the
pressure transition zone is that point where pore pressure increases above normal.
The length of abnormal pressure zone that can be drilled safely is dependent on the
fracture pressure of normal formations and the length of surface casing or last casing
set.
Abnormal pressure can be recognized by:
1. Reduction in seismic wave velocity

2. Drilling rate increases with constant weight on the bit and rotary speed.
3. Sloughline shale (correlate with drilling rate).
4. Shale density (deviation of shale from normal compaction) density will
decrease.
5. Gas in the mud - a “normal pressure” base line should be established.
6. Chloride trends - increasing chloride content of the mud.

Figure 4-6: Resistivity log plot versus depth for shally formations

7. Changes in mud properties:
a - Increase in yield strength - flocculation.
b - Decreases in mud weight
c - Increases in mud temperature.
8. Increases in bentonite content of shale - deviation from normal compaction
trends.
9. Increases in conductivity readings on wireline logs from a normal base.
10. Decreases in sonic log velocity from a normal base.
4.11 Indications of A Well Kick
In addition to the symptoms listed above for the detection of abnormal (high)
pressure trends, warnings that a kick is occurring are:
A. A gain of fluid into the mud pits - a pit level increase, most noticeable
when drilling or out of the hole. Detect visually or with a pit level alarm.
B. Failure of the hole to take the required volume of fluid when pulling drill
pipe. This can be detected by the pump stroke counter on the trip tank.
C. Excess of mud going back to pits when running pipe.
D. Appearance of gas, oil or water cut mud. Detect visually or by measuring
mud properties.
E. Sudden increase in drilling rate.
F. Sudden reduction in pump pressure or weight on the bit.
The greatest danger in drilling in abnormal pressure is losing circulation into another
formation open in the wellbore. It is important to:
A. Recognize early in the drilling the symptoms of high pore pressure.

B. Know the fracture gradients below last string of pipe in the well.
C. Estimate the actual magnitude of pore pressure.
4.12 Control of well kicks and blow outs
1. Mud is the primary control for the prevention of blow outs and gas kicks.
2. Proper surface equipment should be installed on the wellhead. Blow out
preventers which include:
a - Annular preventers - inflate with increasing pressure.

b - Ram preventers - seal off around drill pipe.
c. Hydraulic valves.
3. Secondary control is to circulate the trapped gas bubbles to the surface.
When a kick is detected quick action should be taken to control the flow. In taking
this action, the following should be considered.

1. What is integrity of casing seat - how much pressure can it take.
2. How much pressure can the casing take before burst occurs.
3. Will the BOPE take the anticipated pressure.
4. What are the formation fracture gradients.
Determination of length of invading formation fluid:
The length of the invading fluid in the annulus is calculated from the following
equation:
Volume of pit level increase

hb = 4-35
Annulus volume per foot
4.13 Determination of type of fluid that enters the wellbore:
The formation fluid that might enter the wellbore and cause a kick is oil, gas or salt
water. Gas is considered to cause severe damaged blow out if not controlled properly.
The following diagram shows the pressure inside the drill string and annulus when
there exists a gas bubble inside the annulus. If fluid with the same density is put in
the tube figure 4-7, it will reach a constant level and if pressure is applied, the gauge
reading on both the drill string and the annulus will be identical. If fluid in the drill
string has a different density from the fluid in the annulus, then the pressure readings
on both the drill string and the annulus will be different. If the tube is closed, the
pressure exerted by the fluid in the drill string at point B should be equal to the
pressure exerted by the fluid in the annulus at the same point.
Figure 4-7: Pressure balance in U tube (drillpipe and annulus)

On the drillstring side, there is a fluid of known density and a pressure that can be read
at the surface. The addition of the drillstring pressure reading and the pressure exerted
by the known density fluid in the drillstring give the pressure being exerted at point B.
In like manner, the addition of the annulus pressure to the pressure exerted by the
fluids in the annulus will give the pressure being exerted at point B. Using the
annulus side for this purpose is complicated by:
1. The operator does not know accurately the total fluid that has entered the
annulus.
2. Fluid type is difficult to recognize so the formation fluid might be a
combination of gas, oil and water.
3. The hole may not be to gauge, thus the height of the formation fluid could
not be determined even if an accurate measurement of fluid influx were
possible.
This explains why the drillstring side of the U-tube is used. The following equation
shows how the pressure in each side of the U-tube can be equated:
Pd  Pmd  Pa  Pma  Pf 4-36

Where
Pd = shut in drill pipe pressure, psi
Pmd = pressure exerted by mud column inside the drill string, psi
Pa = pressure on annulus gauge, psi
Pma = pressure exerted by mud column in the annulus, psi
Pf = pressure exerted by invading fluid column, psi
The following equations represent the pressure column exerted by each fluid in the
inside the drillstring and the annulus. The pressure exerted by the invaded formation
fluid into the annulus is described by the following equation:
Pf  0.052   h b 4-37
f
The pressure exerted by the mud column inside the drillstring is described by the
following equation:
Pm d  0.052 m  D 4-38
The pressure exerted by the mud column and the invaded fluid in the annulus column
is described by the following equation:
Pm a  0.052 (D - h b ) m 4-39
Substituting the above equations into the U tube balance equation yields:

Pd  0.052 m  D  Pa  0.052 (D - h b ) m  0.052  f  h b 4-40
Where
m = Density of mud, ppg
D = Depth, ft
f = Density of invading fluid, ppg
hb = Length of invading fluid, ft
The density of the invading fluid is the indicator for the type of fluid that inters the
bottom of the hole, if the density of the invading fluid between 1-3 lbm/gal the fluid
is gas, if the fluid density between 8.5-10 lbm/gal the fluid is salt water. After the
recognition of a kick, the well must be shut in and the kick should be circulated out
and the density of the mud should be increased gradually until the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud in the bottom of the hole is slightly greater than the formation
pressure in order to prevent additional fluids from entering the well.
In order to circulate a gas bubble to the surface without causing a blow out, the
expansion and the compression of the characteristics of gas should be understood and
the following universal gas law is considered:
PV  ZnRT 4-41
P1V1 P2 V2
= 4-42
Z1T1 Z 2T2
For constant temperature, and Z = 1
P1 V2
= 4-43
P2 V1
The above equation shows that if the volume of the gas bubble is not allowed to
expand, the pressure will change very little. Thus the gas that enters the wellbore
from a formation with a given pore pressure will still be under the same pressure at
the surface. Gas will lubricate its way to the surface. If the gas is not allowed to
expand, it will arrive at the surface with the same bottom hole pressure.
4.14 Methods of Killing a Kick
In order to circulate the kick out, the initial and the final circulating pressures should
be known to avoid excessive pressure which could fracture the formation and cause
lost circulation. Knowledge of BHP, type of fluid and space occupied by the
formation fluid in the well bore is essential to adequate kick control. There are
generally four methods that can be used to kill a kick.

1. Constant BHP - Circulation of mud to maintain BHP equal to or greater
than formation pressure. Pressure and fluid information can be determined
by drill pipe or casing pressure methods. The drill pipe pressure method is
most widely used. Killing can be accomplished by the “driller’s” method or
“engineer’s” method.
2. Constant mud volume - a constant volume of mud in and out of the hole is
maintained while weighted up mud is circulated -this is a hazardous
procedure which can get BHP at wellhead.
3. Volumetric control - used when pumps are out of service or when drill pipe
is out of the hole or several thousand feet of bottom gas is allowed to
expand up hole and a constant BHP is maintained by bleeding off an
equivalent hydrostatic head as gas rises and expands. Pit volume changes
are equated to annulus pressure.
4. Low choke pressure - use when pressure becomes excessive when well is
being shut in. This method is useful in handling kicks in tight formations or
during trips after drilling tight formations. Choke pressure is reduced to
prevent casing burst or formation breakdown.
A formation will continue to flow until newly weighted mud (oil cut mud) entered
formation fluid and applied back pressure to balance formation pressure. If the well
kicks while drilling, the formation fluid follows the direction of fluid movement,
which is up the annulus. If the well kicks when pulling the drillstring, the formation
fluid enters the entire wellbore below the drillstring. When stripping the pipe back
into the hole, the drillstring must be equipped with a back pressure valve that
prevents the fluid’s entry into the drillstring. One exception might occur if, when
pulling the pipe with no back pressure valve, flow continued long enough for the
formation fluids to enter both the drillstring and the annulus. This exception would be
recognized and would force the operator to guess the type of fluid that entered and
the formation pressure. Common differentiations have been introduced for control
methods. The simpler method is called the driller’s method. Several names have
been applied to the other method, but in this discussion it is called the engineer’s
method or the wait and weight method.
The following steps should be performed after the recognition of a kick
Two common procedures are used to shut-in a well; the soft shut in and the hard shut
in. The soft shut in refers to a procedure in which the choke lines are open when the
blowout preventers are closed. The hard shut- in is a method in which the choke lines
are closed when the blowout preventers are closed. The shot shut in minimizes any
impact force against the formation and preventers when the well shutin. The hard shut
in minimizes the size of the kick by shut in the well quickly
The selection of each procedure to implement for killing the well depends on the
operator’s regulations. In both procedures the following steps are followed.

 Pull the kelly up and pull out the bushing until the drill pipe is in the annular
preventer and then shut in the annular preventer.
 Shut down the mud pump
 Close the blowout preventers
 Read and record the stabilized shut-in drillpipe and annular pressures (SIDP
and SICP) and the bit gain.
The new mud weight (kill mud weight) is determined from the following equation:
SIDPP
New Mud Weight   Old Mud Weight 4-44
0.052  TVD
Circulation pressures:
1) kill rate pressure (KRP) or the slow circulation rate (SCR)
In controlling a kick the intruded fluid must be circulated out of the well and a
higher density mud should be circulated around the drilling string. The most
efficient method of controlling a well requires that a circulating pressure at a slow
rate is determined in advance of the killing process. It is obtained by slowing the
pump to predetermined kill rate. This predetermined rate is obtained by usually
reducing the pump rate to one half to one third of the normal drilling rate and
recording the circulating pressure which is the kill rate pressure.
2) initial circulating pressure (ICP)
In order to circulate out a kick an extra back pressure must be applied on surface
using an adjustable choke to maintain the pump pressure at the required kill rate
(KRP) plus the shut in drillpipe pressure (SIDPP). The initial circulating pressure
is calculated form the following equation:
Initial Circulating Pressure = slow rate pressure + SIDPP
ICP  Kill Rate Pr essure  SIDPP 4-45
3) Final circulating pressure (FCP)
During the displacement of the new weighted mud into the drill string the
pressure at surface in the drill pipe decreases and when the new mud fills the
drilling string and it reaches the bit the hydrostatic pressure should be adequate
to balance the formation pressure. In this instance if the pump was stopped and
the well shut in the reading at the surface in the drill pipe (SIDPP) must equal
to zero. The pump circulating pressure prior to shut in the well when the mud
reaches the bit is called the final circulating pressure. After the new mud
reaches the bit final circulating pressure (FCP) should be held constant on the
drill pipe pressure gauge until the kill weighted mud is at the surface and this is

confirmed by weighting the returns. The final circulating pressure (FCP) is
calculated form the following equation:
New Mud Weight

Final Circulatin g Pressure  Kill Rate Pressure  4-46
Old Mud Weight
KMW
FCP  KRP  4-47
OMW
Driller’s Method
The driller’s method of well control is outlined below:
 Add the shut-in drillpipe pressure to the circulating pressure required to

overcome friction at the kill rate.
 Pump at a constant pressure and circulation rate.
Wait-and-Weight Method
 From shut in drillpipe pressure, determine the mud weight increase required to
balance the pore pressure.
 Raise the mud weight in the suction tank to balance the pore pressure and
calculate the rate of weighting material additions necessary to increase the mud
weight while pumping.
 Determine the pump pressure required to overcome friction at the selected
pumping rates for both the unweighted and weighted mud slurries.
 Prepare a pumping schedule to reduce pump pressure as weighted mud enters
the drillstring.
 After weighted mud reaches the bit, keep the pumping pressure constant at the
selected pumping rate until formation fluids have been displaced and the mud
weight of the total mud system has been raised to the same level.
4.15 Sequence of Operations for Controlling a Kick
A. Kick occurs while drilling
1. Shut off pump

2. Pull Kelly out of blow-out preventers
3. Choke line open
4. Close BOPE
5. Close or restrict choke line
6. Record drill pipe and casing (annulus) pressure
7. Record surface volume increase
8. Prepare to displace formation fluid.

Figure 4-8: BOP stacks
B. Kick occurs while pulling pipe
1. Install open safety valve

2. Close safety valve
3. Install interval BOP
4. Open safety valve
5. Close BOPE
6. Close or severely restrict choke (remember you now only have kill
line available to pump in until Kelly is installed).
7. Record surface pressures and pit volume increase.
8. Decide on how to displace formation fluid.
The most widely used and probably the “safest” method to control a kick is the
constant BHP method. The drill pipe pressure method is the most accurate to assess
the new BHP. Once the BHP is estimated the “engineers (wait and weight)” method

or “drillers” method can be used to control and circulate the kick. Each method
involves a step by step procedure. The “drillers” method circulates the formation
fluid out before increasing mud weight. In the “engineers” method mud weight is
increased in batches or gradually raised while circulating out formation fluid. An
adjustable choke is required.
The “engineers” method involves a ten step data collection - work completion
procedure - see attached work sheet - this sheet is kept at or near driller’s position for
immediate use. The “engineers” method work sheet is utilized to determine the
parameters required to adequately handle a kick and assess the extent of formation
inflow. The work sheet serves as a reminder in times of extreme work stress on rig
personnel.
The basic questions that this procedure answer are:
1. How much mud weight increase will be necessary to equalize the kick –to
balance BHP
2. What will be the maximum surface pressure on the surface equipment
(including casing seat and formation).
3. What pit volume gain will have to be handled.
4. What will be initial and final circulating pressures.
5. How many barrels of mud will have to be pumped.
a) To get to final circulating pressure,

b) To point of maximum surface pressure and excess pit volume
c) When kick should be dead.
In addition to the pump stroke - displacement data, the following should also be kept
handy for ready reference.
a) Hole size
b) Deepest casing depth, size, grade and maximum burst strength.
c) Drill pipe size and remaining collapse resistance of drill pipe.
d) The ID and OD and length of drill collars in the hole.
e) Mud weight and well depth (TVD) at time of kick.
BHP can also be estimated using existing mud weight and initial shut in drill pipe
casing pressures.
4.16 Kick Control Operations
A. Start mixing mud - weight up as soon as “new” mud weight has been
determined (Step III).
B. Determine reservoir pressure. This is obtained as explained in the U tube
model (Step IV).

C. In determining maximum surface pressure, (Pc max), always assume a pure
gas kick - this is worst condition. Once the P c (max) is found, a decision has
to be made whether or not to circulate kick Pc (max) must be compared to
allowable pressure on casing, formation and surface equipment (Step V).
D. Eliminate all sources of ignition, have vent lines laid downwind and
secured.
E. Determine the volume of mud tank gain while circulating the kick (step
VI).
F. With pumps running at a constant SPM pressure up drill pipe to initial
circulating pressure (step VII) and open choke to hold this pressure.
G. As the heavy mud goes down the drill pipe, adjust the casing choke to hold
the final circulating pressure on the drill pipe (Step VIII). The final
circulating pressure should be reached when a mud volume equal to the
capacity of drill pipe and collars has been displaced down the drill pipe
and the new mud reaches the bit.
H. As the gas kick is brought to the surface it will expand. To accommodate
this expansion and maintain constant final circulating pressure on the drill
pipe with constant pump rate, the casing choke must be opened. This is
the critical part of the entire operation - an excess pressure could fracture
higher formations. The critical point will be reached when a mud volume
equal to annulus capacity has been displaced, (IXB) less volume of gas at
surface (VIA).
I. Circulate until the hole is full of heavy mud (IXC). Stop the pumps to
check for flow. If the well is dead, open BOPs.
J. If the well is dead, circulate and condition mud. Adjust yield strength and
mud weight for safe trip margin. The graphical solution to pressures and
mud volumes involved in circulating a kick gives a “picture” of what will
occur. To fully utilize this “picture”, the pump rate (SPM) - mud
displacement ratio should be known. This relationship will depend on the
type and arrangement of mud pumps. Manufacturers’ specifications and
rig experiences will yield this relationship.
Problem
Assume:
Well depth = 10,000 ft
Surface casing = 9⅝ in se at 2,500 ft.
Casing I.D. = 8.821 in. (0.077 bbl/ft)
Drilling in 8½-in. hole at 10,000 ft.
Drill pipe size = 4½ in., 16.6 lb/ft
Drill collar size and length = 6¼ in O.D. and 625 ft.
Mud weight = 9.6 lb/gal
Fracture gradient at 2,500 ft = 0.80 psi/ft

The well kicks, and the following information is recorded:
Pit level increase = 20 bbl

Shut in drill pipe pressure = 260 psi
Shut in annular pressure = 500 psi
Volume of 8½ in. hole = 0.07 bbl/ft
Volume of 4½ in. drill pipe - 8¼ in. hole annulus = 0.05 bbl/ft
Volume of 6¼ in. drill collar - 8½ in. hole annulus = 0.032 bbl/ft
Volume of 4½ in. drill pipe - 9⅝ in. casing annulus = 0.057 bbl/ft
Internal volume of 4½ in. drillpipe = 0.014 bbl/ft
Internal volume of 6¼ in. drill collars = 0.007 bbl/ft
Temperature gradient = 70°F + 1.2ºF/100 ft
General Information:
Pore pressure = 0.5 psi/ft (10,000 ft) + 260 psi = 5,260 psi
Pressure required to overcome friction at a kill rate of 3.0 bbl/mi = 500 psi
Kick volume = 20 bbl.
20 bbl ft
Height of the formation fluids in the annulus   625 ft
0.032 bbl
5,260 psi  500 psi  (10,000 - 625) ft x 0.5 psi/ft  625 ft x  f psi / ft
625  f  72 psi
 f  0.115 psi / ft
This is a gas gradient, and the entire 20 bbl of influx will be considered gas.
Driller's Method
Pumping pressure = 260 + 500 = 760 psi

Keep pumping rate constant and pumping pressure constant at 760 psi until the gas
that entered the wellbore has been displaced.
The annular profile for this procedure is shown in figures 4-19 and 4-20.
Wait and Weight Method

(5,260)(19.25)
Mud weight required to control well   10.13 lb / gal
10,000
Use mud weight = 10.2 lb/gal
10.2
Pressure gradient of weighted mud  0.53 psi / ft
19.25
Pressure required overcoming friction with 10.2 lb/gal mud:
0.8
 10.2 
500   525 psi
 9.6 

Figure 4-9: Annular pressure profile from the above example using
unweighted mud
Figure 4-10: Annulus pressure profile for engineer's method.
Internal volume of drill string = 136 bbl

Pumping rate = 3 bbl/min at 50 strokes/min (SPM)
Reduce pump pressure until weighed mud reaches the bit =760-525 = 235 psi
Pumping time for weighted mud to reach the bit = 136/3 = 44 min or
2,200 pumping strokes

The Pumping Procedures for both the Driller’s Method and the Wait-and-Weight
Method is as follows:
Table 4-4: The pumping schedule.
Time Number of Pump Pressure

(min) Pumping Strokes (psi)
0 0 760
10 500 707
20 1000 654
30 1500 601
40 2000 548
44 2200 525
Problem
During drilling of an oil well the volume of the mud in the pit is increased to 20 bbls.
The driller has noticed the pressure of a kick and he recorded the following
information:
Depth = 9000 ft.

Hole Size = 9.5/8 in.
Drill Pipe = 5 in.
Mud Weight = 11 ppg
Drill Pipe Pressure = 360 psi
Annulus pressure = 450 psi
Intermediate Casing = 7000 ft.
Fracture gradient = 0.92 psi/ft at 7000 ft.
Calculate:
[1] Density of the invading fluid.

[2] New mud weight needed to control the well if the annular pressure losses are 600
psi.
[3] What is the maximum pressure gradient at the intermediate casing shoe during
kick circulation?
[4] If this kick would be a gas kick, is it possible to circulate it to the surface
without expanding its volume and not fracturing at the bottom of the
intermediate casing shoe?

Engineers Method Pressure Control Worksheet
I. Pre-recorded Information
A. Constant Circulating Pressure
20 SPM______PSI_________GPM________BPM
30 SPM______PSI_________GPM________BPM
40 SPM______PSI_________GPM________BPM
II. Recorded Information When Well Kicks
A. Original Mud Weight lb/gal
B. Initial Shut In Drill Pipe Pressure psi
C. Initial Shut In Casing Pressure psi
D. Initial Pit Volume Increase BBL
E. True Vertical Depth Feet
III. Determination of Mud Weight to Balance Kick
A. Original Mud Weight LB/Gal
B. Increase in Original Mud Weight to Balance Kick LB/Gal
C. New Mud Weight to Balance Kick (A+B) LB/Gal
IV. Determination of Reservoir Pressure
A. Reservoir Bottom Hole Pressure psi
V. Determination of Maximum Surface Casing Pressure (P cMAX) for Gas Kicks
A. Determine Pc psi
B. Determine Increase in Pc due to light weight Mud
Below gas Bubble psi
C. Maximum Surface Casing Pressure (Pc MAX) when gas
Bubble Reaches Surface (A+B) psi
VI. Determination of Volume Gain While Circulating Out Gas Kick
A. Determine Volume of Gas at Surface BBL
B. Initial Pit Volume Increase BBL
C. Volume Gain While Circulating Out Gas Kick (A-B) _____ BBL
VII. Determine Initial Circulating Pressure

A. Constant Circulating Pressure – Stop Pressure psi
VIII. Determine Final Circulating Pressure
New Mud Weight
A. Constant Circulating Pressure X psi
Old Mud Weight
IX. Graphical Analysis
A. Determine Drill Pipe and Drill Collar Capacity BBL
B. Determine Annulus Capacity BBL
C. Total Capacity (A+B) BBL
D. Ploy Initial Circulating Pressure at 0 BBLS. Pumped from VII.A. Above.
E. Plot Final Circulating Pressure (VIII.A) at Drill Pipe Capacity Pumped
F. Connect Point O and E then draw a parallel line to the X-axis
G. Determine when Maximum Casing Pressure and Excess Volume Will occur by
subtracting VI.A from IX.B BBL

4.17 Well Control design
The following example illustrates the design steps to control a kick during drilling an
oil well by three commonly used methods.
a. Driller’s Method
b. Wait and Weight Method
c. Concurrent method
Basic Information and Procedure:
1. Prerecorded Information
Casing: 9-5/8, 53½ lb/ft, P-110, Internal Yield – 10,900 psi, TVD – 9500 ft.
Maximum allowable casing pressure
80% of casing burst – 8720 psi
Fracture Pressure Limit = 1615 psi with 14.0 lb/gal mud in annulus above shoe.
Normal Circulating Rate – 2700 psi at 60 SPM – 7.0 bpm recorded at 12,450
feet with 14.0 lb/gal mud.
Kill rate and Pressure – 500 psi at 26 SPM – 3.0 bpm recorded at 12,450 feet
with 14.0 lb/gal. mud.
Extra Information that is Useful:
Pump = 12-P-160 with 6½” liners and pump efficiency measured by pumping
150 bbl. mud in pill tanks: 0.117 bbl/stk.
Drill pipe Capacity = 0.01776 bbl/ft. (5”, 19.5 lb/ft)
Drill Collar Capacity = 0.00768 bbl/ft (6½ x 2-3/16”)
Drill collar ann. Cap. = 0.030 bbl/ft (rule of thumb)
Drill pipe ann. Cap = 0.047 bbl/ft (rule of thumb)
Ratio outside volume to inside volume (d.p) = 2.65

2. Immediate Action
When a kick occurs:

Raise kelly, stop pumps, open choke line and choke (if closed) close BOP,
close choke while observing casing pressure. Do not let casing pressure exceed
maximum allowed (burst of casing or fracture below shoe).
Recorded after Kick

SIDPP – 800 psi, SICP – 1220 psi – mud weight – 14.0 lb/gal
TVD – 12,500 feet, kick volume – 20 bbl.
A. DRILLER’S METHOD
3. Establish Circulation (No. III on API worksheet)

Initial Circulating Pressure = slow rate pressure + SIDPP
(ICP) = 500 psi + 800
= 1300 psi @ 26 SPM – 3.0 bpm
Open choke while bringing pump to selected kill rate (26 SPM). Increase
pump rate slowly and hold casing pressure constant at closed in valve by
slowly operating choke. After reaching kill rate, note drill pipe pressure and
hold constant by holding kill rate constant and adjusting choke. The drill pipe
pressure should be the sum of kill rate pressure plus closed-in drill pipe
pressure (this is No. 4 on API worksheet). If not, correct by adjusting choke.
Note: If rig crews have not standardized on one set of gauges to pre-record
information, and if the crew is not exact on stroke measurement, then the
recorded value that has just been obtained, assuming casing pressure has been
kept constant with no further influx, should be used.
Circulate Out the Kick (No. IV on API Worksheet)

While holding kill rate constant, keep new drill pipe pressure constant by
adjusting choke. If drill pipe pressure increases, open choke. If drill pipe
pressure decreases, close choke. Casing pressure must be allowed to vary to
maintain constant bottom hole pressure. When well is free of gas (in this case).
Stop pump and close choke. Record new closed-in casing pressure * 800 psi.
In this example, assuming NO stringing out has take place, the SICP should be
the same as original SIDPP reading.
Increasing Mud Weight

Calculate the required mud weight and increase weight in surface system (Nos.
5 & 6 on API Worksheet).
20 x SIDPP
Required mud weight = present mud weight +
Bit Depth (TVD)
Note: (no trip margin added until BOPs are open)

20 (800)
Required mud weight = 14.0 lb/gal. +  15.3 lb / gal.
12,500 ft.
Note: Another 0.3 lb/gal will be added after BOPs are open, making the mud
weight 15.6 lb/gal.
Circulate Heavy mud

Establish circulation as above (No. III. API worksheet) using new closed-in
casing pressure (50-100 psi extra pressures are sometimes held and in this
particular case it would do no harm).
Hold kill rate constant, and follow step-down table for drill pipe by varying the
choke. Maintain required mud density in pits while circulating. Circulate heavy
mud to bit using strokes or time (No. 7 on API worksheet).
Drill Pipe Capacity x drill string length

Circulating Time to bit =
kill rate
0.01776 bbl / ft x 12,500 ft

  74 minutes *
3.0bbl / min
Note: If drill collar had been considered, the time would have been 71 minutes.
26 strokes x 74 min .
Strokes = kill rate x time =  1924 strokes
min .
When heavy mud reaches bit, read and record final drill pipe circulating
pressure (FCP) 546 psi.
15.3
It should be in this case, approximately FCP = 500 psi x  546 psi
14.0
Note: If 100 psi extra casing back pressure is being held, FCP will be 646 psi.
Hold Final Drill Pipe Pressure (FCP) constant by varying choke while holding
kill rate constant.
When uncut heavy mud reaches surface, shut down pump and check for flow.
B. WAIT AND WEIGHT METHOD
The pre-recorded information and immediate action steps (I & II API

Worksheet) would be practically the same. Note: on subsea stacks, the choke
line pressure at kill rate should be recorded as part of the pre-recorded
information. The Wait and Weight Method is the recommended procedure for
killing a well with a subsea stack.
In this example, let's say that the choke line pressure was measured at 100 psi
with 14.0 lb/gal mud and that the total pressure at the kill rate was 600 psi at 26
SPM (3.0 bbl/min.)
(I – II) Same as Driller's Method.

3. Increase Mud Weight (III – API Worksheet)
Calculate required mud weight (AP – V) and increase weight in suction pit
(API – VI.8, VII)
20 x SIDPP
Present mud weight plus (no trip margin)
Depth (TVD)
20(800)
14.0 lb/gal +  15.3 lb / gal
12,500 ft.
Note: Reserve mud that has a higher density than mud weight being used to
drill with will speed up mud mixing.
If drill pipe pressure increases during weighting, reduce to initial stabilized

value by bleeding choke.
4. Prepare drill pipe pressure schedule (IV. API Worksheet)

Determine Initial Circulating Pressure and plot above zero time (8 – API)
Determine Final Circulating Pressure (9 – API) and plot above circulating time
to bit (10 – API Worksheet). Draw line between points.
Read drill pipe pressure at 5 minute intervals and record in blank spaces.
Calculate strokes and fill in blanks (11 – API Worksheet).
Initial Circulating Pressure = kill rate pressure plus SIDPP

= 600 psi + 800 psi = 1400 psi
required mud weight

Final Circulating Pressure = Kill rate pressure x
original mud weight
15.3
= 600 psi x  656 psi
14.0
Drill pipe capacity x drill string length

Circulating Time To Bit =
kill rate (bbl/min)
0.01776 bbl / ft x 12,500 ft.

  74 minutes
3.0 bbl / min
Strokes = kill rate x time = 26 stk/min x 74 min. = 1924 stk.
measured choke line pressure x old mud wt .

Corrected choke line pressure =
mud wt . when choke line pressure was measured
100 x 14
(No correction needed)   100 psi
14

Drill Pipe Pressure Schedule
1920 strokes
Strokes for each increment =  128 strokes
15 increments
1400  650
Pressure for each increment   50 psi
15
5. Establish Circulation (V. API Worksheet)

Open choke while slowly bringing pump up to kill rate and let casing pressure
drop an amount equal to corrected choke line pressure (12) while increasing
pump speed (100 psi in this example). At ½ kill rate choke pressure should be
dropped approximately ¼ of corrected choke line pressure.
Adjust choke to establish Initial Circulating Pressure (8) at kill rate. The Drill
Pipe pressure should be the sum of the kill rate pressure plus the closed-in drill
pipe pressure.
6. Circulate Heavy Mud (VI. API Worksheet)

Maintain required mud density in pits while circulating at kill rate. Use choke
to adjust drill pipe pressure to values shown at times or strokes shown. If drill
pipe pressure increases, open choke, if drill pipe pressure decreases, close
choke. When heavy mud reaches bit (10), hold Final Circulating Pressure
constant at kill rate (1920 strokes/74 min. in this example).
When gas reaches choke line, sudden loss of hydrostatic pressure may result in
quick drop in drill pipe pressure requiring quick choke closure. At some time
the choke may be wide open and drill pipe pressure higher than scheduled.
Open kill line to choke for an additional choke line, if not already open. If drill
pipe pressure cannot be reduced because of wide open choke, continue holding
kill rate. When uncut mud of required weight reaches surface, take steps to
circulate out possible gas trapped in BOPs, shut down pump and check for
flow. If well is dead, circulate heavy mud into riser with kill line before
opening pipe rams. Continue circulating slowly through choke line while
displacing riser.

C. CONCURRENT METHOD
The pre-recorded information and immediate action steps (I & II, API
Worksheet) would be practically the same. 1&2(I – II. Same as Wait and
Weight and Driller’s Method).
3. Establish Circulation (III – API Worksheet)

Open choke while bringing pump up to kill rate. Increase pump speed slowly.
Adjust choke to hold closed-in casing pressure while bringing pump to kill rate.
Hold kill rate. The drill pressure at kill rate should be the sum of kill rate
pressure plus closed-in drill pipe pressure (4 on API worksheet). If not, adjust.
Record time when circulation stated 0600 hours.
ICP = 500 psi + 800 psi = 1300 psi
4. Start Increasing Mud Weight (IV. API Worksheet)

Record time at which suction pit is increased each 0.1 or 0.2 ppg. Calculate
required mud weight (6 on API worksheet).
20(800 psi)
Required mud weight = 14.0   15.3 lb / gal
12,500 ft.
5. Prepare Drill Pipe Pressure Schedule (V. on API worksheet)
Fill in bottom of graph with even increments of mud weight from Initial to
Required mud weight. Plot Initial Circulating Pressure above Initial Mud
Weight (4 on API worksheet). (1300 psi in this example).
Determine Final Circulating Pressure (7 API Worksheet) and plot above

Required Mud Weight (6 on API worksheet). (15.3 lb/gal in this example –
same as Driller’s and Wait and Weight).
15.3
FCP  500 x  546 psi
14.0
Draw line between points (see schedule below).
Read drill pipe pressure at each increment of mud weight and record in blank
spaces. Record time (or strokes) at which suction pit has each increment of
mud weight.
Calculating Circulating Time (9 API Worksheet) or Calculate Strokes (10 API
Worksheet) to bit.
(74 minutes or 1920 strokes as calculated in previous examples – Driller’s or
Wait and Weight).
Fill blank spaces with ½ circulating time (or strokes) to bit. Add ½ Circulating
Time (or strokes) to bit to time (or strokes) for each mud weight increment.
Note: In this example, it was decided to utilize four circulations (4-½ hours
each) and increase the mud weight 0.3 lb/gal each circulation.

Note: Some drilling operations people prefer a chart when working with
the Concurrent Method. An example chart is shown below.
Drill Pipe Pressure Chart Schedule – Concurrent Method

Mud Weight
(lb/gal) Pressure Correction
Time Accumulated Time (hrs)
ICP FCP
in Suction Bit In
0600 14.0 14.0 1300 1300 ----------------------------------
Started weighted mud in 1-

0700 14.3 14.0 1300 ------
¼
0814 14.3 14.3 ------ 1126
1130 14.6 14.3 1126 4-½
1244 14.6 14.6 ------ 952 5-¾
1600 14.9 14.6 952 ------ 9
1714 14.9 14.9 ------ 778 10-¼
2030 15.1 14.9 778 ------ 13-½
2144 15.1 15.1 ------ 662 14-¾
0100 15.3 15.1 662 ------ 18
0214 15.3 15.3 ------ 550 19-¼

4 WELL CONTROL 4-177
4.1 ORIGIN OF FORMATION PORE PRESSURE............................................................................ 4-177
4.2 CAUSES OF KICKS AND BLOWOUTS ............................................................................................... 4-184
4.3 SWABBING AND SURGEPRESSURES ................................................................................................ 4-184
4.4 LOST CIRCULATION ...................................................................................................................... 4-189
4.5 DETECTION OF ABNORMAL PRESSURE ZONES BY LOGS ................................................................... 4-189
4.6 INDICATIONS OF A WELL KICK ..................................................................................................... 4-190
4.7 DETERMINATION OF FORMATION PORE PRESSURE USING DRILLING RATE DATA ............................ 4-191
4.8 THEORETICAL DETERMINATION OF FRACTURE GRADIENT: .............................................................. 4-194
4.9 FIELD DETERMINATION OF FRACTURE GRADIENT : .......................................................................... 4-196
4.10 DETECTION OF ABNORMAL PRESSURE ZONES BY LOGS ............................................................... 4-203
4.11 INDICATIONS OF A WELL KICK................................................................................................. 4-205
4.12 CONTROL OF WELL KICKS AND BLOW OUTS ............................................................................... 4-205
4.13 DETERMINATION OF TYPE OF FLUID THAT ENTERS THE WELLBORE ............................................. 4-206
4.14 METHODS OF KILLING A KICK .................................................................................................. 4-208
4.15 SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS FOR CONTROLLING A KICK ............................................................. 4-211
4.16 KICK CONTROL OPERATIONS ................................................................................................... 4-213
4.17 WELL CONTROL DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 4-219

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1 ADVANCED DRILLING ENGINEERING SPRING 2015

4.1 ORIGIN OF FORMATION PORE PRESSURE

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

If pressure is expressed in psi and density as specific gravity,

 ob  0.433 1   D  g  0.433  D  fl 4-3

Rewriting the above equation in the following form

Substitution of the bulk density equation into the above equation

Gob  0.433  b 4-7

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

Figure 4-1: Generalized shale density plot

In homogeneous subsurface deposited formations, the overburden pressure gradient is

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

Formation Fluid Pressure:

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

Hydrostatic pressure (normal pressure):

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

Phyd = 0.433  sp. gr.  D 4-10

Table 4-2: Normal Formation Pressure Gradients for Several

A hydrodynamic pressure exists when there is an imbalance in the potential energy of

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

Formation fluids pressure should be estimated before drilling a well in order to

Mud circulating (dynamic) pressure (Equivalent circulation density, ECD)

This procedure is done in order to control the equivalent circulating density to

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

4.2 Causes of Kicks and Blowouts

Insufficient mud weight usually occurs when drilling in abnormal pressure

4.3 Swabbing and surgepressures

Swabbing is caused by:

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

As long as circulation is maintained the formation pressure of 5400 psi is

5400 psi = 0.052 (10.0 PPG)x(10000 ft)+ 200 psi

Circulation margin = 200/(0.052x10000) = 0.4 ppg

Trip margin = 300/(0.052x10000) = 0.6 ppg

Total tip margin = 200/(0.052x10000) +300/(0.052x10000) = 1.0 ppg

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Surge pressure may be slightly reduced by periodically breaking circulation on a trip

To minimize surging the following steps should applied:

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

Calculate the maximum pipe velocity from the following equation:

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

0.000077   m 0.8  q 1.8  PV 0.2  L

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For Surge pressure

For Swab pressure

4.4 Lost circulation

With subsequent loss of fluid head loss of circulation is caused by:

1. High mud weights

Underground blowout is occurred when flow of higher pressure formation or well

4.5 Detection of abnormal pressure zones by logs:

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Abnormal pressure can be recognized by:

1. Reduction in seismic wave velocity

4.6 Indications of A Well Kick

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A. Recognize early in the drilling the symptoms of high pore pressure.

4.7 Determination of Formation Pore Pressure Using Drilling Rate Data

Estimation of pore pressure while drilling is accomplished by the measurements of

The dc exponent method of detecting and predicting the magnitude of pressure

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

WELL CONTROL DR MOHAMED NASR UNIVERSITY OF TRIPOLI

 Normal pressure gradient 

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4.8 Theoretical determination of fracture gradient:

The fracture gradients are determined theoretically if the geological conditions