Turbulence Prof. E.G.

Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

Chapter 1

Lecture 7

Introduction - 7
Topics

1.3.2 Scales
(I) Integral scales
(II) Taylor micro scale
(III) Spectrum and dissipation
(IV) Kolmogorov scales

1.3.2 Scales
The flow visualization pictures (for example Fig.1.7) and the results of the direct
numerical simulation indicate that the turbulence flow can be considered as consisting
of eddies of different sizes. An estimate of the size of these eddies would be useful to
decide resolution needed in experimental and computational work. The size of the
largest eddy is limited by the flow domain e.g. (a) size of pipe or channel in which the
flow takes place, (b) height of boundary layer (c) characteristics width (half width) jet or
wake (see chapter 4 for definitions of half width). However, the correlations described
earlier, enable us to precisely define the scales and characterize different turbulent
flows. The integral scale and Taylor micro-scale are defined below. These are based on
the correlations curves described earlier(Figs.1.17a&b). Later, the Kolmogorov scales
are described based on additional considerations.

I) Integral scales
Figure 1.17a shows a typical variation of time correlation coefficient (R(  ) vs  ).
The correlation coefficient becomes negligible beyond a certain value   m . This

indicates that, events separated by m do not seem to influence each other or the larger

eddies could be of size U m ,where, U is the mean velocity of the flow. However, where

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 1

Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

should m be located? At R (  ) = 0.01, 0.02, 0.05? To avoid the lack of precision, the

integral time scale ( Λ or TE ) is defined as :


 or TE = 0 R    d (1.54)

Remark :
(i) The quantity Λ is the area under R(  ) vs  curve (see Fig.1.17a).
(ii) In some cases, for large values of  , the value of R(  ) fluctuates around zero. In
such a case, the upper limit of integration in Eq.(1.54) is taken as the value of  where,
R(  ) becomes zero for the first time.
(iii) Based on the variation of spatial correlation, say R 11(x1), the integral length scale
L11 is defined as (Fig.1.18) :

L11 =  R11  x1  dx1 (1.55)
0

(iv) Taylor hypothesis

From the discussion on autocorrelation and space correlation under item (V) in section
1.3.1, it is evident that the measurement of the later is more involved. However, a
knowledge of the integral scale ( L11 ) is very important. An approximation to L11 can be

obtained from the integral time scale by the following relationship which is called Taylor
hypothesis.
L11  UΛ (1.56)
Following Mathieu and Scott (Ref.1.29, chapter 3) a brief explanation can be given as
follows.
The turbulence behind a grid of rods is characterized by the mean velocity U and the

r.m.s value u2 with u2 << U . The mean flow serves to convect the turbulence

whose large scales are characterized by velocity scale u2 and length scale L11. From

these two scales, a time scale ( e = L11/ u2 ) can be obtained. This time scale ( e )

roughly corresponds to the time required for evolution of the large scales (large eddies)
of turbulence. At the same time, these eddies with size of order L 11 are convected past

a fixed point, in a time scale of the order of ( c = L11/ U ). Since, u2 << U , the time of

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 2

Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

the evolution ( e ) is much larger than the time of convection( c ). Thus, as a first

approximation, the turbulence can be considered as simply convected at speed U

without evolution. This is the basis for ‘Taylor hypothesis’. It is also used in other types

of flows in which u2  U .

(II) Taylor micro scale
The analysis of homogeneous isotropic turbulence shows that (Ref.1.3, chapters 1 and
3) in this flow there are only two correlation functions namely

u  x  u  x + r i  v  x  v  x + r i 
f r  = and g(r) = (1.57)
u2 v 2
The functions f(r) and g(r) have value of unity when r equals zero and are symmetric
about that point i.e.
f(0) = g(0) = 1; f(r) = f (-r) and g (r) = g (-r) (1.58)
Since, f(r) is an even function of r, its first derivative is zero at r = 0 and f(r) near r =0,
can be expanded as :
r 2  2f 
f(r)=1 +   +higher order term (1.59)
2  r 2 r = 0

Thus, the shape of f(r), near r = 0 is a parabola. A length λf can be defined, such that

for small values of r :

r2
f  r  = 1- 2 (1.60)
λf
Thus,

1  2f 
λf = -  2  (1.61)
2   r  r =0

Analogous to the variation of R    vs  shown in Fig.1.17b, λf is the intercept of the

parabola fitted to f(r) near r = 0. The quantity λf is called ‘Taylor micro scale’ or

‘dissipation scale’. The reason for calling it dissipation scale, would be clear from the
following derivations in which it is shown that ‘f’ near r = 0 is related to ( u / r )2 and the
later is related to dissipation.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 3

Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

For simplicity consider u1 component of the fluctuation and ‘r’ to be in x1 direction i.e.

u1  x,t  u1  x+ x1,t 

f(x1) = R11 (x1) = (1.62)
u12

For small values of x1, u1 can be expanded in Taylor series as :

u1  x,t  1  u1  x,t  2

2

u1  x+x1,t  = u1  x,t  + x1 + x1 + ..... (1.63)

x1 2 x12
Then, from the definition of correlation one can write :

 u  x,t  1 u  u1  x,t  2

2

u1  x,t  u1'  x,t  + 1 x1 + 1 x1 + ....
 x1 2 x1 2

R11 (x1 )x1 0 = (1.64)
u1  x 
2

1  u1  x,t  1  u1  x,t  2

2 
Or R11 (x1 )x1 0 = u 2
 x  +u x + x1 + ... (1.65)
u12  x   x1 x1
1 1 1 2
2


u1 1 u12
Now, u1 = , which is zero for homogeneous turbulence. (1.66)
x1 2 x1

Further,
2
 2u12   u12   u12   2u1
= 2  u1 =   + 2u1 (1.67)
x12 x1  x1   x1 
  x12

The left hand side of Eq.(1.67) is zero, hence :

2
 u1   2u1
   2u1 =0
 x1  x12

2
 2u1  u 
Or 2u1 = - 1  (1.68)
x 12  x1 
 

Using the results of Eqs.(1.66) and (1.64) in Eq.(1.65) gives :

 2 
1  2 1  u1  2
R11  x1   x 0 = u -   x1 + ...
2  1  
1
u 2  1
x
 

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 4

Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

2
1 1  u1  2
= 1-   x1 (1.69)
2 u12  x1 

Equating r.h.s. of Eq.(1.69) to the following parabola,

x2
R11  x1  x 0 = 1 - 1 yields : (1.70)
1 λ11

2 u12
λ11 = (1.71)
2
 u1 
 
 x1 
Taylor micro length scale ( λ ) is defined as :

λ11 u12
λ=  (1.71a)
2
2  u1 
 
 x1 

Remarks :
(i) Dissipation scale
In chapter 3, it is shown that the dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy ( ε ) is given, in
tensor notation, by :

 u u '  u

ε =  i  j  j (1.72)
 x x  x
 j i  i

2 2
 u   u  u3 u1
This expression has 12 terms like  1  ,  1  , …., . For isotropic
 x1   x 2  x1 x3

homogeneous turbulence Eq.(1.72) reduces to :

2
 u 
ε = 15   1  (1.73)
 x1 
2
 u 
Comparing Eqs.(1.71) and (1.73) it is noticed that  1  is related to dissipation.
 x1 

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 5

Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

Hence, λ11 has also been called ‘dissipation scale’ and was thought as indicative of the

smaller eddies. In actual practice the sizes of the smallest eddies are still smaller (see
remark (iv) below).
(ii) Micro-time scale :
Taylor micro-scale is deduced from 11 which is the intercept of the parabola fitted to

the correlation curve R11. However, R11 vs. x1 curve as obtained from measurements, is
not very accurate near x1 = 0 and fitting parabola to it could result in a large error in λ11 .

However, Eq. (1.71) suggests an alternate way of determining λ11 i.e., deducing it from
2 2
 u   u 
measurements of u and  1  . But, measurement of  1 
2
is also complicated.
 x1   x1 
1

This is circumvented as follows.

The micro-time scale is defined as the intercept of a parabola, fitted near  = 0 , to the

R(  ) vs  curve. This is denoted by E and is shown in Fig.1.17b. Now, by an analysis

similar to the one used for deriving Eq.(1.71), it can be shown that :

2 u12
E  (1.74)
 u1 
2

 
 t 

E u12
Taylor micro time scale is defined as : λ t = = (1.74a)
2
 u1 
2

 
 t 

 u1 
2

Determination of   is simple and can be done by taking time derivative the u’ –

 t 
signal and taking its r.m.s value. This can be done using a hardware or a software.
Once, Taylor micro time scale ( λt ) is obtained, Taylor micro length scale( λ ) can be

obtained using Taylor hypothesis i.e.

2 2
 u1  1  u1 
   2  (1.75)
 x1  U  t 

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 6

Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

And λ = Uλ t (1.76)

The Reynolds number based on λ , denoted by R eλ is defined as :

u2
Reλ  λ (1.77)

It may be added that λ and the Reynolds number based on it ( R eλ ) are

sometimes used to characterize even non-isotropic and inhomogeneous flows. For that
2
 u 
purpose U, u 2
and  1  are measured and then Eq.(1.74a) is used to get λt .
 t 
Subsequently, Eqs.(1.76) and (1.77) give λ and R eλ .

(III) Spectrum and dissipation

Equation (1.70) relates R11  x1  x 0 and λ11 . Using Eq.(1.69), the expression for λ11 ,
1

as given by Eq.(1.71), is obtained. In a similar manner, R     0 can be

related to E as

(1.78)
1   R11    
2
1
= -  
E2 2  2   =0

Now, R11(  ) and the spectrum E11 n are related by Eqs.(1.51) and (1.52). From these

the following relation can be obtained :

1   R11    
2 
1  u1 
2
1 2π2 2
E2
= -  
2u12  t 
= - 
2  2   =0
 =  n E11 n dn
u12 0
(1.79)

2 
 u 
Or  1  = 4π 2  n2 E11 n  dn (1.80)
 t  0

Noting the term ‘n2’ in Eq.(1.80), it is seen that the peak in the spectrum of
2 2
 u1   u1 
  will occur at higher frequencies than that of E 11(n). Since,   is a measure
 t   t 
of dissipation, it is seen that dissipation takes place mainly at higher frequencies and in

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 7

Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

eddies of small sizes. Thus, the frequencies associated with energy containing eddies
(n1) and those with dissipation (n2) are widely separated. This is also indicated in
Fig.1.19. However, this separation between n1 and n2 is dependent on R eλ .

Reference1.30, chapter 6 may be consulted for further discussion. The fact that at high
values of R eλ , the values of n1 and n2 are widely separated is used in modeling of

dissipation term in models of turbulence (see chapter 5).

(IV) Kolmogorov scales

This topic has received considerable attention in recent literature e.g., chapter 6 in
Ref.1.30 and chapters 6 & 7 in Ref.1.23. Here, the important features are summarised.
Richardson (Ref.1.58) proposed that a turbulent flow consists of eddies of different
sizes. The largest eddies have length scale (L) of the size of the flow domain or the

integral scale. The velocity scale (Vt) of these eddies is of the order of u12 . According

to the notion of energy cascade, the large eddies are unstable and break up into smaller
eddies and thereby transferring their energy. The Reynolds number, R L, based on L and
Vt, is large and the effect of viscosity is negligible in the initial stages. The smaller
eddies breakup into still smaller eddies and the length and velocity scales become
smaller. A stage is reached when the eddies become very small resulting in a large
velocity gradient across them (see example 1.5). The viscosity now comes into picture
and dissipation takes place. It may be pointed out that dissipation means conversion of
mechanical energy (turbulent kinetic energy) into heat.
To arrive at the scales of these small scale motions, Kolmogorov argued that the small
scale motions are independent of the large ones. The scales of small eddies are
dependent only on the rate of dissipation ( ε ) of the turbulent kinetic energy and the
kinematic viscosity (  ). Let ηd , d and ud be the length, time and velocity scale

respectively of the dissipative eddies. Kolmogorov obtain expressions for ηd , d and ud

in terms of ε and  . This can be illustrated as follows.

Applying dimensional analysis ηd can be expressed as :

ηd = f  , ε  (1.81)

The dimensions of ηd ,  and ε are L, L2/T and L2/T3 respectively. Recall that in
Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 8
Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

dimensional analysis, L, T and M represent length, time and mass respectively.

Applying dimensional analysis to Eq.(1.81) gives :
L = (L2/T)a (L2/T3)b = L2a+2b T-a-3b (1.81a)
Equating indices of L and T on the two sides of the Eq.(1.81a) gives :
2a + 2b = 1
-a – 3b = 0
Or a = ¾, b = -1/4
Hence, ηd = (  3 /  )1/4

In a similar manner it can be shown, by dimensional analysis, that :

d =   / ε 
1/2
(1.83)

and ud =   ε 
1/4
(1.84)

ηd ud
Note : =1 (1.84a)

To get the relative magnitudes of the dissipation scales with reference to the integral
scales, Kolmogorov further argued that the energy dissipated by the small eddies is the
energy passed on to them by the large eddies. The energy of large eddies is
proportional to Vt2 ; where Vt is the velocity scale of the larger eddies which can be

taken to be roughly equal to u2 . The length scale of the larger eddies is L. Hence, the
time scale of the larger eddies (TE) is L/Vt. Consequently, the rate of energy transfer is :
Vt2
= Vt3 / L
L/Vt

Since, this is also the energy dissipated, ε also equals Vt3 / L .

Or ε = Vt3 / L (1.85)

Hence,
 
  3/4
1  v 3/4     VL
ηd / L =   =  = RL-3/4 , where RL = t (1.86)
L  V3  1/4

 t    t 
VL
  L  

Similarly, it can be shown that :

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 9

Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

d
= RL-1/2 and ud / Vt = RL-1/4 (1.87)
TE

Example 1.5
Consider the flow of air in a pipe of diameter 10 cm with flow velocity of 15 m/s. In this
case the length scale of the larger eddies (L) is roughly equal to the pipe diameter i.e.
0.1 m. Since, mean velocity ( U ) is 15 m/s, the velocity scale of the larger eddies (Vt)
can be taken as 0.1x ( U ) i.e. 1.5 m/s. The value of  can be taken as 15 x 10-6 m2/s.

= (1.5×0.1) / 15×10-6  = 10000

VtL
Hence, RL =

Consequently,
ηd
= 104  = 3 =
-3/4 1 1
L 10 1000
d
= 104  =
-1/2 1
TE 100

= 104  =
ud -1/4 1
Vt 10
Remarks:
(i) The turbulent flows are three-dimensional and governed by the unsteady Navier-
Stokes equations. Hence, the direct numerical simulation (DNS) which attempts to
capture all the eddies should have very fine three-dimensional grid. In the present case
of RL = 10000, the grid would be RL3/4 ×RL3/4 ×RL3/4 or 1000 * 1000 * 1000. When the grid is

fine, the time-step would also be small and hence, DNS is very intensive on
computational time and resources. As regards the experimental, work the size of the
probe should be very small to capture the smallest scales.
(ii) In the above example it is seen that the length scale of the smallest eddies is 1/1000
th of the scale of the larger eddies whereas the velocity scale of the smallest eddies is
1/10 th of the larger eddies. Thus, the ratio of velocity gradient across the smaller
eddies to the velocity gradient across the larger eddies i.e.

ud 
/ ηd  /  Vt / L  or ud /Vt  / ηd / L  is roughly 100 in this case. The velocity gradient

being large, the dissipation takes place at smaller eddies.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 10

Turbulence Prof. E.G. Tulapurkara
Chapter-1

(iii) As mentioned earlier,(Eq.1.73) the rate of dissipation in isotropic homogeneous flow

( ε ) is

2
 u  1  u 
2

15   1  or 15  2  1  .
 x1  U 1  t 

2
 u 
Further, measuring  1  is relatively easy. Keeping these facts in view, the above
 t 
expression for ε is also used to get a rough estimate of ε in inhomogeneous flows. This
value of ε is used to estimate the microscales and Kolmogorov scales in the flow under
investigation.

Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 11