Heywood JB Solutions Manual To Accompany Internal Combustion

Sol cccompany Lnternal Combustion Engine Fundamentals JOHN B. HEYWOOD Professor of Mechanical Engineering Director, Sioan Automotive Laboratory Massachusetts institute of Technology McGraw Hl Book Company NewYork St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogoté Caracas Colorado Springs Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan Montreal New Delhi Oklahoma Cty Panama Paris ‘San Juan $80 Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoINTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS by John B. Heywood Copyright 1988 by McGraw-Hil, Inc. Allright reserved Printed in the United States of America, The contents, oF parts thereof, may be reproduced for use with INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS by John B, Heywood provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not be reproduced in any form for any other purpose without permission ofthe publisher. 0-07-028638-8 34567890 GDP/GDP 9098765 Printer/Binder Greyden PressTITLE PAGE COPYRIGHT TABLE OF CONTENTS PROBLEM SOLUTION MANUAL STABLE) OF“ CONTENTS (201 05.8; 0° Stoyesd's o.8%= .02P 9 S0R. 1d. NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT © 2... . . ee eee ee ee CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER 1 " 12 13 4 15 ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION... 2.2... ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS .... . . THERMOCHEMISTRY OF FUEL-AIR MIXTURES ... 1... PROPERTIES OF WORKING FLUIDS ........... IDEAL MODELS OF ENGINE CYCLES... ........4 GAS EXCHANGE PROCESSES ............0.4 SI ENGINE FUEL METERING AND MANIFOLD PHENOMENA . . CHARGE MOTION WITHIN THE CYLINDER... ... 2... COMBUSTION IN SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES ....... COMBUSTION IN COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES .. . . POLLUTANT FORMATION AND CONTROL»... 2... 0 u ENGINE HEAT TRANSFER 2... ee. ee ee ENGINE FRICTION AND LUBRICATION. .... 2... 4 MODELING REAL ENGINE FLOW AND COMBUSTION PROCESSES (NO PROBLEMS INCLUDED IN THIS CHAPTER) ENGINE OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS ......... PAGE ia iit iv 16 26 ay 12 81 ou 105 130 140 152 160 167eee Notes Ws The problems in this text vary widely in complexity and time required for solution. Some are easy, some are very difficult; most fall in between these extremes. Some of the problems involve substantial calculations; others do not. Check the solutions of any problems to be assigned to ensure that the difficulty level and time requirements are appropriate. Many of the problems in the text require information beyond that given in the problem statement. This arrangement is a deliberate choice. In a field such as internal combustion engines which draws on many disciplines as well as extensive practical experience, students should be taught that engineering "problems" often need further definition. Making the appropriate additional assumptions and finding the necessary additional information is part of the learning process. The answers to these problems will of course depend to some extent on the additional assumptions and data used. A number of the problems are design problems. These have "better" or "worse" solutions, but not necessarily a unique or correct solution. A number of the problems ask for estimates of typical or characteristic quantities which define one or more aspects of engine operation. Use of an appropriate logic and set of assumptions to obtain the answer, and the approximate magnitude of that answer are what matters. Alternatives to the solutions given here may be just as satisfactory. Acknowledgement Messrs. Kwang Min Chun, Richard M. Frank, and David J. Patterson assisted in preparing several of these problems and solutions. Ms. Karla Stryker typed the solutions and set out the solutions manual. Their valuable assistance is gratefully acknowledged. ivChapter 1 ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION 1 Piston: ‘Transmit the gas pressure force to the connecting rod; seal the cylinder (with piston rings); compress the fuel-air mixture prior to combustion; draw in fresh mixture, expel burned gases (4-stroke cycle). Connecting rod: Transform the rotating motion of crank to reciprocating motion of piston; transmit forces from crank to piston and piston to crank. Crankshaft: Transmit the usable mechanical power; crank throws with connecting rods convert reciprocating motion of piston to rotating motion. Cams and camshaft: Open and close the valves (inlet and exhaust) at appropriate times in the cycle, via the lifters and rocker arms, Camshaft driven off crankshaft. Valves: Control the flow of gas into and out of the cylinder. Intake manifold: Direct approximately equal masses of air (and in some eases fuel) to each cylinder; in SI engines acts as a sub-atmospheric pressure plenum to reduce engine load below WOT levels. Exhaust manifold: Collect exhaust gases from individual cylinders and feed to common pipe which contains muffler (and sometimes catalytic converter).1.2 | (a arrnnd ) Note: piston accelerating towards crankshaft axis. Cohen dee preabnrt free Stee Ah Finch Thnk aaa 1.3 Spark- ignition Premixed charge drawn into cylinder; mixture prepared in intake system. Spark-ignition of fuel-air mixture, Load reduced by throttling air and fuel. Fuel:gasoline. Volatile, does not spontaneously ignite easily. Lower compression ratio (-10) due to knock limits, Lighter construction since pressure forces lower and less durability required. Only turbocharged in high performance applications. Diesel Air drawn in; fuel injection into cylinder just before combustion. Spontaneous ignition of fuel-air mixture. Load reduced by reducing fuel injected per cycle: no throttling. Fuel: distillate oil. Must ignite easily at high temperatures. Higher compression ratio (15 to 22); not knock limited. Heavier construction; higher forces and durability more important. Usually turbocharged (except in smaller sizes) to increase power.14 1.5 (a) U-stroke cycle Ivo Eve ve. Soc Pray Eoc EVO 1Vvo ie t ditt + t —3bo 180 ° 180 3bo Te Bc Te Bo Te (>) 2-stroke cycle SoC [mee EOC EPO IPO IPC EFC Soc ttt it tt t oO 180 360 Te Bc Te Intake and exhaust strokes of four-stroke cycle are much more effective at removing the burned gases from the cylinder and filling the cylinder volume with fresh fuel-air mixture than is two-stroke cycle scavenging process, Hence, full load four-stroke cycle cylinder pressures are substantially higher than two-stroke cycle pressures. Also, power is required to boost scavenging air (mixture) pressure prior to entry to cylinder. 1.6 a (2) @) With multicylinder engine, more firing strokes per crank revolution hence smoother output torque versus time. Forces on each piston, connecting rod, etc. reduced with multicylinder engine. Inertia forces that result from the acceleration and deceleration of piston (and connecting rod) reduced and with suitable arrangement of crank throws can be balanced so there is no (or only small) net inertia force, Reduces engine vibration problems substantially.wT a) (2) Major reason for higher heat losses with Wankel is shape of chamber near TC when combustion takes place. Wankel chamber has higher surface/volume ratio which results in higher heat losses. Higher leakage occurs due to greater difficulty in sealing the Wankel chamber effectively. Sealing the four corners of the chamber is hard. The length of the seals all around the chamber is much longer than the Length of a conventional piston ring for the same size engine.Chapter 2 ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS 2.1 (a) Diesel engines operate at much leaner conditions overall than spark-ignition engines, 0,056 < (F/A), 5 < 0.083 0.014 < (F/A)) < 0,056 From Eq. (2-41) mep = npmyQuypa,i(F/A) Although np and ny of a diesel engine are higher than those of an S.I. engine, the maximum bmep of a diesel engine is lower than that of a spark- ignition engine due to lower (F/A). (>) Maximum rated power occurs at higher speed than does maximum rated torque because the volumetric efficiency is lower at the maximum- rated-power speed, and the friction mep is higher since it increases with increasing speed. 2.2 Four valves per cylinder has lower flow resistance than two valves per cylinder due to larger valve open area. The airflow increase due to lower flow resistance will result in higher volumetric efficiency. Both the maximum torque and power will increase due to higher volumetric efficiency. A secondary effect is reduced flow resistance to gas flow out of the cylinder during exhaust. Another effect of four valves is the valve response, Valves can respond faster to a change in operating conditions due to reduced inertia. 2.3 (a) Engine in Fig, 1-4 (u-stroke): 5, 7 2LN = 2 x 0,092 x 5000/60 = 15.3 m/sPn, (65 x 103 )x 2 3 P/ASs P/(neB2/4) = --82-4-10_7 4. Wx w x 0,0875° (n = no, of cylinders) (>) Engine in Fig. 1-9 (4-stroke): * = 2LN = 2 x 0,076 x 4800/60 = 12.2 m/s Png «= 8H xX 107 x2 R bmep = gy * 3783800760 * 168 kPa P/A,= Ed = 2.3 win P 6 x x 0.089" (e) Engine in Fig. 1-12 (2-stroke): ‘Assume bore = stroke: = Tom, BeL=78 an © axt 5, 7 2LN = 2 x 0,078 x 5500/60 = 14.2 w/s pmep = TR. at 109 x1 P * GIN ” 0.737 x 5500760 = 607 kPa ~ eto ey 2x 4 x 0,078" = 4.3 MW P/A, 3 Engine in Fig. 1-12 is a two-stroke cycle engine. It has lower maximum rated bmep due to incomplete scavenging. Specific power is higher (but not twice as high) because there is one power stroke per revolution. a 2.4 (a) Engine in Fig. 1-20 (turbocharged 4-stroke DI): §, + 2UN = 2 x 0.136 x 2100/60 = 9.5 w/s Png 168 (or 246) x 10? x 2 --T5-s"STgO7EGT -n~- * 960 to 1406 kPaat 3 368.6or_ 246) 5.107 5.8. 2.5 vo 5.34 wwe? 6x 1 x 0.125) (>) Engine in Fig. 1-21 (naturally aspirated 4-stroke IDI) 5, = 2 x 0.08 x 5000/60 = 13.3 m/s PUA, Pou x x x 0.0765 (ce) Engine in Fg. 1-22 (turbocharged 4-stroke DI) 5, ~ 2 x 0.165 x 2100/60 = 11.6 w/s bmep = — g = 1175 kPa 6 x (a/4) x 0.137% x 0.165 x 2100/60 3 Pya_ » -300-%_10: Ed = 3.4 Mira? 6 x «x 0.137 (d) Engine in Fig. 1-23 (aircooled naturally aspirated 4-stroke DI) 5, = 2 x 0,130 x 2300/60 = 10.0 m/s 3 188x107 x 2 | bmep = 73,0-x 2300/60 ~ 132 kPa 3 pra, = 188-2107 28. 593 wat 8 x nx 0.128% (e) Engine in Fig. 1-24 (turbocharged two-stroke marine DI) 5, = 2x 2.9 x 78/60 = 7.54 w/s 3 bmep = ~---~ 3 saoza=o- = 909 kPa (a/¥) x 0.84%x 2.9 x 78/60 P/A_ = ---- = 3.43 MW/or (n/a) x 0,802 Note turbocharged engines have higher maximum bmep and specific power than naturally aspirated engines.Two-stroke cycle has lower max. bmep due to poorer scavenging but higher specific power due to power stroke every revolution. Maximum rated speed generally decreases as engine size increases. 2.5 The power required to move vehicle up hill of slope a is: g 7 (48 sin aS, Now: = 50 mile/n= 22.4 0/s A= ZW Use Eq. (2.188). Road load plus hill climbing power is: ae are P= [OMe + 5 pCpAS, + Mg sin als, 198. 236.8 2, P = [0.0135°x 1500 x 9.81 + 0.5 x 1.18 x 0.4 x 2x 2200 1500 x 9.81 x sin 15°] x 22.4 x 1079 P= 95 kW Note: 90 percent of this power is required for hill climbing. at 2.6 Eq. (2-27a) gives n, = + Since 5, = 2Nu, aa P ‘al ®, aida! 60 g/s x 4x 0.092 m - = 0.85 Ans. 1.184 g/2 x 2.28 x 10 m/s 2.7 Eqs. (2.27a) and (2.9) give: APS Al=n, x fapttste 0.92 x tefB E198 8 160 g/s Ans. 4% = 8 s/s rot” br" » (F/A) 7 eae rer, louele , Lain m,/cyl tex § x (2100 in * “3 rey a)tot = 8x Et aT Go" Yee = 16 mg/cycle/cylinder Ans. 2.8 Eq. (2.2hb) gives: 1 ae a = 0.3 ey” BPS (ag/3TO; /(HI7RE) l= Qu bsle +0 dsto(mg/J) = 2-4 av bse * a .03 Fuel yy (M78) sfe (mg/d) sfe (a/kWeh) Isooctane 44.3 0.0732 an Gasoline 44.0 0.0758 213, Methanol 20.0 01167 601 Hydrogen 120.0 010278 100 2.9 (a) mep = W/V g = MeeQey = Mp yh, Spy (FA) So, bmep = nmng,itvPa, iQiv(F/A) Now, Pai = Pa,i/(RTa, 1) Hence, pai (F/A) = (ng = 2 for 4=stroke cycle) With units: bmep(kPa)¥4(dn = liters) N(rev/s) Pp(kW) = ---------~' om Ya = "oyrinders Naax * Spmax/(2U) Careful with units (B and L in cm): s x -P(m/s) x 100/2 x 1000 Py (kW) = dmep(kPa) x noe6 cylinders: B= 15.4 cm (either is a reasonable choice) 8 cylinders: B= 13.3 em Assume stroke = bore : = 12.x_100 Scyl: Naa, = 39 rev/s Then: Naa, = 3 (en) max B cyl: Naa, = 45 rev/s (e) Use eqn from (a) to find (F/A) 5 Pai 72 atm = 2x 107 Pa Ty OD 4 Mpg = U2» n= 0.9 Gy 7 AZ MIke. Ray, = 6314/28 = 297 J/kg K Tay 7 325K 900_x 103 x 297 x 325 0.9 x 0.42 x 0.9 x 42 x 10 5, 2x 10°CF/A) LL = (F/M) gay 7 020304, (A/F) = 32.9 J 2.10 (a) Force balance for the piston along the cylinder axis: Let F be the friction force Fp be the gas pressure force p 7 PAp, where p is the pressure and Ap is the projected area of the piston. R be the reaction force in the connecting rod. @ ig the angle of the connecting rod with the cylinder axis. M be the mass of the piston. a be the acceleration of the piston. 10The axial force balance equation is (positive away from the crank): Tacig "M2 1 F > pap + R cose = Ma (>) Force balance transverse to cylinder axis: TFerans =0 ; Fr-R sing = 0. where Fr is the transverse force exerted by the cylinder wall on the piston. 2.11 From Eq. (2.19b): Po(kW) x na x 103 ssp) Vg EW (rew7s) bmep(kPa) = Typical value for bmep at rated power for naturally aspirated DI engine is 750 kPa, Also: p= 20N and Spgax = 12 9/9 + LN = Va = mk Te (2) Where B = bore (m), L = stroke (m) and ng = no. of cylinders. 3 Substituting (2) in (1) gives: 750 = --399.%_2.x_10.. ng(w/4)BAL x 109 x W xixdsour or, MgB? = it aig i 5 Assuming no = 8 gives B= 14 cm. Choosing B = L = 0.146 m gives: = 41.2 rev/s or N = 2500 rev/min Torque: Pp = 2mNTp, Eq. (2.13a) 3 >” Br x 2500760 1 = 1150 Nem Fuel flow rate: itp = bsfe x Pp (Eq. 2.214) Assuming a bsfe of 220 g/kWeh gives fig = 66 kg/h Ans. oemJ 14m,Q = workdoysle | TeteSay 2-12\ (a) (Pover! P= time/oycie © ,(1/il) (ng = no. of revolutions per power stroke) Pos mem, (F/A)NQy/n The amount of air inducted is Ma = nypaVd = MyPaApl Hence: P= n¢(F/A)nypakpLNQay/na Mean piston speed is 5, = 2LN Hence: P/Ap nerwoate “Area Fg) For 4 stroke engine: ?/Ap = (mep)Sp/i For 2 stroke engine: P/Ap = (mep)S,/2 (>) Spark ignition engine of Fig. 1-l: Pp = 65 kW at 5000 rev/min, Vq = 2.2 liter. n, 3y 9 jg ~ 2.2°x"5000760 = 109 kPa bmep = 5p = 2LN = 2 x 0.092 x 5000/60 = 15.3 m/s Pp/Ap = 709 x 15.3 = 2.7 MA/m? Turbocharged diesel of Fig. 1-22 Pp = 300 kW at 2100 rev/min Vq = 6 x (4/4) x 0.1372 x 0.165 x 103 = 14,6 liter = 1174 kPa, 5 = 2 x 0.165 x 2100/60 = 11.6 m/s Pp/Ap = 117M x 11.6/4 = 3.4 MW/ me Large marine two-stroke cycle diesel of Fig. 1-24 Pp = 1.9 MW/cylinder at 78 rev/min Vq (per cylinder) = (w/t) x 0.8u2 x 2,9 x 103 = 1607 liters = 909 kPa 12= 2x 2.9 x 78/60 = 7.5 m/s Ph/Ap = 909 x 7.5/2 = 3.4 MW/m 2.13 Find the bore and stroke: assume equal Va Me(t/4)B2L = no(n/4)B3 = 1600 om3 Ng = 4, hence B= L = 80 mm (a) Piston speed: Sp = 2LN = 2 x 0.08 x 2500/60 = 6.7 m/s Sp,max * 1-63 5, (from Fig. 2-2) = 10.9 o/s (b) Max. intake charge velocity: Now: Voort port” Sp,max4p Voor, 7 109% 5 = SS m/s (¢) At 2500 rev/min, one crank angle is equivalent to (60/2500)/ 360 = 0.0667 as Thus: one engine cycle = 720° = 48 ns the intake process (IVO = 15° BTC, IVC = 60 ABC) = 255° = 17 ms the compression process (BC to 30° BTC) = 150° = 10 ms the combustion process (30° BTC to 30° ATC) = 60° = 4 ms the expansion process (TC to BC) = 180° = 12 ms the exhaust process (60° BBC to 20° ATC) = 260° = 17 ms (4) Flame velocity: Assume flame travel length Lp = (2/308 Flame travel time = 60° = 4 ms Average flame velocity Ve = 0.67 x 0,08/4 x 1073 = 13 m/s 13fe) shaded vol = (x/4)D%, Assume average intake manifold runner diameter Dj = (1/2)B. Then if shaded vol. equals displaced cylinder vol. (n/4)D 2g = (1/4) BAL or Ly = 0.08 x 4 = 0.32 m Typical port length is 10 cm and manifold runner length is 20-25 em. So each fresh cylinder charge essentially fills the port and runner. (f) Assume exhaust manifold runner diameter De = (1/2)B. If cylinder charge occupies ngth Le, then (1/4) De2Lepe = (n/4)B2Lnypa, i Hence Le = (Be tng S884) e e Le = 4 x 0.08 x 0,085 x 2.3 = 0.6m (ai = Pe x (425 + 273)/25 + 273) = 2.3 be, since pe and py are almost equal) v 2.14 Given: Weight/Vq = const., bmep(max) = const., Sp(max) = const., (P/Ap)max = const., B= L 142 v. ni (1/4) BOL LAE - const. 72 = const, ee | sonae x Pp ny (0/4) But Vg = no(n/4)B2L = no(4/4)L3 is fixed. Hence: weight/power = L « nq71/3 15Chapter 3 THERMOCHEMISTRY OF FUEL-AIR MIXTURES 3.1 Air flow rate fi, fh, = (A/F) ftp = 15.13 x 2 = 30.3 g/s (4 + $200, + 3.73 Np) + + + he - + 6:5, 400, + 5H,O + (575 - 1) x 6.5 02 Total moles: n= 4+ 5 + 0.72 + 27.2 = 37 Wet exhaust gas composition: CO, = 10.8%, HO = 13.68, 0, = 2.0%, N, = 73.6%. 1 3-3. Cyly + 4 (3 + 2) (0, + 3.773 ND) 1 1 7 300, + MHLO + (5 - 1) 50, + 5 x 5 x 3.773 Ny Total moles products (dry; water excluded): mp3 +5 Gn + 18.9 2 = 22-2 e =e Os -- co, = 10.8% i % 100 5 02 = 85s Solve for: ny = 27.8, and 9 = 0.8 163.4 (a) Quy per unit mass of mixture = Su, yy Per unit mass of fuel = Q LAY, Then: Say Q, xo Liv, ~ Sunv, Fuel (A/F), Shay (187K8) Shy, (78) methane 17.23 50.0 2.74 isooctane 15.13 4u.3 2.75 methy alcohol 6.47 20.0 2.68 hydrogen 34.3 120.0 3.40 (b) Calculate the volume per unit mass of mixture, First find the molecular weight of mixture If fuel ts C,#,0,, stoichioimetric mixture will be: CoHgO, + (n+ w/4 = p/2)(0y + 3.773 Np) Mp( + A/F) free y = Bass_of_mixture_ where M, is fuel molecular weight Then calculate the ‘volume per unit mass of mixture: --298.15_K x 9314 J/mol+k 1.013 x 10°Pa xM ais wr xi Then lower heating value per unit volume of stoichiometric mixture, Quy ¥ is - x (a/v) Suv, ~ Suav,, Fuel (Pg MWB) ay Cha aethane 16.08 17.23 27.8 0.88 3.11 fsooctane 114.23 15.13 30.5 0.80 31u2 methyalcohol 32.04 6.47 2g.k 0.83 3.22 hydrogen 2.015 330 2101.18 2.92 3.5 The equivalence ratio from the air and fuel flow rates is 7Now calculate the equivalence ratio from the exhaust gas composition measurements ¢,: estas 3 CH, gy (0, + 3.773 Np) of + aco, + dH{0 + cCO + F 4.87 + A8gf x 3.773 Ny The total number of (dry) moles is: waste + 3:54 moat ges 2 From carbon conservation: asc-l : a : ¢ x, #@13 "5-3 4% = 0,028 = =- Cy ny + *o nS Hence: ny = 6.33 Now ny = 0.13n) + $x 0.026n, + 3:34 e ag 7 1 The two equivalence ratios match well. Bee brake work = 0.3 x 190 = 57 Ki = 305 fQhy (>) friction work = 57 x (gg - 1) = 14.3 kW X 100 x fipQyy = 7.6% iheQhry (e) heat losses = 60 kW 60 = 799 F100 X AyQyy = 328 Quy (4) exhaust chemical energy = (1 - 0.94) x 190 = 11.4 kW = qi x 100 x @ 68 a 750 * eSyy * OF Bey (e) exhaust sensible energy = 190 - (a+ b+ 0+ 4) = 190 - 57 - 14.3 - 60 - 11.4 = 47.3 kW = M03 FOG" * 100 MpQyy = 24.9% BQ 183.7 Consider reaction Ny + 0, = 2NO Given N:0 ratio is 15. Consider 15 moles N, and 1 mole 0, initially; let a/2 moles of each react to forma moles of NO: species moles mole fraction Ny 15 - of2 (15 ~ a/2)/16 oe, 1 - a/2 (1 = a/2)/16 No « a6 t 16 1.0 Use equilibrium relation Eq. (3.40): log K, normally expressed per mole of product NO. Then: . (a/i6 mpg so 1012 Cas = avay/16]'/2Ec1 = avay/16)'/2 251a° = (15 - a/2)(1 ~ a/2) = 15 - Ba + al Solve: = 0.23 yp = 2223 = oor 3-8 (a) From the ideal gas law pV = n&T where n = no. of moles : 5, BB, 12013 x 10°P8 2 422 x 1072 kmoie/m3 = 1.22 x 1073 gmoie/on? Vv oRT 8314 J/kmol-K x 1000 Hence: [co] = # x 0.03 = 3.66 x 10°? gmole/em? (0,1 = # x 0.07 = 8.53 x 107? gmole/on? () MED 2 mug x 10"! x (3.66 x 1077) x (8.53 x 1077)9*Sexpt-203 =~ 1.0 x 107? (gmole/em?-s) (c) Consider co + 5 0; = co, ie 10 K = 710 recombined. Per 100 moles gas entering reactor: + thus at equilibrium essentially all of the CO will have 19entering equilibrium equilibrium species moles moles mole fraction 3 e a/n T 5.5 + o/2 (5.5 + a/2)/n 6 9-4 (9 - aim Bu a4 B4/n Too" n= 985 —a/2 7.0 Equilibrium relation (p = 1 atm): (gz. din = kK = 19! (asa (5.5 + a/2)/n)'/? y Since act, a = 9(98.5/5.5)/2/1010 «ux 10? 1 Xe 74x 107'', essentially zero (4) Approximate relation for time to reach equilibrium CO concentration is: t= [00], o/|(elcov/at) yg | = 3.7 x 1077/10" = 40 mg (The actual time to reach equilibrium will be longer since the reaction rate decreases as the [CO] concentration decreases.) “9B.9) The overall combustion equation for hydrogen is: + O38 . e + ae . Hy + 223 (0, + 3.773 Ny) = H,0 + 0.5 (2-1) 05 Thus: product species no. of moles mole fraction HO 1 Vn ©, os (b-1) et > 3d e. Ny 0.5 x 3.773/9 n= 0.5 (1 + 4.77376) We can find ¢ from mole fractions or ratio of no. of moles. Easiest method: 20° 22.3 TSE ~ 7073 wich gives 9 = 0.6 3.10 The overall equation for lean combustion of hydrocarbon fuel CH, is: eloed + > +t chy + 4 (1 + G)(0, + 3.773 NA) + C0, + £HL0 stoeb-asd elas CO + = es Bt0g + 3 + yy 3.773 Ny (a) Atomic H/C ratio = y = 2% o/F¢9 2 2 y = 2 x 0.0468/0.05855 = 1.6 (>) Combustion products art 1 Co, + 0.8 HAO + 1.4 (F - 1)0, + The mole fraction CO, is: *co, = 408+ tu hee 2 ¢ Solve for ¢: 424.773, pee ¢ (c) Onlywandiesel can"operate with @ = 0.4) "This is beyond the lean limit for SI engines. 170.0585 = 17.1 = ou +b (4) Maximum equivalence ratio is about 0.7 for a prechamber diesel. Since it is a 2 liter engine it will be a prechamber engine. Hence increase in fuel flow rate = {@sZ.z. g24)_x 100 = 15% 3.11 Stoichiometric reaction for fuel C,H,0, with air is: a _P. 2 CyHaOp * (n+ G ~ 3)C0, + 3.773 Nz) + nCO, + F HAO + y Ny The stoichiometric fuel/air ratio is then: Fy = = Qs 3 (4.773)(28.97(n + B 137.9 (n+ B- £) 21 aac ¥Also, if the Q.., of fuel is known, the lover heating value per unit mass t of stoichiometric mixture is given by: (me) Qay (LEV) . Say, (UH Fuel CoH nD n mn Pp (F/A) 8 (A/F) 3 Mi/kg MJ/kE Methane CHy 1 4 ° 0.058 1762 50 2.74 Isooctane CgHig @ 18 0 0.0661 15.1 44.32.75 Benzene Cols 6 6 oO 0.0753 13.3 40.2 2.82 Hydrogen Hy 0 2 0 0.0292 34.3 120 3.40 Methanol CHYO 1 1 0.155, 6.5 20 2.68 Note: Differences between (LHV), are much smaller than between Sav, 3.12 (a) Consider each component of the LPG mixture separately: 0.7 x [C3He + 5(3.773N2 + 05) + 3C0, + WHO + 5 x 3.773NQ] 0.05 x [CyHyg + 6.5(3.773N, + 02) + HCO, + 5HA0 + 6.5 x 3.773N] 0.25 x [OgHg + 4.5(3.773Ny + 05) + 300, + 3H,0 + 4.5 x 3.773N9] Add these to get overall stoichiometric combustion reaction for one mole of LPG: (O.7CyHg + 0.050 yyy * 0-250 ye) + 4.95 x (3.773Ny + 05) + 3.05C0, + 3.8H,0 + 18.68N, Ans. The stoichiometric fuel/air ratio is given by: (O.7_x_3_+0.05 x4 + 0.25 x3) _x 12 + (0.7 x 8 W795 x 4.773 x 28.56 (E/A), = WU.2/684.2 = 9.0646 (A/P), = 1/0.0686 = 15.5 (Note the numerator of the above expression gives the molecular weight of this LPG as 44.2.) 22(>) Higher heating values for each compound are: CoHy 50.38 Mi/kg, (Mol. We = 44) Cytyg 49.56 Ma/ke. (Mol. Wt = 58) CH 48.95 MI/kg (Mol. We = 42) Higher heating value of the LPG fuel per gram-nole is: Qpay * O-T x AY x 50.38 + 0.05 x 58 x 49.56 + 0.25 x 42 x 48.95 ; = 2,209 MJ/kmole Divide by molecular weight of LPG to get higher heating value per kg = 50.0 MI/kg The lower heating value (LHV) can be calculated the same way, or: 1 mole fuel gives 3.8 moles HAO Thus the lower heating value per kmole Quy = 2.209 - 3.8 x 18 x 2Hk2 x 1079 = 2,042 MI/kmole (26U2 Ki/kg As Rog Of water) The lower heating value per kg is: 2,042 Mi/kmole _ Suay * GH,2 Re/kmole AG.2 Wi/kg Ans. 3.13 Stoichiometric combustion equation for isooctane Cgli., is: Coty gs + 12.5(0, + 3.773N5) + 8co, + 9H50 + 4T.2N, For lean combustion (9 < 1) 1 rm Cyliyg + ~g" (Op + 3-773NQ) + 800, + HAO + 125(7 - 190, + where 6 is the equivalence ratio. The total no. of moles of products including water is 2 1 y 2849+ 1255-1) ¢ The no. of moles of products after H,0 removed is:, 2 _ 59.7 +t 5 The mole fractions in the dry products are: 1 +8125 (G- 10+ 23pace x, = | LeBSi i/o) = 1) % °2 » Thus: Mole fractions in dry exhaust Equivalence %, x, x, ratio ¢ * 2 °2 Np 0.5 11.9 0.0696 0.109 0.822 07 80.8 010991 0.0663 0.835 0.9 61.8 0.129 0.0224 0.849 10 55.2 0145 0 01855 For rich mixtures (>: Cyyg + 1222 (0, + 3.773N,) + 200, + bH,O + cCO + dH, + # aig * 9 (Op * 3.773N2 2 * DHE 2 Given: c= 345 Element balance gives: a+ c= 8, 2b+ 2d = 18, and 12. Solve to get: ‘The total number of moles of products (with water) M2 2 yy satbdtords For dry products after water removed: 2 sacovas M2. 1 cr. 183) ¢ Hence, mole fractions are: gg, * ie ~8BY/ ays gg = Ba - 3) + Hy = Roo/3 + hy = HT/Cony) 2 2 Mole fractions in dry exhaust ’ x z *D co, ‘co a 1.0 55 0.145, 0 0 0.855, 1 51.3 06323 0.033 9.011 0.833 143 45.6 0,081 0.095 0.032 0.793 1B ata 0.082 0.151 0.050 0.757 The air/fuel ratio is 14:(12.578) (32s *.32773 x 28.18) yy Bet x Solve: eo. 8 so mixture is rich Find mole fractions on wet basis (with water included): a/n, = 0.110 co, = dyn, = 0.1m oq ° c/n, ‘= 0.022 Ans II 4T/en,, = 0.720 Total Je, = 1.000 0 Equvalene rtio 6 25Chapter 4 PROPERTIES OF WORKING FLUIDS 4,1 (a) Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for ethane Cog is (Eq. (3.6)) Hence: = (my/m,)/(F/A), = Use Table 4.3: aot ergy ty = 0.571 3 v= 3.773 2 Equation (4.6) gives e: (K-1)02 = ofK(2¢@ - 1) + €6] + 2(1 - €9)} + 2Kep(d - 1) = 0 (3.5 = 02 = of3.502(1.10 = 1) + 0.57901.10)] + 21 ~ 0.571(1.109)} + 2(3.5)(0.571)(1.10)(1.10 = 1) = 0 c2 - 1.4590 + 0.177 = 0 ce = 0.134 cO2 20 co Ha 02 Ne moles ny 0.495 0.877 0.134 0.068 = 0 3.773 Ky(= ny/5.345) 0.0926 0, 1641 0.0251 0.01270 0.706 (b) Stoichiometric (F/A) for ethanol CaHg0 is (Appendix D, or Eq. (4.7a)) 0.111. Hence the equivalence ratio is: = (0.48/7)/0.111 = 0,618 Equation (41.7): THOS ETS OeT8y ~ 1-058 Equation (4.7¢) gives: Ye co = 1.058 x 0.618 = 0.654 ) x 1.058 x 3.773 = 3.422 and y= (1 ~ S2)qy = (1 ~ 928213 26Use Table 4.3 with @” instead of ¢ and y" instead of us cog #20 co He 02 Ng moles ny 0.373 0.561 ° ° 0.346 3.422 %q (= ny/4.702) 0.0793 0.119 ° 0 0.0736 0.728 4.2 (a) Use the ideal gas model with constant specific heats of Example wate Constant volume combustion: £q. (4.23) is: My Tht Oy 7 DGRMS > ay, From Example 4.1; Yy = 1.31, Yp = 1.21 = 1.2 x10" K oR Given: T= 700K, 6=1, X= 13 from Fig. 4-1: My = 30.2, Mp = 28.7 Tp = (121-1) + 1.2 x 10" k) = 2885 K 4231, 700 + 1.2 x 104] = 2467 K () Use charts for the calculations; Figures 4-3 and 4-{ For a constant-volume adiabatic combustion process, Eq. (4.29) gives Up = dus Usyu + dup For a constant-pressure adiabatic combustion process, Eq. (4.28) gives hp = hy = Bs,u + ae Enthalpies and internal energies of formation of stoichiometric unburned mixtures vary with burned gas fraction as follows: (Eq. (4.32)): yu 77 12967 = 2981 xy kd/kg air Up y = 7 118.2 - 2956 x» kJ/kg air 27From Fig. 4-3: us,y = 370 kJ/kg air; hg y = 490 kJ/kg air Hence Up = 370 + (-118.2 - 2956 x 0.1) = -43.8 kJ/kg air hy = 490 + (-129.7 - 2951 x 0.1) = 65.2 kJ/kg air From Fig. &-8 (¢ = 1.0) with v = 0.125 m3/kg and up = -44 kJ/kg, constant volume adiabatic combustion yields: Tp = 2600 K For constant pressure adiabatic combustior Up = hy - py = 65.2 - 15 x 101.33 xv kd/kg air = 65.2 - 1519.9 v kJ/kg air Using pp = 1520 kPa, and trial and error with Fig. U-8 gives Tp = 2400 K 4.3 (a) My decreases as xp increases because Mp < My, as can be seen in Fig. 4-1, and because less fuel is present. Hydrocarbon fuel compounds have the highest molecular weight of all species in the unburned mixture. (©) Mp decreases as T increases because there is more dissociation at higher temperatures and dissociated species have lower molecular weights than their nondissociated counterparts. (c) Mp decreases as ¢ increases rich of stoichiometric primarily due to the increasing CO and Hp concentrations and decreasing COp and Kz0 concentrations. 4.4 For an ideal gas: he n(T) , w= u(T) , py = (R/M)T, cy = du/dT, Cp = dh/ar, For fixed composition, M = constant. Since heustpveus+ (A/M)T (a) gh. g, : =o +R aap Ms c+ um Now Y = ep/ey 28Hence Me tT > C7] Use Figs. 4-15 and 4-16, with R = 8.3143 kJ/kmol+K, for 9 = 1.0: 1750 K 2250 K 2750 K ep (J/kg *K) 1.4 1.12 2.44 ¥ (= ep/ey) 1.254 1.216 1.181 M 28.5 27.2 22.2 M (Fig. 4-14) 28.6 28.5 28.1 As temperature increases, the fixed composition assumption for burned gases becomes poor. M is then a significant function of temperature and differentiation of equation (A) above becomes more complex. 4.5 (a) From Table 4.7: Mole Mass Sp R= Rm ep s fraction fraction i (i/kg +k) (/KB+K) mixture ep x x * C02 0.125 0.192 Ted 189 1342 18 #20 0.140 0.088 5.88 461 2713 7 N2 0.735, 0.720 4.23 297 1256 65 1,000 1.000 400 “From Fig. §-11 at 1750 K xy = RM Deyty $ mixture cp = xjep,4/Jxjep, 5 (0) ep of exhaust gas mixture from (a) is xjep,4/Jxyep,j op(mixture) = 0.192 x 1342 + 0.088 x 2713 + 0.72 x 1256 = 1800 J/kg: For air, use Gas Tables; Keenan, Chao, Kaye, or extrapolate Fig. 4-15 to ep(air) = 1270 J/kg+K 29Cp of burned gas mixture is greater than cp of air at same temperature, 1750 K, due to presence of triatomic molecules. It would take more energy to increase the temperature of the burned gas mixture by one degree than to raise the same amount of air one degree. 4,6 As @ is increased above 1.0, not enough air is available to burn completely the carbon and hydrogen present in the fuel. Thus increasing amounts of products of partial combustion (CO and Hz) must be present. Because the mixture is air deficient, 02 concentration is low. As CO and H2 increase, so C02 mole fractions and eventually H20 decrease, as ¢ increases. AS @ decreased below 1.0, increasing excess air is available. Thus 02 mole fraction increases steadily. Since excess air is present, concentrations of products of partial combustion (CO and Hz) are low. Since increasing amounts of excess air are present, CO and H20 mole fractions decrease, 4.7 The data in Fig. 4-22 are well fitted by the straight lines: = 0.1479 = 0,211 = 4) Hog =O for 6 < 0.75 gq § 0-05 for 0.9 > 6 > 0.7 where these are mole fractions in the dry exhaust gases. Table 4.3 gives: mys (oes tr vy and my 9 + 201 ~ ee Hence dry mole fractions are: 30£¢. For (CHz), fuel, € = 4/(4 + y) = 4/6 = 0.667, and y = 3.773. Hence Agreement between linear fits to the data in Fig. 4-22 and Table 4.3 is Bood, Since 0.079 << 1. 4.8 The equivalence ratio based on net HC and dry inorganic gas analysis is determined from £q. (4.67) as follows: Hl eee * ikqq + 2% + + iio.) - ,0/"*co * *%o, * *vo ~ Mio, where Xj = (1 - xy o)% Fy ny = nl (= Fy hy + RED = Ry + Bo Pp Haya H30 ‘CO. CO, x, Be ie * 1,0 7 an op Xx; denotes wet mole fraction of species ; * X{ denotes dry mole fraction of species; fuel composition: Cplig0p = Calits.12 To obtain Eq. (4.67) it is assumed that the composition of the unburned hydrocarbon is the same as of the fuel and that *co *u,0 31+ +s Hoa ¢ 13212 re BPg7G(0-0064 + 0.14) /01 + STEEP O-ag + 5A5°g (0.0064 + 0.14)] = 0.120 = 60.6 (3200 x 1076) + (1'= 0.120)(0.0064 + 0.14) er 2 60.6 x 0.12 + 60.6(1 = 0.12)(0,0064 + 2 x 0.14 + 2 x 0,007 + 3600x10 °) = 1,003 = 0,130 , np = 53.3, which with the data gives (e) &, = 0,107 , np = 69.4, which with the data gives 4.9 (a) The chemical energy leaving the engine is ToSava summed over the combustible components in the exhaust, Cglig, H2 and CO. The fuel chemical energy going into the engine is mpQLuv,f- ‘The mass of fuel per mole of exhaust gas is (x, 2 mass carbon mass hydrogen — unburned fuel + Xp) 12 + (xy gt My) 2+ x, xa ‘co, * *co HO * x, Cag Hence, the combustion inefficiency is: (0.0003 x 114 x 44.4 + 0,005 x 2 x 120 + 0.01 x 28 x 10.1)/ £(0.12 * 0.01) x 12 + (0.14 + 0,005) x 2 + 0.0003 x 114] x 4u.u = 0.066 or 6.6% Ans (a) (b) the fraction of this inefficiency which corresponds to unburned fuel is: 32(0.0003 x 114 x 44.4)/(numerator in the above expression) = 0.27 or 27% Ans (b) 4.10 (a) Engine is operating at part-load, close to stoichiometric, so it is a spark-ignition engine. Is there enough 02? Have 2% 02 in the exhaust: 0.5% CO requires 0.25% Oz to make COz; 0.5% CHp (UHC) requires (0.5 + 0.25%) 02 for complete combustion. Answer is yes, there is sufficient 02 to burn CO and HC fully. (>) Inefficiency due to CO is 0.5 x (12 + 16) x 10 MI/$ = 140 MJ/5 Inefficiency due to HC ts 0.5 x (12 + 2) x 44 = 308 MJ/% Fuel energy input = (x 12+ 11.5% 240.5 x 12+ 0,5 x 14) x 4H = 7392 MI/4 140 Hence: 60 inefficiency = 1485 = 0.019 or 1.98 and, aC inefficiency = 2985 = 0.042 or 4.28 (c) With a perfect catalyst, all the CO and UHC would be converted to Oz and H20. Combustion efficiency would increase from 0.939 to 1.0, an increase of 6.5 percent. Hence specific fuel consumption would decrease by 6.5 percent. 44.11 (a) Overall combustion equation for isooctane is aCgyg + (Oz * 3.773N2) + 11.4CO2 + 2.9C0 + cH20 + 1.602 + B4.1N2 (volumetric fractions are the same as mole fractions) Equate coefficients of different elements: b = 84.1/3.773 = 22.3 5 a= (11.4 + 2.9/8 = 1.79 ce = 9a = 16.09 So, per mole Cgl;g, the overall combustion equation is 33Cgiig + 12.502 + 47.0N2 + 6.38C0p + 1.6200 + 9HpO + 0.8902 + 47.0N2 (b) i Q Fuct g £, + tur xhamot Rg Products For control volume around the iz working fluid, steady flow, Contre Veluwe (hg - hp) a= G+ W Per mole CgHig: wnere ny, is the sensible enthalpy = h(T) - n(25°C)) i By = 6.38 (-393,522 + 15,823) + 1.62 (-110,529 + 10,789) + 9 (-241,827 + 12,710) + 0.89 (11,200) + 47.0 (10,789) i= <4 B= -4,117,000 ku (iy ~ fp) = 3,867,000-kJ/kmol Colt, g so lng = Rp) = 3.0 x 10> x 3,867,000/114 = 102 kW a= 102 - 50 kW = 52 kW Ans. 4.12 (a) For control volume around the working fluid in the engine, apply steady flow energy equation: 34Mey = mene, rgQuy(=H) + Q + mexn(he - he) where hg - he = hg,e, the exhaust sensible enthalpy. For $= 0.8, and (E/A)s = 0.067: fh, = 0.5 ke/s, ftp = 0.8 x 0.5 x 0.067 = 0.0268 ke/s fhexn = 0.527 kg/s net fon 6 3 I Se 192 0.527 0.0268 x 42 x 10 = 64M ko/kE Use Fig. 4-10, sensible enthalpy for burned gas at low temperature. For hy g 7 Gull kd/kg, Te = 830 K at 6 = 0.8. Rated brake power: . A 6 Pat nalteny seGry 7 0-85 x 0.0268 x 0.45 x 42 x 10) = 431 kW (b) Heat transferred in boiler = tie shs,e hg, at boiler inlet (830 K) = 644 kJ/kg hg g at boller exit (N00 K) = 120 kJ/kg So, heat transferred = 0.527 x (644 - 120) = 276 kW 35additional power = 0.3 x 276 = 83 kW New total power = 83 + 431 = 514 kW 3 Total system brake efficiency = ----2!4-%-192_. 0.0268 x 42 x 10! = 0.46 413 P 2 R = 287 J/kg+K Py = 101.3 KPa Ty = 325K ‘ Find pz and Tz: Py y 1.4 (a 32+ = 22 = 75.75: pg = 76.74 KPa 1 = 2204 5 3.3: Te = 1119 K (d) Use gas tables for air, Table D.1, Appendix D: Ty = 325K uy = 391.9 kd/kg = 960.6 Ph = 97613 Table give Tg = 1031 K P, = 6779 + po = 101.3 x 6779/97.13 = 7070 kPa 2 Table gives ug = Qu kJ/kg (c) Using model of (a) ug - uy = ey(Tg- Ty) ey = R/(Y-1) up = uy = 282 (i119 - 325) = 570 ka/kg 36Using model of (b) Ug = uy = 94H - 392 = 552 kd/kg 18 Difference is 325 x 100 = 3.3% (4) The fuel energy added per cycle = Unie, for diesel fuel Quy = 43 MJ/kg of fuel (E/A) = 0.0666 Urner Sy * (FADS Xo = 43 x 0.0666 x 0.75 = 2.19 MJ/kg of air Using model of (a) = 287 Qieat trans X 100 = 71.8 kJ/kg. Thus Q)/Upye * 3:38 Using model of (b) reat trans ~ S44 ~ 859 = 85 ki/kg. Thus @../0 3.9% fuel ~ 4.14 Equation (2.6) gives the cylinder volume ene Gee oa = (R2 - sindey'/?: Yr t 5 (tg ~ WIR + 1 - cose - (R2 - sinde)'/7) R= t/a, assume 3.5. Given re = 22. Find V/Ve at 150° (30° ABC) and 15° BTC: At 150° W/V = 20.97; at 15° W/Vo = 1.458. Hence, actual volume ratio 150° to 15° = 20.97/1.458 = 14.4 Use relative volumes from Tables of Air Properties in Appendix D, Table D.1, Ty = 325 K, which gives = 960.6 1 = ¥, & (V2/Vq) = 960,6/1H.4 = 66.8 1 Tables give Tg = 892 K Pe + PLE (Py Mp) = 16013 x 3842/97.13 + HON0 KPa 1 These compare with 1031 K and 7070 kPa from 4.13(b) with compression through full 22:1 volume ratio. Differences are significant. 374.15 The purpose of this problem is to learn how to use an equilibrium computer program. (a) Input data: Number of carbon atoms in fuel: Number of hydrogen atoms in fuel: 18; Molar N:0 ratio for oxidizer; 3.773 Type of problem: assigned temperature and pressure Input state variables are: 1, Temperature = 2500 K 2. Pressure = 40.0 atm 3. Equivalence ratio = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4 The outputs of computer are shown in following figures:2 oe lo Ie 7 p (>) The enthalpy of the unburned mixture is the sum of the sensible enthalpy hg,y and the enthalpy of formation ah, | Ay = Mayu . hea Similarly the internal energy uy is given by “7 su * Mey From the table: h, = 27.02 - 53.37 = 26.55 kcal/mole The ideal gas relations are used to find uy for the unburned mixture - pve 7 Pu uy = - 26.55 - 1.987 x 700 x 1073 = 27.94 keal/mole 39The overall combustion equation for the isooctane is + A x 12.5 x(0, + 3.773 Ny) = products 18 From the ideal gas equation OFT W778 The calculations of the volume per unit mass of mixture for the different ¢ are listed below: ¢ 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 u(om3/g) 98.2 97.3 96.3 95.4 94.6 93.7 92.9 and T, Use the equilibrium program to calculate T, const v = const Py = const. The results are plotted below: on, ob roog bt ssopL—2 494.16 C. State 1: Unburned gas, py; = 101.35 kPa, T a ; bons. 1 3 Find mass m: é bm, use piv; = at, , om it For $= 1.0 Calg + 12.5 (02 + 3.773 Ng) * products For unburned mixture 8) Thus: m= 101.35 x 103 x 103 x 30.4/8.314 x 103 x 298 m= 1.24 x 1073 kg At 298 K, the sensible internal energy of the unburnt mixture is zero. The internal energy of formation of the unburned mixture is bug y =~ 118.2 = 2956 xp g/kg air For constant volume adiabatic combustion: Uy sus t dup, = O- 118.2 = 118.2 ka/kg air Also, vg = vy vy = 1073/1,24 x 1073 = 0.80 m3/kg mixture So, v2 = 0.80 x 1.066 = 0.86 m3/kg air Use burned gas equilibrium chart, Fig. 4-8, to give: Tz = 2680 K, pz = 1000 kPa for this By Ne 4.17 Equation for the stoichiometric mixture of butane and air is: Cui + a02 + 3.773aN2 = 4CO2 + 5H20 + 3.773aN2 Equate coefficients of individual elements: 2a = 8 +5 = 13, which gives a= 6.5. 41Hence with 50% stoichiometric fuel we have: CyHty9 + 1302 + ¥9.0N2 = 4COg + 5HZO + 6.502 + 49.0N2 or, 1 mole fuel + 62.0 moles air + 64.5 moles products For constant volume adiabatic combustion: Ug = Up (for same datum: R = reactants, P = products) Given internal energy of combustion (i.e., heating value at constant volume). For the constant volume calorimeter experiment: 4, (298) ~ U,(298) = Q, = aU,(298) Subtract these equations: Up ~ Up =U, - Up - avy Pp UR We can now use the tables of internal energies given in Cent Ve Cermb. the problem. Evaluate properties per gmole butane. ar u ~ 6293) x 64.5 = (38,424 - - 77) x 1 + (12,596 - 6161) x 62.0 ~ = 2,659 x 108 x1 which gives Up = 54,300 J/gmol Data in Table shows: Tp = 2077 K Use ideal gas law to find p: 4243Chapter 5 IDEAL MODELS OF ENGINE CYCLES 3 5.1 (a) yo Given p, = 1 bar, T, = 289 K, r, = 15; assume average value for mol. wt = 29 which gives R= 8314/29 = 287 J/kg+K e, = R/(Y/1) = 957 J/kg: op = 1244 I/kgeK Compression: y 143 Py Pros 1x 15'3 = 33.8 bar 1 0.3 Tye Tyry = 29x 15 = 651 K Heat added during combustion per kg mixture is 43,000 x 0,045/(1 + 0.045) = 1852 kd Heat added at constant volume and heat added at constant pressure = 1852/2 = 926 kJ. Constant volume combustion: . -7,) + 3. - *T,. = Qoigg 7 MOy(T3q ~ Tz) 4 926 x 107 = 1 x 957 (Ty, - 651) +75, = 1618 K 3 44Find a in Eq. (5.43), and p3: @ = P3q/Pp 7 T3q/Tg) = 1618/651 = 2.89 = 33.8 x 2.49 = 84 bar Constant pressure combustion: = -T ; 3 ay - > . Qyq = 3p 7 MplTgy ~ Tyg) + 926 x 107 = 1 x 1248 (Ty,- 1618) + 75, = 2362 K Find 8 in £q. (5.43): B= VayVaq * Tap/Tyq * 2362/1618 = 1.46 Find fuel conversion efficiency, Eq. (5.43): mh = 1 = 0,542 Ans. (b) Constant volume cycle 1-2-3" - 4 a ; 3. 7 + . Qyigh = moy(Tt Tp) 1 1852 x 10% 1 x 957(T,*- 651) + Ty = 2586 K Pgt/Pa = T38/T, + pyt = 33-8 x 2586/651 = 134 bar Efficiency, Eq. (5.31), a e Yt 0. r 15 alae C226) Gonstant pressure cycle 1 - 2 - . . ; 3 a 4a (Ta, +13, * Qpagy = MeQ(Tz~ Tp) + 1852 x 107 = 1 x 1244 (T,,- 651) +7, = 2100 K Ny = T3,/T, = 2140/651 = 3.29 a=tyB=¥ 37 3 Efficiency, Eq. (5.43), 45' 13x 15°> 3.29 -1 G2) nase case: Case (1): ri = 10 = 1.0 atm Case (2): py = 1.5 atm Compression process: yy . 13 Bp/P, = (W4/VQ)" = Py Py = 1.0(8) 14,9 atm 1 143 T/T, = Fe 1,0(10)''3 = 20.0 atm 4.5(8)'°3 = 22.4 atm Combustion process: 35 mo(T, = T,) with Q, 5 = mQy Hence: 1; Since p3/pp + T3/Ty for constant volume process: oo tl By ae T, moyT, Pie Using the fact that: = 9.3 -2--- rood e 720 93 CE ne Py * 9-3R 7 19Py 46(a) Base case: = 14.9 + 9.3(8 - 1) x 1.0 = 80 atm Case (1): 20.0 + 9.3(10- 1) x 1.08 103.7 atm Case (2): py!" = 22. + 9.318 = 1) x 1.5 = 120.1 ate Case (2) gives the highest pressure (>) The fuel conversion efficiency depends on compression ratio: 1 : Sor ng 17 253 = OnueH 1 eT 17 og = 0.499, ' 1 10°" z1-4) 5+ ony. 30-3 Case (1) gives the highest efficiency. (ce) imep is given by, Acer WI) imep = e So: imep = 9.3ngp,/(Y-1) Thus: imep = 14.4 atm, imep' = 15.5 atm, imep'! = 21.6 atm. Case (2) gives the highest mep. 5.3 First find p, for pb P, = 1 atm, @ = 0.75 bs 47Find pp: oD 1.35 Pa = PyPg = (1-0)(16) = 42.2 atm At point (2), the temperature is = tyry 7) = (3257016793? = 858 « The combustion process: (half the fuel burnt at constant volume) Oza” Mey 7 My(Tz.” Tz) where m= total mass Also, cy = R/(Y ~ 1) = 287/(1.35 - 1) = 820 J/keK The heating value for a stoichiometric mixture per kg of mixture is: pote kg_fuel . Qstoten * 425 gg rast * +0866 pE-aih 28.3 MJ/kg air For naturally aspirated engine, 6 = 0.75, 80 the actual heat added overall, is: Q, act ~ letotcn ¥ $7 0-75 x 28.3 = 21.2 MJ/kg mixture Because only half the fuel is burnt at constant volume: G 21.2 x 10 -3°37 Hao” +: 858 = 2152 K Q, 1, = 3! 3a” 20) 2 P. tT. T. since Pde sp, = Hp, = 2182 Pp iT; 3 T, 2° 858 x 42,2 = 106 atm The turbocharged engine operates with the same P3- With p, = 1.6 atm, find ,,,,.1; which keeps p, = 106 atm r 1.35 Now: py = Pyrgh= 1-6(16)'*3° = 67.6 atm . ee 0.35 And: Ty = Tyrg 325(16) 858 K So: »5 106 Tyg tpl Te 7 aire x 058 = 13K Q, since -2% = oV(Ty> Th) + Quo 2 x 820 x (138N-858) = 797 ki/kg mixture 48Hence: © = Qoe/Rstoich 7797/2830 = 0.28 a Fuel chemical energy released per cycle mQ, is My + m,c,(T3 - T2) 2 since given my < m, Work for expansion and compression strokes is: Weg 7 CylTg ~ Ty) ~ ey(Tz - 7) Pumping work = (p, - p,)(V, - V5) Hence, net indicated fuel conversion efficiency is: The last term, the change in efficiency from the ideal unthrottled cycle value is, an = pC a fi Now pv, =a, 8 if om Ko, Rr, Thus: 2Given: m,/m = 0.06 y= 13 ey = 946 J/kg +K Say 7 M4 Marke (a) At (1): py = 100 kPa, T, = 320 K At (2) following isentropic compression: Pa/Py = (Vy/Vg)" = 9193 w 17.4 + py = 1740 kPa = YI 5 903 oT T/T, = (WV) 9 1.933 +1, = 619 K = 9:06.x 44 x 10 +7, = 340K Bey = eg TZ) F TS P3/Py = T/T, = 3410/619 > py = 9590 kPa Isentropic expansion (3) - (4): Ye (1793 © 0.0575 + py = 551 Kea (By/P3) = (5/Vy aaa 0.3 | aire (ty/tg) = Wyrty) "= Crz9y 0.517 + T, = 1760 K Isentropic expansion (4) - (5) Ps = 101 KPa cerry 0.3/1.3 ee Ty/Ty = (P5/Py) = (101/551) = 0.676 +7, = 1190 K (b) Efficiency, Eq. (5.30): 1760 - 320 7 SIO-=" 85 i ore MeN yey To 6.3 7 o.48 50Now: ime = npMeQyy/Vy 5 EQ. (5.2) J ai Need mp/Vy. Given m, = 0,06m, m= pv/(RT), V = Wglt(s)1/7)- Combine these to obtaii Mp/Vq = 0.06[p/(RTI(1 + PL )/ry Then: 1649 6 imep = 0.06 x 7g BX TG? x WY x 10° x 0.483 = 1540 KPa 5.6 Fuel conversion efficiency of limited pressure cycle is att = TS) + VT 35 oe T, = 45 + 273 = 318K Ty = Tyr) = 318 x 15°F = 717K Pe Say Ts =X, 3a “vam oy + T, from Eq. (5.41a), x, = fraction of fuel burned > at constant volume. 6 Ty 7 Hp ¥ 0-04 x im 9 See 1T9TX, +T, 3, '¢ SuHy Tay = 1 = xy) gf HE + t, erom Bq. (5.410) Typ = =) x 0.0 x BIO agg a et 3b Hy) KOON x TK SNE 3a % 3a Ty = Tay (Vgy/Vy)) : need V5n/V, 30°¥30/V 4 ; 30/V a> Ideal gas law gives: Pyavza ~ 3. 5 Pap¥3y 7 ATap t Since Pzq 7 Pzy + Vaq/V3y * Tyq/Tgp > and since Vy/Vgq 7 Fg + then Va,/Vy = (T3/T34)/Pg Thus: 51INITIAL TEP 71 = 318. COMPRESSION RATIO = 15. LOWER HEATING VALUE = MEA GAMA = ve FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 33.80 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 42.28 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 50.75 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 59.23 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 67.71 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 76.18 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 84.66 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 93.14 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 101.61 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 110.09 FRACTION BURNED PRATIO = 118.57 AT CONSTANT VOLUME: TSA = 717. AT CONSTANT. VOLUME: TSA = 896. [AT CONSTANT. VOLUME: TSA = 103 AT CONSTANT VOLUME: T3A = 1258. [AT CONSTANT VOLUME: T3A = 1435. [AT CONSTANT. VOLUME: T3A = 1615. [AT CONSTANT VOLUME: TSA = 1798. AT CONSTANT VOLUME: TIA = 1974, AT CONSTANT. VOLUME: T3A = 2154. ‘AT CONSTANT. VOLUME: TSA = 2334. AT CONSTANT. VOLUME: TSA = 2514. 0.68 Tee 0.78 138 = 52 2099. 2148. 2182. 2389. 24st. 2472. 2514. he The The he Th he he he 4. he he 1288 1233. 1197. um. 1182. 1139. 1128. 1123. 1118. 1118. 1118. ETA = 0.491 ETA = 0.511 ETA = 0.525 ETA = 0.538 ETA = 0.543 ETA = 0.549 ETA = 0.552 ETA = 0.555 : 'Ht MeL 1 T3p, 3b re T3, Since we want to plot fuel conversion efficiency versus P3/Pys we need the Pressure ratio for a given x,. This can be found from Y P3/P2 = T33/Tz Py = Phy 7 33-8 PY + P3/P, > 33.8 (73,7) The results below are calculated for x, = 0 (constant-pressure cycle) to x, = 1 (constant-volume cycle). 5.7 With the constant volume cycle all of the combustion takes place at top center providing optimal use of the expansion stroke for the conversion of the fuels chemical energy to useful work. With constant pressure combustion, much of the fuel is burned after the piston has begun to travel downward reducing the effective expansion ratio for mixture which burned after top center. Reduced expansion ratio reduces the expansion work that is extracted. 5.8 Spark-ignition engine: imep(g) = bmep + rfmep + pmep = 250 + 100 + (105 - 25) = 430 kPa 53Compression-ignition engine: imep(g) = 250 + 100 + (105 - 100) = 355 kPa At these conditions, the CI engine has 7 percent lower imep(g) while producing the same brake mep, due to its lower pumping mep. 5.9 (a) Equation (5.32) gives imep(g) Te 4 eciete MeeeB=) 1 = =), 1 r Py Fe e of = 0.06 x uu x 10° = 2.64 x 10° J/kg mixture ple). Py 946 x 3130 «1463-1 95-1 So: Net imep is given by imep(n) = 16.3p, - (100 - py) = 17.3p, - 100 kPa (>) Torque T: Work per cycle = 4xT = (imep)V4, so displaced volume must be known. N N Power P: P = work per cycle x 5 = (imep)V, 5 80 displaced volume and engine speed must be known. 545.10 (a) V> (b) Assume Y= 1.3, ¢, = 946 U/kE+K, c, = 1233 J/kg+ State (1): P, = 200 kPa, 1, = 325K State (2 isentropic compression 1 + 2 Y 13, PoP ioe ale Pa = $180 kPa s Ml 2 440-3 7 T,/T, = (V/V) 14 iT mK State (3 : constant pressure combustion: Muy 7 Me,(T,-7,) +7327, + 42. nye mT + 0.03 x 28 37 Py = $180 kPa State (4): isentropic expansion 3 + 4: Py/Pz = WV3/Vy)T = (175.7813 + py = 638 kPa yn Ty/T, + (W5/V, 0.38, 3 = (1/5.74) Ty = 1036 K State (5): isentropic expansion 4 + 5: 55- 100 kPa (given) 5 TylTy + (05/Py) Y/Y = (100/638)°9/1"3 + 2, = 676 K summary: a @ Qo Mm Pressure, kPa 200 6180 6180 638 100 Temperature, K 3250 TIT.~—« 17501036876 (ce) Indicated fuel conversion efficiency: 1036 - 325 > VSS = 77 7 "ig? 7 Indicated mean effective pressure (Eq. (5.¥4)): * Q r, imep(g) = aan oy Te igs * = (mp/m)Q yy = 0-03 x 42.5 = 1.28 MI/KE imep(g) = 53 imep(n) mep(e) Tein ~ "Pig Note that the work involved in supercharging the air to 200 kPa has not been included in imep or np j- 5.11 See Problem 5.10 solution for diagram of supercharged constant-pressure cycle. Given: @ = 0.4, x, = 0,025, py = 200 kPa, T, = 325 K. Compression 1 + 2: Find v;: Ideal gas law £q. (4.26) and Table 4.6 gives v = 0.47 m/kg air 200 x 10 Use Eq. (4.25a) and Fig. 4-t: 56oat 1 ~ Agfa) = 10 - 289th yy = 833 J/kg air -k Figure 4-4 then gives y= 820K. Py = Py(TQ/T,)(v,/v,) = 200 x 820/325 x 14 = 7065 kPa The compression stroke work is (using Fig. 4-3): - Wg = Uys - = 4N0 - 20 = 420 kJ/kg air Constant-pressure combustion 2 + 3: Pog" Buz 7 Psyu2 * Meu From Fig. 4-3, oh. (820 K) = 595 kJ/kg air = = 51.9 = 1181 x 0.025 = - 81.4 kJ/kg air the yd = 0.4) = = 51.9 - 1181 x, Hence hz = 595 - 81.4 = 513 kJ/kg air. With p, = p2 = 7065 kPa and us = h, - p3vz, solve for state (3) using trial and error with Fig. 4-5 and the ideal gas law. Solution is: = 0,073 m/kg air, u, = 0 kJ/kg air = 1750 K, v, 3 3 Isentropic expansion 3 > Easiest method, since burned gases at low temperature, is to assume Yp = 1-3 (see Fig. ¥-16) over relevant temperature range. Then, expanding to vy =v, = 0.87 m/kg air: 1 "> 13 Py = P3(¥g/¥y) ° = 6180 (0.073/0.47)'*? = 549 KPa yt 0.3 73(¥4/¥y) = 1750(0.073/0.47) = 1000 K Expansion stroke work: use Eq. (5.11) and Fig. 4-5: Wg = (Uy wy) + P2v3 = ve) = 0 - (- 720) + 7065(0.073 - 0.47/14) = 999 kJ/kg air Isentropic expansion 4 + 5: At 700 - 1000 K with @ = 0.u, ¥, = 1.33 from Fig. u-18a. p = 100 KPa. 57Thus: %, 1.33, 3 Wg 7 Vy(Py/Pg) > = 04705497100) = 4.5 m/kg air Oy OY, 0.33/1.33 Ty + Ty(P5/P,) = 1000( 100/549) = 655 K (>) Efficiency; see Example 5.2: 999 - 420 3 7 9:506 0.4 x 0,069 x (1 = 0.025) x 42.5 x 10 HV where Table D.4, Appendix D, has been used for light diesel fuel (F/A), and Suv imep: x = ‘e Ic 999 - 420 imep() = goog) OATS aia) * LeT kee imep(n) = imep(g) - (100 - 200) = 1427 KPa (ce) Residual fraction, see Eq. (5.17): X= Vp/Vg = (OVAT/TH)/H.5 = 0.0075 which is lower than the assumed value, but since x, is small will not affect the calculations significantly. Residual fraction is smaller than for naturally aspirated engine due to supercharging. (a) Shaded area is reduction in pumping work. Normal eyele pumping work is * (py > Py Wy > VQ) 58(>) Shaded area is a maximum when p, = p,. Then, 8 + 1, since : #5 Vy = vO adiabatic and reversible, Varyo = Va(P,'/P,) (e) The reduction in pumping work, the shaded area, 1 * = PoVerye ~ Yo) + f pay 7 Py Wy - YQ) y, -V.) - pW vy + sm sonst VQ) - Py Wy VQ) +S SORE ay = PeVerve ae exve’ Since pv” = constant along 8 + 1 (reversible, adiabatic) Verve" So reduction in pumping work is * Pe(Verye ~ Ve) - Py Wa 7 VQ) * VT Now: Verve ~ Vm(Py /Pe) + $0 reduction in pumping work is * yr * wet PelVaPy (Pg) ~ Va) - Py - VQ) * Py Val (PQ/Py) e - 1] ans.5.13 3 Constant volume fuel-air cycle calculation: P (a) Intake process: For open system which consists of cylinder content: 2 U, - Us = mu, - mug 4 = pg(Ve - Vy) + (my - mh, es Rearrange: Se = acne : is 4! myn, ~ mghy = (my - mg)hy or oh, | (1 = x.) = ang Given T,, = 300 K, then h, , = 0 from unburned mixture chart. Use hint (residual mass fraction x, = 0.03 and residual gas temperature = 1370 K) to find hy, = 1810 kJ/kg air from } = 1 low temperature burned gas chart (Fig. 4-10). Then h, = 0 + 0.03 x 1810 = 42.3 kJ/kg air 1 From unburned mixture chart (Fig. 4-3) for ¢ = 1 we find = 343K, and 17 35 kd/kg air ry Find vy: ¥; = nT,/p, From Table 4.6 (unburned mixture composition for charts): n = 0.0351 + 0.002 X > 0.0352 moles/kg air So v, = 0.0352 x 8314.3 x 343/1.013 x 10° = 0.99 mvkg air Find vy): v= v,/ng = 0.988/8 = 0.124 m/kg air Use isentropic compression chart (Fig. 4-4) to find T,: UT) = (T,) ~ AR an (v,/v,) W(T,) = 1H0 - 292 £n(1/8) = 787 J/kg air-K which gives T, = 675 K Use ideal gas law to find p,: (pg/P,) = (Vy/¥Q)(Ta/T,) = 8 x (675/343) = 15.8 60Use unburned mixture chart (Fig. 4-3) to find uy): at T, = 675 K, Ug, = 330 kJ/kg air Combustion: 453 7 Hua * Ygsus * py 7 Ug ua * (7 118.2 - 2956 x) = 330 + (= 118.2 - 2956 x 0.03) = 123 kJ/kg air Use equilibrium burned gas chart (Fig. 4-8) with 9 = 1.0, u, air, v, 3 Expansion Expand at constant entropy to v, = v, = 0.99 m'/kg air to obtain 1g 7 123: kd /ke = vy + 0.124 m3/kg air to find T, = 2920 K and p, = 7300 kPa. Ty + 1970 K, py = 600 kPa, uy = -1390 kJ/kg air. For point 5, which defines residual gas state, expand gas to p, = 101.3 kPa (1 atm) to obtain T, = Ty = 1370 K, v5 = 4 mvkg air. 5 5 (b) Find fuel conversion efficiency: Wy = (Ug > uy) ~ (uy - uy) = 123 - (-1390) - (330 - 35) Wy + 1220 ki/kg air 1220 (1 = 0.03)0.662 x MH.u x 10 = 1420 kPa , so imep/p, = 14 (d) Find residual gas mass fraction, Eq. (5.17): + ¥o/¥5 = 0124/4 = 0,031 (checks OK). (e) Volumetric efficiency: ny 7 m,/ (0, Vq)i use intake conditions of 300 K and 1 atm as reference conditions (i.e., 9, 5 = ;) n= (1 - x,)V,/v, (must allow for residual). vy WW, a V5). Hence: 17 2 613 5.14 (a) Cyele 1-2-3-4-5-6-1. Given At (1) T t 3 300 K, p, = 10° Pa 0.9 m/kg air 0, = 1.0 < s Fuel-air cycle analysis: Compression 1 +2: use Fig. 4-3, u,, = 0 Ss = 270 kJ/kg air Sse 2 We = > (gy = Ug,) = - 270 kd/ke air. Combustion 2 + 3: use approach of Section 4.5.3 = 1.0, 50 Mp , = -118.2 - 2956 x, hence dup, = 118.2 ki/kg air M3 7 Yaa * Ysyug * Mey 7 270 - 118.2 = 152 kd/kg air Use burned gas chart Fig. 4-8 with u,,, and v, = 0.9/8 = 0.11 m/kg air T, + 2900 K, py = 9000 kPa, 83 = 9.63 kJ/kg air+K Expansion 3 + 4: Expand gas at constant entropy to v, = 0.9 m/kg air. Ty = 1750 K, py = 650 kPa, uy = -1470 kJ/kg air Wy + 152 - (- 1870) = 1622 kJ/kg air 62Work per cycle = W, + W, = 1622 - 270 = 1352 kJ/kg air Indicated (gross) fuel conversion efficiency: 0.0661 x 4.4 x 10° ni = fig "Lay Mean effective pressure 1352 OKT W, imep(g) = ¥ = 1720 kPa ole (>) Cycle 1-2-3-4A-5A-6-1 State (3) same as in (a) above. To find (4A) follow 8 = 83 = 9.63 kS/kg air+K on burned gas chart Fig. 4-8 to vy, = vgrg = O.11 x 12 = 1.32 m/kg air. This gives: Tyy = 1600 K, ty, = -1660 Kirke air ry Hence: W, = 152 - (-1660) = 1812 kJ/kg air Wy Wy + We = 1812 - 270 = 1540 kJ/kg air 1540. ae = 0.53 THE 9.0661 x 44.4 x 10° ‘The overexpanded cycle is more efficient than the normal cycle. imep(g) = 1270 kPa But imep is significantly lower. 5.15 (a) Use fact that u, = u, and v= v, for constant volume adiabatic combustion, Use charts, Figs. 4-3 and 4-8, for isooctane-air mixtures for thermodynamic properties. Given ¢ = 1.0. For T, = 700 K, Fig. 4-3 gives u, , = 375 kJ/kg air Find u, from uy = Us, * dup ,. For @ = 1.0, Section 4.5.3 gives: bug 7 7118.2 - 2956x, kJ/kg air 63Then, with u, and v, determined, find T, from u vs s equilibrium chart Fig. 4-8. x au, uss chart +7, e fo gsyg air “Y” ® x? ot =a -39 2780 0.3 1005 -630 2480 3 . where, v= 0.2 m/kg air = vy The difference in burned gas temperature is 300 K (b) Find expansion stroke work: expand each case at constant s on Fig. 4-8 chart tov = 6x v= 1.6 m/kg air. 'v Then work per cycle, W, = Wp * Wy = Wy - 300 kJ/kg air kJ/kg air 43 y, He ¥, 0.1 319 71520 1481 1181 kJ/kg air Ans. 0.3 630 1880 1250 50, (ce) To obtain equal indicated work per cycle from these two cases, inlet pressure and end of compression pressure for x, = 0.3 would have to be increased (by approximately the ratio 1181/950 = 1.24). 5.16 (a) Model for cycle: 3 6-7 intake stroke r 7-1-2 compression stroke 1-2 adiab. rev. compression 2-3. const. vol. combustion 2 a 3-4 expansion: adiab., rev. 4-5-6 exhaust process o t 3.7 v vy Ny "7 Vyl¥3 er 64(>) Carry out fuel-air cycle analysis per kg air in original mixture at State 1. Compression stroke work = - pyv,(=2- 1) + (u, - uy Expansion stroke work == Find v, (@ = 1.0) 1 Go through 8:1 compression ratio: use Eq. 4.25a and Fig. 4-! W(T,) = (300) = Hence y(T,) = 607 which gives T, = 585 K. = nRT,/p, = 292 x 300/1.01 x 10° = 0.865 m9/kg air Uy + Ug (300) = 0 uy = Uy .9(585) = 260 ki/kg air Combustion; use approach of Section 4.5.3: Uy Ugg t Mpg Tg y 7 118.2 - 265 = 9 kJ/kg air Locate 3 on burned chart (u vs s) Fig. 4-8: 6 x, 43 = U3 = Uy yo - 118.2 - 2656 x 0.05 = 260 - 118 - 133 ay = nfitn(V,/V,) = 292 an8 = 607 J/kg air (vg + vg * ¥4/r5 = 06865/8 = 0.108 m3/kg air; uy 18 ki/kE air) 3-l follows an isentropic to (1) vy ~ 8, - 0.865 a3 /kg or (2) vy> 16 37 1.73 m3/kg. Hence: r e rey Wy Pv,(ze 1 e ki/kg kd /kg ka kg 8 15001510 ° 16-1950 1960 88 65 (uy - ay) ka/kg 260 260 c ka/kg -260 348 ec ki/kg, 1250 1610(for r 5 £ 5 16. 5) 2 7 18) PyYy & = 1) = 1.013 x 10° x 0,865 (“3 - 1) = 87.6 kd/kg) So: indicated work per cycle is (1) 1250 kJ/kg air; (2) 1610 kJ/kg air Mean effective pressure: tmep = Wo/ Vg = Wy/(¥y 7 ¥g) = W./0-108 (ry= 1) For r, = 8: imep = 1650 kPa For r, = 16: imep = 990 KPa (c) Indicated efficiency increases as r./r, increases (by the ratio of Wy, 1:1.29). However, since imep decreases, by the ratio 1:0.6, the power density decreases. 5.17 (a) (b) Use fuel-air cycle results graph, Fig. 5-10. For = 1.2, 7558, — imep/p, = 11.8 G $= 0.7, ry = 12, imep/p, = 9.7 Since p, (SI engine) = 1 ata, U8 (dise engine) = 1 x 3 = 1.22 atm (absolute) (¢) No, brake powers will be different because: (1) the supercharging compressor must be driven by some of the shaft work. 66(2) the pumping work (part of the friction) = p, - p, is essentially zero for the SI engine, but Is positive for the DISC engine since p, = 1.22 atm, p, = 1 atm. (4) For SI engine: $= 1.0, r= 8 + imep.p, = 11.7. P, = 0.5 atm so imep = 11.7 x 0.5 = 5.85 atm For DISC engine: P, = 1 atm so imep/p, = 5.85. Look in imep/p, vs equivalence ratio plot Fig. 5-10, to find that ¢),5- (part load) = 9.4 Ans Now look up indicated fuel conversion efficiencies in Fig. 5-9 2 OR, P12 + ng 5 = 0.55 210,78 + Tp, 7 0-425 ratio of efficiencies is 1.29 Ans. One sees the advantage of the DISC engine (and the diesel engine) at part- load: much higher efficiency. One sees the disadvantage: lower power/ displaced volume unless the inlet pressure is boosted. 5.18 (a) b Actual cycle Vv (>) Ideal cycle version of the real cycle 671-2 intake 2-3. const. vol. combustion 3-4 adiabatic expansion 4-5 exhaust blowdown S 5-6 exhaust stroke Yeo we 2 rage Use Figs. 4-3 and 4-8 to calculate 2-3-4. For gas in cylinder as system, first law gives: uy (us, + aut) ue 3,u fue 7 2beanos For $= 1.0, Section 4.5.3 gives Aue y = 7118.2 - 2956 x, (x, = 0, for Vy = 0) Hence: u,, = 118 kJ/kg air Now va, = ¥, 30 Find v5, 2u* p(Pa)v(m3/kg air) = nfi(d/kg air+K)T( For @ = 1.0, nR = 292.0 J/kg air-K from Table 4-6. Hence (p = 1 atm): vo, = 228.20 3 3 kg air = 0.865 m/kg air = y, u2 1.013 x 107 D3, Find State 3 on the burned gas properties chart for ¢ = 1, Fig. 4-8: Ty 7 2680 K, * Py3 7 1000 kPa Process 3 + 4: expand to twice the volume: 3, Yu 7 2¥pg 7 1673 w'/ke airs sy = 843 Hence Tyy 7 2380 K, py = $20 kPa, un, = -720 kJ/kg air 68. n2-191#.0:865 . 9.18 ans. 0.0661 x 44.4 x 107 "ey 4 (note the extra pav term in the efficiency expression!) Indicated mean effective pressure: (493 imep = ) (since V= 0) %y * Yarspiaced (c) Typical values for a constant volume fuel-air cycle calculation (with rp = 8, @= 1.0, py = 1 atm) are: Tp, 7 0-425, tmep = 1200 kPa The differences are due to: (1) The low expansion ratio of the Lenoir engine (about 2) gives low expansion work. (2) The absence of compression process prior to combustion with the Lenoir engine, and the use of only half the displaced volume for the air intake Process, result in much less effective breathing for a given V4. (4) Reasons why brake thermal efficiency is ~ 5%: (1) Heat transfer to walls (2) Finite combustion time, so not constant volume combustion and actual expansion ratio of some burned gases is less than 2. (3) Friction, mechanical efficiency significantly lower than 1.0 5.19 Use results of fuel-air cycle calculations in Figs. 5-9 and 5-10 to estimate engine performance. Graphs give ng ; and imep/p,. From Eqs. (2.9) and (2.19): P,(max) = (imep) (ny = 2) eng’ ¢Nnax/"R N /(2L) = 15/(2L) rev/s max * pmax 69where (imep),,¢ = 0-8 x (iP) oer ain cycle Engine 1: ny = 7, @ = 0.8, B= 0.092 m, L = 0.09 m, Vy = 3.6 an? Engine 2: ry * 10, ¢= 1.1, B= 0.083 m, L = 0.08 m, Vy = 2.41 dn? Engine oan imep/p, Nuax imep P rev/s kPa kW 1 0.425 9.7 83.3 970 116 2 o.ut4 12.5 93.8 1250 113 Explanations: (a) Increasing compression ratio improves efficiency; operating lean of stoichiometric improves the thermal conversion efficiency and operating rich introduces a significant combustion inefficiency. (b) @ = 1.1 gives the maximum imep for a given compression ratio. Lean mixtures do not fully utilize the air in the cylinder, so power is significantly reduced. Note: efficiency of conversion of fuel energy of the smaller engine is about the same as for the larger engine. 5.20 Use the graphs of fuel-air cycle results, Figs. 5-9 and 5-10, to estimate effect of changes in compression ratio r,, equivalence ratio ¢, and inlet pressure, p,. (a) Fuel-air cycle results: ‘ By "rig -«tmeP/P, == imep(g) atm kPa diesel 16 O.4 1.0 0.59 6.2 620 SI engine 9 1.0 0.5 0.44 12.3 615 Now: ny (engine) =n% 0.8 x Ne ig (fuel-air cycle) ny 2 1 > tfmep/imep(g) where tfmep = mfmep + pmep Given mfmep = 0.3 x imep(n), where imep(n) = imep(g) - pmep 70imep(g) pmep imep(n) mfmep tfmep Th ny(eng) kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa diesel 620 ° 620 186 186 0.7 0.33 SI engine 615 50 565 170 220 0.6% = 0.23 Hence: ny(diesel)/n, (SE) = 0.33/0.23 = 1.4 (b) Choose mean values for r, (12) and @ (0.7) to evaluate effects of bo and ar, on ny yg respectively, from fuel-as cycle results in Fig. 5-9: ALG 20.7: np gglrg = 16)/np sglry + 9) + 0.557/0.472 = At rye 12: np glo = 0-4)/np yg(@ = 1.0) = 0,55/0. 485 Py effect: nm (diesel)/n,(SI) = 0.7/0.64 = 1.09 Combined effect is: 1.18 x 1.13 x 1.09 = 1.46 (agrees with answer in (a)) Relative contribution of (1) aro, (2) d¢, and (3) 4p, is: 133: 228 7CHAPTER 6 GAS EXCHANGE PROCESSES 6.1 (a) Stochiometric air/fuel ratio (Hy + CpH,g) + 13(0, + 3.773 Ny) + 8 CO, + 10 HAO + 49.0 ND (AR), = 13032 + 3.773 x 28.16)/(2 + 110) » 15.5 Ans (for CoH, alone (A/F), = 15.1) (>) Heating value for Hy: Quy = 120 MU/kgs for C; Qay 7 Mee Md /kg 18° for mixtures Q iy = (2 x 120 4 114 x W4.4)/(2 + 114) = 45.7 Mi/kg Ans (c) Find relation for bmep in terms of other variables we know. imep(g) = We se/Va Mejig™eSunv/Vg atse dmep = nytmen(e) so bmep = rahe, seal Q ay/Vgr Since it is the same engine, V, cancels out. We can relate n, to p, and p,: = cDMEB_. . -----—-DBER.. "m ~ imep(g) ~ Smep + rfmep Fpmep ~ 2757573 Assume that m, (mass of air) is proportional to p, via ideal gas law. Then — Eng, ¢g@3(F/A)Q iy] sooctane ~ [Mae 1g%a(F/A)CuuvInyarogen + isooctane where m, is proportional to p,. Thus: sae-e-Fldeo-ee - BIST IgE a gs 0-35 x ME x MUD x 0.8 x 15.1 275. ESAS" TSS CTBT EBT FOF Py MEAT OS € 155 Solve to find p, = 59 kPa, pmep = 42 kPa Ans. So for leaner mixture, the pumping work is less. 726.2 For stoichionetric Ho-air combustion : H, + 0.5 (0, + 3.773 Np) * products. > no. moles air 0.5 x 4.773 Total no. moles ~ 775°005"x 4.775 ~ Protal, Fuel energy flow rate is f,Q,y = A (F/A)Q,y (tae Qyy) (8 (F/M) Qqy) (PCF/A) Quy) x, K, x, Hence: - — a0 eo (a, (ih (F/A) Gy) (p(F/A) Gy) SHV a aN ape Insert numbers: (ip Qyy) 0.705 14.4 120 = x --7- x --- = 0.807 Ans. (ig Qy) 1 34.300 uk gas Note p, for gasoline is close to unity (1 to 0.98). Conclusion is that the maximum power will go down. 6.3 (a) Pumping work (shaded area) in (B) for same p,, py, V, obviously less than in (A). « & ® 4 Vv Vv (>) For conventional cycle (A): Exhaust work (gas to piston) = PA(Vg - vy) Intake werk (gas to piston) = py(V, - V7) 73Combine: W, = (Pp, = P,)(V, ~ V5) Rearrange: use p,V, = ORT, 5 V/Vo=9r, 4 0, = RY 1) W, = -meT,C(p/P,) - TIE = G/rgi]cr =) For novel eycle (B): Exhaust work (gas to piston) = p,(Vg - V,) Intake work (gas to piston) = p,(Vg - Vg) + Mp, Combine: Wy = Pel) Vg) * Wey = “PQ(V, ~ Vg) * (Ug - Uy) = py, Vg) + me,(Tg 74). Now 8 + 1 is isentropic process with fixed mass, so crnsy aa ol Net pumping work: XY me,T,C(p,/P,) 9-1) Ww W, = -pyV,(Pg/P,IE1 ~ (9,7P,)'77) + . . _— ay cnr, Wem rmeyT (1-1) (BQ/B,) = (1-1) (04/2) (pQ/P,) 1} W, = met (C1) (BQ/P,) = VePQ/0,) PY #1) For same Th WB) (O10, /py) = Hhepg/p VOTO 6 13 Bay UBB TTS STAT Substitute numbers: wo ip! ) So there is a substantial reduction in pumping work. 746.4 Typical 4-stroke cycle valve timings: IVO 15° BTC; IVC 50° ABC; EVO 55° BBC; EVC 10° ATC (1) The intake valve closes well after BC to increase the mass of air inducted at higher speeds. There is a loss of volumetric efficiency due to back flow at low engine speeds but the benefit at higher speeds more than offsets this. (2) The exhaust valve opens well before BC so that the blowdown process (where the cylinder pressure drops to the exhaust pressure) is over before the exhaust stroke has proceeded too far. This is done to reduce the pumping work. The loss in power at the end of the expansion stroke is modest. (3) To obtain the maximum valve lift close to the point of maximum piston velocity, the inlet valve must be opened before TC and the exhaust valve closed after TC, This valve overlap increases the amount of residual gas in the cylinder which, while undersirable for combustion, reduces NO, emissions. (4) An important design issue is wear between the cam and the tappet which slides on the cam, Excessive acceleration of the tappet (and rest of the valve mechanism driven by the tappet) causes excessive wear, Hence the rate of increase in valve lift is limited, requiring relatively long opening and closing periods. 6.5 Valve and port is a flow restriction. At 2500 and 5000 rev/min, the mean piston speed is 7 and 14 m/s; the maximum piston speed is 1.6 5, (Fig. 2-2) which is 11 and 22 m/s. The flow velocity through the valve is reuesaS) ALIA, v Psmax"p’“v,e where A, , 18 the effective flow area of the valve and port (= CyA, a9). 75The reference area can be the actual valve open area (when cy = 0.8) or the valve curtain area Ror Eq. (6.13), when fy will be lower (Fig. 6-16 and 6-18). At max, 1ift the actual minimum geometric valve and port area is (w/a) (02-02), Eq. (6.9). Tt is easier to work with Ae = xDjL,. Typical max. values are Diy = 0.58, oy = 0.428, (Ly max = 0.25 - 0.3, %D ay = 0.5, ¢, = 0.6, We then find ap = p, - py from Eq. (6.11) or Eq. (C.10). 1 2 = AY gl20(Pg> Pd Dyev 7 PAY ety deere 2 2 or tp = Sev, 2PCS, max! ™/4)8 7D, L Cy) I] Gas densities are: ppt kg/m? 5p gx 0.8 kg/m? (1, = 1000 K, Fig. 6-21) Intake valve: bp = 0.5 x 1.1 x [11 x (a/4) x B°/(n x 0.58 x 0.25 x 0.58 x 0.5)] 4.3 kPa at 2500 rev/min = 17 kPa at 5000 rev/min Exhaust valy dp = 0.5 x OLN x C11 x (a/4) x B/C x 0.428 x 0.3 x 0.N2B x 0.6)" = 1.5 kPa at 2500 rev/min = 6 kPa at 5000 rev/min One sees why Dy > Dey: 6.6 (a) From Fig. 6-21: At the end of the blowdown process: stata , T+ 100K , 8 = 180°, m=a Just before exhaust valve opening: Po = 2 atm, T, = 1250 K, 8) = 10° ATC, m= m, 0 Use ideal gas law, pV = oRT, with R = constant. 76Use Eq. (2.6) for volume ratio with r= 7, R= 3.5. Thus: = 9568 T 2 6.5¥, 1000 = 360 or 0°, m= a 6.7 Eq. (5.47) i (y-1)/ 4) = (4) » xe tres? tryst) - ct a 1, i Pe Pe Assume (Y-1)/y = 0.24, Ty = 325 K (hence, T,/T, = 1800/325 = 4.3), r, = 8.5. Hence: (P4/PQ) 1.0 0.75 0.5 0.25 %, (Eq. 5.47) 0.030 0.041 0.064 0.142 The most significant difference is the valve overlap (27°) of the production engine, Additional differences are the late inlet valve closing which reduces the actual volumetric efficiency, the pressure losses in the intake system (p,(max) < 1 atm; p, > 1 atm), and the pressure drops across the valves. 6.8 (a) With the intake valve closing during the intake stroke (before BC), to maintain constant load as the intake valve is opened earlier, the throttle must be opened and the inlet manifold pressure must rise (see figure). 7Because the intake pressure p, is higher than it would be with normal intake valve closing, the pumping work is less. The reduction in pumping work is the cross-hatched region in the figure. Note it does not include the dotted area, since the density at state 1 must be the same for all cycles, and the temperature at 1(EIVC) is lower than in the normal cycle at 1(N) because the cylinder mixture has been expanded from @(EIVC) (density is proportional to p/T). (b) The two p-V diagrams illustrate the difference between EIVC and (late) LIVC. Due to the pressure drop across the valve, to obtain the same mass in the cylinder at B as at A, the in-cylinder pressure with LIVC during the intake stroke must be lower than with EIVC, The net difference in areas on the p-V diagram is the cross hatched region, and the counter clockwise direction around this area indicates that LIVC will be less efficient. b | Ewe pl EIMC 786.9 (a) Engine displaced volum 3 Vg 2 8 x Ex 0.128" x 0.18 = 0.0184 m 4 a Find air mass flow rate #,. Use Eq. 2.27a, the definition of volumetric efficiency: a, vynse a” "Pasa" Air density at compressor exit: use ideal gas law. 1.8 x 101,325/£(8314/29) x 325] = 1.95 ke/m? Pag 7 P/(RT) Hence: ih, = 0.9 x 1.95 x 0.0144 x (2000/60)/2 = 0.42 k@/s Compressor work given by Eq. (6.42): (re) 1 wy, - Ssfp.2 701 Poe, «1 c n c 82x 1000. #.300. 64 9308/14 a7 39 a ane (b) The turbocharger turbine power equals the compressor power. Use Eq. (6.48): Te ] . P, Mr Bec, emToglt 03 = hl(1 + F/A), F/A = 0.0353 oc, , = 1250 d/kg+K; ¥, = 1.31 from fe . Figs. u-17 and 4-18 at T, = 650° C = 923 K. Thus: 5 1 0-31/1.31 33 x 10° = 0.42 x 1,035 x 1250 x 0.65 x 923 x [1 - (5°) 1 03 Solve for py, = 1.57 atm Ans, 6.10 (a) From Fig. 4-22 with x, = 0.072 and % = 0.10%, the in-cylinder 2 2 burned gas equivalence ratio is 0.5. ip = 1.6 g/s per cylinder 7982. My = 1.6 x 7§55 + 0-0533 g/eycle per cylinder Hence mass of air retained in the cylinder is m= mp/LOCF/A) 5] = 0,0533/(0.5 x 0.0667) = 1.6 g/cycle per cylinder Hence charging efficiency ny, is 1.6 x 103 n ch Vahajo (17H) x 06125° x O15 x 1,188 (og gt 1-188 kg/m? at 300 K and 1 atm) (b) Delivery ratio A is mass_of air retained _ delivered "3 Ae = pepot 6X 107 (ee) OlOW(kg/s) x (60/1800)(s) ~ == = 1.2 Ans, Ce) Mp * Ngy/A + 0-73/1.2 = 0.61 Ans. mg om Va fap “Mtr = 80Chapter 7 SI ENGINE FUEL METERING AND MANIFOLD PHENOMENA 7.1 Given: @ = 1 at no-load; @ decreases to 0.8 (lean) at mid-load; ¢ then increases to 1.2 (rich) at maximum load (WOT). Also given that total friction is constant. (a) Combustion efficiency: ng = 0.96 for <1. n, decreases as @ increases above 1.0 due to increasing oxygen deficiency. Note, at idle, n, might decrease due to more difficult combustion environment (higher residual). (b) Gross indicated fuel conversion efficiency: Will be a maximum for @ = 0.8. It will decrease as ¢ increases towards 1.0 at light load. At high load it will decrease as ¢ +1, then decrease more rapidly for ¢ > 1, Reason: for leaner mixtures, the thermodynamic properties give greater expansion stroke work. (c) Gross indicated mep: This will increase steadily from an idle (no load) value equal to the friction mean effective pressure, to the highest value at WOT. (d) Brake mep: This is [imep(g) - fmep]. So the bmep curve is parallel to the imep curve since friction is constant, and it is zero at no-load. (e) Mechanical efficiency: n, = bmep/imep(g) 81+a === 7] Ege | (FAA), 0-9] 08 - A, et FF Pertenk ot max, brake Forging 0° 827.2 <— 04, — O3m— Ingetor (a) Average flow time from injector to sensor has three parts: ** ‘intake * ‘engine * ‘exnaust From the average volume flow rate in the intake and exhaust we can find the first and last of these flow times. (1) Intake: Vol. flow rate in intake = n, x (rate at which vol. is displaced in engine) Vintae ™ Tyg (rev/s)/2 299, 2000 = 0.85 x = 8.3 x 103 ems Intake pipe area = fx 32 = 7.07 on? Intake flow velocity = 8.3 x 107+ 7 = 12 n/s Flow time = 0.4 $12 = 33 ms (2) Engine flow time:Mean engine transit time = 180 + 180 + 90 = 450° 7 B50, 60. | Se: Tengine ~ 360 * 300 ~ 38.88 (3) Exhaust flow time: Vol. flow rate in exhaust x pgp, * Vol. flow rate in intake x py tae “1 Since p= 1 atm, p= T Sor Vexn * Vintake * Texn/Tint? = 8.3 x 103 x 800/300 = 2.2 x 104 cm/s So: exhaust flow velocity = 2.2 x 10/7 = 31 a/s exhaust flow time - 0.3 $31 = 10 ms t= 33+ 38+ 10 = 80 ms (b) This is the time delay for a change at the injector to reach the sensor. Hence with the linear equation for F/A (F/A) = (F/A) g(t + CVE) van t +Vs. re eg a a“yT fe \ Ht, the F/A variation at the injector and at the sensor are like this: 84At A, sensor signal changes rich to lean (-V, to +V,). So injector is richened relative to its ¢ at B, linearly with time. The change in dé/dt at the injector at 8 reaches the sensor a time 1 later at C, ete. For variations in (5/A) to be less than 10% of (F/A) season! (ove), $ 0.1 A toc Since V=V=1Vandt=1= 0.088 © ¢ 0.1/0.08 = 1.25 v's ‘ans 7.3 (a) 1.6-dm? engine, 2500 rev/min, WOT, ny = 0.85. At WOT in a SI engine, the equivalence ratio = 1.1. Sketch shows intake system; analyze flow through control volume shown. Apply steady flow energy equation to control volume: 85yng * Hptlpy + 2 = hap + tienen Neglect enthalpy change of fuel while in vapor or liquid state. Then: Ayeya\Tag ~ Tar) 7 97 elgg fey a where hy, is the heat of vaporization of the fuel. Need to find f,: + ay = 288 x 1.06 x 1.6 x 12 x 2892 = 0,03 evs 10' 3 = = 46.6 - 25.8 = (0.067 x 1.1) x 222.3 1 x 10° So 3 (>) With EFI the fuel is injected just upstream of plane 2. Q 1s now zero; only half the fuel is evaporated. 1 Now Tap - Tay 7 5 zs 2 Spa = 713°C, or TL, = 27°C az (ce) We are comparing the same engine at two different inlet temperatures. We need to calculate the change in air mass flow rate. Then P, « &, with everything else fixed. The inlet valve is a flow restriction. Thus: the equation for flow through an orifice, governs the flow. p, and T, are the conditions just upstream of the valve. p, is the pressure just doxn- stream - i.e., the cylinder pressure. Given p, and p,/p, constant. Then 86a ) Assume T, = 350 K so 9(T,) = 190 J/kg air-K, Table 4.6 gives nf = 292 J/kg aireK for ¢ = 1.0 and 1.2, Hence, for ¢ = 1.0 and 1.2: @(T) = 190 + 292 Bn 4O = 1267 J/kg air-K Figure 4-4 then gives: 88T = 829 K for 9 = 1.2; T = 850 K for ¢ = 1.0 The richer unburned mixture has 2 21°C lower temperature at peak pressure than the stoichiometric mixture, for the same initial temperature. The effect of the 4°C difference in inlet temperature due to additional fuel vaporization, on unburned gas temperature at peak pressure, can be estimated from Cenyey (easy 1; + 7,(P,/P2) or aT, = at (p,/pp) 0.3/1.3 aT, = 440) gec The combined impact, additional evaporative cooling and smaller compression temperature rise corresponds to a significant end-gas temperature difference (approximately 9 + 21 = 30°C) at time of peak cylinder pressure in terms of knock. 7.7 (a) Throttle plate open area given by Eq. (7.18): where a= d/D, d= throttle body shaft diameter, D = throttle bore diameter, ¥, 1s throttle closed angle. Here: =D = 57 mm, d= 10.4 mm, so a = 0.1825; = 10°, so cos ¥, = 0.9848. Hence: 0.1825 _ + 0,6366[------(eos*y - 0.03229)1/2 0.9848 cos y - o08.9. WT (9.1797) _ Se§akg sin! (82787) - 0.040913 a The throttle is fully open when y = cos”'(a cos ¥,) which equals 80°, The maximum open area is mD*/4 - aD or 89be op ae He bo 1 yd Yo : The throttle plate area is that of an ellipse of major axis D/(2 cos ¥,) and minor axis D/2 Hence: (b) Use Eqs. (C.8) or (C.9) for mass flow rate of air, depending on whether unchoked or choked flow. Then find p(p,T) at minimum area 90conditions, and use @ = pAV to find velocity V at throttle opening. (1) y = 26° at 3000 rev/min: Fig. 7-22 gives p, = 31.5 om Hg = 0.415 atm = 42 kPa. Flow is choked: p,/py < 0.528 (see App. C). So Eq. (C.9) gives V2 2 (yenyrace1) () yer reat ory where subscript T denotes "throat" or minimum-area value. 3; = e For air, py = 1.184 kg/m; for choked flow py/Pq = 0.528, Ty/Ty act “1 {1+ (Cy 1)/2]M"} = (1 + (C14 - 1)72]1} = 0,833. Hence by * Pp X 0-528/0.833 = 0.75 kg/m? So: | 08x 101g x 103 (as NRO 1) (287 x 300)!” (2) ¥= 36% at 2000 rev/min: Fig. 7-22 gives p, = 62 om Hg = 0.816 atm = 82.6 kPa, Flow at throttle is not choked since p,/p, > 0.528. So use Eq. (C.8): =e Ae ‘5 D With pp/pg = 0.816, use Ty/Ty = (pq/PQ)'T” /% to obtain T/T, = 0.816°°"/""* = 0,944, Hence op = pg x 04816/0.944 = 1.02 kg/m, So: va = 928-4 101.3% 102 co.er6/ 4 Zab ym o.gig Oe 1 Ay V2 T 4,02 x (287 x 300) O.4 = 147 o/s 91(e) Total force F = (py - Pya Force perpendicular to axia? flow direction 1s F cos y. Force parallel to axial flow direction is F sin p. Use data from Fig. 7-22 at 2000 rev/min for p,; area throttle plate = 2 26 em; y at WOT = 80° deg 10 18 2 26 36 80 comig 115, 23.0 30.1 43.7 61.8 18 EG kPa 15.4 30.7 40.2 58.3 82.4 95.7 (Bg ~ kPa 85.9 70.6 614 43.0 18.9 5.6 Py) F 223 184 159 2 4g 14.6 Feosy N 210 175 148 100 40 2.5 Fsiny N 39 57 57 4g 291.8 Take manifold and port dimensions off Fig. 7-23: Intake manifold cross-section dimensions are approximately 24 mm x 32 mm where manifold joins the cylinder head. Hence BEE Lone +x 89 Flow path length, manifold entrance to intake valve is: port = 125 am, manifold runner = 190 mm, manifold entrance to runner entrance = 90 mm. Hence: Total entrance length/B = (125 + 190 + 90)/89 = 4.6 Intake port volume (approximately): Vp 7 2.4 x 3.2 x 12.5 = 96 om? Vg(per cylinder) = (1/4) x 8.97 x 8.9 = 554 cm? So: = 96/554 = 0.17 Vap/Vy O17 Intake manifold runner volume (approximately): 3 Vay 7 2-4 x 3.2 x 19 = 146 co 26 So: Viy/Vg = 146/554 = 93Chapter 8 CHARGE MOTION WITHIN THE CYLINDER 8.1 (a) Figure 8.1 gives (at 36° ATC during intake stroke): v,(max) = 10.18) 5 v,(max) = 11.18, V2 So: (max) = (10.12 + 11.17) Yiniet - 158 (bd) Figure 6-15 gives inlet-valve pseudo-flow velocity os (at 36° ATC) = 0.53 em/deg. Now §, = aun = 0.051 cm/deg. (stroke for engine in Fig. 1-4 is 92 mm) Sor Yyg = 108, (c) The velocity in (a) is measured maximum velocity in inlet jet, and the effective open area.of the valve is less than the geometric open area (the discharge coefficient is less than unity). The velocity in (b) is 2 mean jet velocity based on the geometric open area of the valve. Thus one expects (a) to be larger than (b), and the two values are appropriate given the fact that piston motion produces the flow through the intake valve. 8.2 (a) B= L = 86 mm, 3, = aN. Hence, at 1009 rev/ain: Sp = 2 x 0.086 x 1000/60 = 2.9 m/s From Problem 8.1 at 36° ATC during intake stroke (when Fig. 6-15 indicates valve pseudo flow velocity is approximately constant at close to the maximum value): Yinper(™%) + 158, = HB m/s At 5000 rev/min: 945, = 14.3 m/s and v p inte (™4*) = 215 m/s (>) Equation (8.23) gives turbulence intensity at TC as: = 0.55 up = 0.58, So at 1000 rev/min: =u, = 1.5 m/s Ae $000 rev/atse isis ta! Ta'ws The integral length scale is 0.2 x clearance height. For 86 mm bore and stroke, and r= 9, the mean clearance height is hee L/(r, 1) = 86/8 = 11 om So integral scale will be 2-3 mm (maximum clearance height will be larger than the mean value). To find the micro and Kolmogorov length scales we need the turbulent Reynolds number urty/v. Now v= u/p and u (for air) is given by Eq. (4.52) as wlkg/mes) = 3.3 x 1077 x 1(K)o°7 Density at TC is about Po times initial density x volumetric efficiency: Py ~ 9 0.85 x 1.184 = 9 kg/m? Temperature at TC is approximately r,""' times temperature at BC where n is the polytropie exponent for compression (n = 1.3); i.e, 0.3 Tye = 325 x 97° = 630 K Hence v= 3.3 x 1077 x 6307/9 = 3.3 x 10° avs So turbulent Reynolds numbers are: At 1000 rev/min: Re, = 1140 T 3.3 x 10 At 5000 rev/min: Re, = 5680 Hence microscales £, are, using Eq. (8.15): 95At 1000 rev/min: Qy/2, = 159797118099 = 0.11 At 5000 rev/min: ty/2, = 15°°>/5680°°> = 0,051; ty = 0.13 mm T fy Kolmogorov scales are given by Eq. (8.14): 15 At 1000 rev/min: t/t, = 1140°°°7? = 0.0051; 0.75 = 0,001 At 5000 rev/min: %,/2, = 5680 8.3 The swirl ratio R, is the angular velocity of the solid-body rotating flow w, which has the sane angular momentum to the actual flow, divided by the angular velocity of the crankshaft, Eq. (8.23). Hence xu = 838 rad/s For the inlet flow to have the same angular momentum as this solid-vody rotating flow (see figure): Be t, 2 oBLr sys y= £ (Pa ytaerar ™iriYe,i 7 where m, is the in-cylinder mass, p is the in-cylinder gas density, B= bore, L = stroke. Simplying this equation gives 2 Vo 7 Ob Cory) For r, = B/4 (see sketch), this gives: Vg g 7 wgb/2 = 838 x 0.1/2 = 42 m/s ei Mean piston speed §, = 2LN = 2 x 0.1 x 2000/60 = 6.7 m/s. Hence 96¥9,i/5p > 82/67 = 6.3 Write approximate mass conservation equation to find the mean flow velocity through the inlet valve. The mass of air entering the cylinder m is given by: a Gydyiy) eas 58 7 Pat We where the bars denote average values, the term in ( ) denotes the mean effective valve open area (based on valve curtain area) and Ae is the valve open time in degrees. Chapter 6 gives appropriate values for the valve parameters as: = 0.6 (Pig. 6-16) ; D, = 0.4uB (Table 6.1) ; = 0.2, 4 88 = 220° ¢ n = 0.9, = 53 m/s 8.4 (a) Clearance volume V, escaeet Glaeeeemeens! = p,?n, + fe = 22.7 om Fraction of air mass within the bowl at TC: 97(ry 7) D, % 2, wellmacen 6 Pap 7 Pe aS g -) = 05° x 22:7 x 15 = 0.85 (>) Given that R, = w,/(2mN), Eq. (8.26), equals 3 at the end of induction (BC): ®y,ac 7 3 x 21 x 2500/60 = 785 rad/s Swirl ratio at TC: Ry po = 2.653 + 7.9 Tangential velocity at the bowl edge: D, vgn =p 1g TC 7 0025 * 2080 = 52 m/s Hence —vg(r = 3°)/S, = 52/(2 x 0.1 x 2500/60) = 6.2 (e) If © = 0, calculate new bowl height. hy = 26-7 am Equation (8.25) now gives: Rare * 3:8 Ro,ac Angular momentum is conserved. Hence: %s,8c Te,ac * “ste Te,70 here I, 1s the moment of inertia of the cylinder gases. Equation (8.35) for I, for dise-shaped bowl with clearance z is mB [(2/ng) + (D_/8)") ((z7hg) : (D,/B) J AtTC, z= c*1mm; at BC,2=L+c= 101 mm “tc To Ciorv2e.7) + 0.54) cc1vee.7) + 0.547 so: 820. -2aB =. gob ceeneetnsecetcge %s,8C Tote ((101/22.7) + 0.5°] (1722.7) + 0.5°) which give tc 2.65 %5,BC = 2080 rad/s 988.5 Equation (8.37) for the squish velocity in a simple wedge-shaped chamber is: y, woo « 5 Pp where A, is the squish area, b is the width of the squish region, Z=L+a-s (see Fig. 2-1), and C= Z/(n, - 1) evaluated at the end of induction (assumed at BC). The squish region is a segment of a circle. The area of the squish segment (shaded in the figure) is Lip2y - Ag = fn» - va) where ¢ = 2 sin”'(b/2R) and 4 2 d= pp cot 3. Hence: ag8- = -- (B74) 2a For A/(4B°/4) = 0.5, d= B, = 180% for A/(HB7/4) = 0, B= 0, 6 = 0. v/a é arp Ayla) deg ° ° . ° o.4 a7 1.15 0.013 0.6 m 0.66 0.054 0.8 106 0.377 ona 0.9 128 0.2uu 0.230 0.95 1 0.16 0.306 1.0 180 ° 0.50 Rearrange the equation for the squish velocity: 99y s hg a zee 88. MP) ieeeB er) — = 5 Be 4) ow + + 5, S, (rv) b(Z +e) c+z Use engine geometry relations to find S850 Z at crank angle 6 = 10°, and C at BC. From Eq. (2.11): S)/3, = 0.35. From Eq. (2.5): 1/2, Ua = Watt - s/a= t/a+ 1 ~ cose - [(t/a)® - sin@e] = (3.5? - sin*ioey'/? = 0.0195 Z/a = 3.5 + 1 - cos 10! B/a = 2B/L = 2 e/a (0/B)(B/a) = 2c/B = 0.02 At end of induction (BC): C/a = (Z/a)/(r, - 1) = 2/(r, = 1) = 2/9 = 0.222 So: (0.0195 + 0.02) 0.222 + 0.0195 sq!Sp 0 ° ° oO. 0.013 0.061 0.6 0.054 0.38 0.8 O.1mt 1.31 0.9 0.230 2.41 0.95 0.306 3.38 1.0 0.5 5.8 An interesting result is the linear relationship between v,. and Ag, except near the origin of the graph. 1008.6 Consider mass ém, enters prechamber n time ét. pre in time 6t. Angular momentum about g 4 —-Prechamber axis is: a ém,v,(0.8Rp) ose LIA. nargte Hence total angular momentum entering is Tc Te J vp(0.8R,)dm, = 0.8R Jv. ac TP ° 3c a) T Figure 8-24 plots 1/(a,N)(dmp/dt) and v,/S, against crank angle, We need the area under the curve corresponding to the product of these two graphs. Figure gives: 1910 0 0 0 5 3.48 10.4 36 10 5.22 18 ou 20 4.40 23.1 102 30 2.62 21.4 56 60 0.58 12.7 TW 90 0.19 7.22 1.4 120 0.08 3.9 0.3 150 0.03 7 0.05 180 ° ° ° Graph these data. Note how the 40° interval before TC contributes almost all the angular momentum. He ee 102The shaded area, is 3120 degrees. It equals: (2) Bo §, aN at The swirl ratio is uw, ,/(2mN) where w, » is the solid-body angular 8,P velocity for equal angular momentum. For solid-vody rotation in the prechamber at TC, the total angular momemtum fr, is Where hp is the height of the prechamber. Integration gives: 4 Tp 7 Rous php /2 (3) Equate (3) with (1): TC z Ber day Tp = Fpuy pMphp = O.8R, Sv, SEP at ac 7 At where p is the gas density at TC. Use value found for integral (2), and definition of swirl ratio to obtain To Bp, 40)/C(29N) (2/2) phgRy 360N BC de 3 3 D(SymN x 3120)/[(2aN)(n/2) pha RoI Use fact that 5. = 2N = 2BN; m, = pV, = pVg/(rQ- 1) = p(W/HIBAL/(rg- 1) = 3, 2 e(a/H)B°/(rg = 1 then: 0.8 (2BN) Co(n/4)B9/(r, - 360N (2qN) (x72) ph gR, = 1)IN x 3120 6.9 2a a Now volume of prechamber equals half the clearance volume: Ry2hy = wRy“(2R,) = V/2 = (n/W)B>/[2(n, - 19] Rp hp = TR, (2Rp) = Ve ¢ 51 to obtain Rp = B/(16(r,-13'/F and 103W3 3 = SQ E IBS (p= 1) “a 62 since ry = 23. '8,P 8.7 Ratio of mass in crevice regions m,, to total cylinder mass m,, is yh given by: Ter, Yerter oyl Mey Boy Blon Estimate the mass in the cylinder, Assume compression starts about halfway between BC and inlet valve close, seu, at 25° ABC, Assume Vy = 500 om? (it will cancel out), p = 0.67 atm, T = 350 K, molecular weight = 30 (see Fig. 41). Then: #10 x 500 x cyl ar 8314 x 350 22. 035g (there are other ways to find m,,, but this is straightforward.) ; el a -)= = 3 Note: Von 7 0-03V, = 0.03V4/(r, - 1) = 0.03 x 500/8 = 1.9 cm 6 1.9 x 10 x 30 x p(Pa) 5 =: waa-—-- = u.4 x 10° §p(Pa) 0.35 x 1079 x 8314 x 450 Hence: cyl. Find pressures at given angles from Fig. 1-8. crank angle p(Pa) yp! May qve 50° ABC 8 x10" 0.0035 spark 30° BTC 5.7 x 10° 0.025 Spmax 15° ATC 1.9 x 10° 0.084 EVO 60° BBC 2.7 x 10 0.012 EVC TC Tx 10" 0.0031 The value at 6,,a,+ 8-4 percent, is significant. 104Chapter 9 COMBUSTION IN SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES 9.1 Evaluate the knock-limited compression ratio for each fuel. For gasoline r, = 9, given. For methanol the Research Octane Number is 10 higher than gasoline, sor, = 11, For methane RON is 25 higher than gasoline, sor, = 1%. (a) Part-load operation: Say iste re Lean "es 0.816 Mi/ke, g/kWeh cH, 4 0.7 0.54 0.432 50 167 cHOH u 0.8 0.495 0.396 20 456 gasoline 9 0.9 0.455 0.364 ay 225 From definition of specific fuel consumption: gran gn 2H by Answers are: chy HOH gasoline "eg 0.432 0.396 0.364 iste,» g/kweh 167 456 225 Note, since we assumed Pintake fixed, pumping work is the same. At fixed load, however, pumping work would vary for each engine since p, would be different for each fuel. (b) Maximum imep is obtained at PRITLAN (see fuel-air cycle results in Fig. 5410). Volumetric efficiency is affected by volume occupied by fuel vapor (see Fig. 6-3 or Eq. 6-3) in the intake manifold. (Pigurelé=3" gives effect of fuel vapor pressure. Hence: P, ak rats . ratio cH, 0.9 0.92" 0.78 “oree” cH0H 0.87 0.89 0.75 oveee gasoline 0.98 ce 0.85 a 105This is the (e) To imep = Wow p, , is cHy CHO gasoline explanation of the n, data given in the problem. find imep ratios, use the relation Pe, SuvPa, s(F/A) the same for all fuels (reference air density). fuel-air ¢ ry cycle np ny Vt 1H 0.46 0.78 Vt 11 0.43 0.75 4 9 0.405 0.85 ails 50 20 ay Hence: (F/A) npn Qyy(F/A) ratio 0.064 1.1m8 1.03 0.172 1.109 0.99 0.0738 «1.118 1.0 Despite the higher efficiency of the engines with the higher compression ratios which use of CH, and CH. mop & Pa, ope (CH,) with its higher compression ratio, lower volumetric efficiency, and 3% 3 (4) Figure shows spark timing, 6, OH permits, the lower volumetric efficiencies Gancel out most of the higher compression-ratio power gain. » and end-of-combustion for methane higher imep, with its 1/3 faster burning process relative to gasoline. 106 pamenmmanineneFlame propagates radially outward, approximately linearly with time, as shown. Total volume is fixed. 9.2 Initial mixture temperature = 300 K. Final burned gas temperature = 2600 K. (a) bom bh Cine i a Note: pV = MET) pp =m AT, 0 t M,= Me tH $ Obrien; no” For unburned gas: pv” constant during compression: or p = 9,” , Cd pit and Y = 1.35. 107pes =— mat tod ny ak bo Peag Cnn duly En Approximately, 94/a, = 1/%, $0 p,/e9 = (,/pq) x (1/4) Note that the gas ahead of the flame is uniform (except for a thin thermal boundary layer adjacent to the wall) since it is compressed isentropically. The gas behind the flame is non-uniform due to the fact that parts of its burn earlier and are then compressed as products; parts of it burn later and are mainly compressed as reactants. end of combustion particle on outer wall — — | mp — A (ne ation) particle comes back to very close to the point where it started. particle at center (no motion) oO Tee —» Particles (except at r/R, = 0 and 1) move outwards before they burn, and move inwards after they burn. 1089.3 Comparison of compact chamber engine with conventional engine with more open chamber such as that shown in Fig. 9-4. (a) The burn rate depends on turbulence levels in the mixture at time of combustion, on the flame surface area, the flame travel length, the mixture density, and the equivalence ratio. The compact chamber has higher velocities, shorter flame travel length, higher mixture density. All these speed up the combustion rate. It operates leaner, however, which slows down the burning process. We are given that MBT timing is closer to TC for compact chamber than for the conventional chamber. It is a significantly faster burning engine. (b) Higher compression ratio gives higher maximum bmep. Faster burning gives slightly higher maximum bmep. Leaner mixture at WOT gives lower maximum bmep. These effects (two positive and one negative) offset each other since the bmep of the two engines are essentially the same. (e) Knock occurs when the end gas autoignites before the flame reaches the wall. The induction period (time to autoignition) is influenced by p, T and @. Although the maximum brake power of the two engines is about the same, p in the compact chamber engine will be higher, as will Thy ines due to the higher compression ratio. This makes knock more likely. However, the leaner WOT equivalence ratio in the compact chamber will lengthen the induction period significantly relative to the rich conventional engine, making knock less likely. The fast burn and short flame travel length, mean that the flame burns the end gas quicker; again this makes knock less likely in the compact chamber. The vigorous gas motion increases heat transfer from the end gas to the wall in the compact chamber, again making knock less likely. These positive and negative effects essentially cancel out. 109(d) The important differences at part-throttle conditions are: compact conventional compression ratio 1st 9:1 equivalence ratio 0.67 0.92 pumping work (see below) faster burn rate effect is small From fuel-air cycle results in Fig. 5-9: Wet, = 0.67) 0.54 Deyag Hts ee Te gity @ = 092)” 0.86 The indicated fuel conversion efficiency of the compact-chamber engine would be 17% greater, The brake efficiency ratio would show a greater improvement. At constant bmep, mechanical friction should be about the same (pressure levels in the cylinder are comparable). The inlet pressure in the compact chamber will be higher by about the ratio The first term allows for the leaner operation of the compact-chamber engine; the second term allows for its higher efficiency. So the pumping mean effective pressure would be lower. The effect on brake efficiency is small, however: a few percent. 109.4 (a) firing - - ~ motored (o) Kame Use ideal gas law: vo=met py, Broa = M,(molecular weights) PHT Fu a TE My = My cular weights). Tp pie Fat xy 05 my my So V/V, = T,/T,- Many sources of information on T,/T, (e.g., Fig. 3-11, Example 4-5, Figs. 9-5, 9-6, 9-9). Typical values are T, = 2700 K, T, = 850 K. Hence: V/V, = 2700/850 = 3. So at 50 percent mass burne So at 50 percent mass burned: V/V = VAs ty) = 74 = 11(e) At 50% mass burned for A: fp 7 My 2 Vy/¥ = 3/4 = 0.75 Hence: 2h = 0.75 V = 0.75 ah + rp = 0.87R. Thus: Ap = 2nrgh = 5.4RK For B, Vpis the same as in A. Approximately, the flame area given by 2Rn < Ay < Rh. Notes Ap(A) = 2 times A,(B). Hence burning rate will be about twice as fast. Note the flame travel path in A is about half the length in B. Hence 46, for A is less than for B. 112(4) A (1) The flame area in C initially is greater than in A because the flame area is larger. (2) Towards the end of the burning process, the reverse is true because the flame area for C becomes smaller than in A: (3) Spark timing for A is more advanced because combustion rate during the first half of the burning process is slower and crank angle location of 50 Percent burned point is essentially the same for A and C at MBT timing. ) Calorimeter experiment gives close to higher heating value since almost all the water condenses. Energy balance gives eSuuv,x " Soar + water’™ or: O.05(KB) Quay = 650(KI/K) x 1.25(K); Qiay ¢ = 16.3 MI/KE So, per kg of stoichiometric mixture: a Ts"i7gg = 2-91 MJ/kg stoichiometric mixture Saav x = For gasoline (from Appendix D, Table D-4) Saav,c These values are essentially the same. qitshg - 3.03 Mi/kg stoichionetric mixture. (c) For a given engine displacement, since the heat content of the stoichiometric mixtures are essentially the same, assuming the fuel- conversion efficiencies are essentially the same, then (st0),/(3f0)¢ = Gray, o/ Suv, x 2473/1630 <3 Thus fuel flow rate will be a factor of 3 greater for fuel "x", (da) )Note that: p, , spark advance for gasoline. Crank angle for maximum pressure will be roughly the same. Expansion stroke pressures for fuel x higher than for gasoline (after combustion is complete) because, fuel conversion efficiency is lower for x, and the mass inducted is greater, (e) Fuel-air cycle analysis (Fig. 5-9) gives Rp,4 7 51S for r, = 1H and ¢ = 1, Np, 7 42-58 for r= 8 and ¢ = 1. Thus: np y(n. = 14)/np g(r = 8) = 1.2. Now: np neai/p,cuer/air cycle “0-8 + i-e+) there is a reduction of 20 percent due to heat losses, finite burning time, blowdown losses, and crevices. The longer finite combustion time of fuel x will reduce its fuel- air cycle efficiency by more than the shorter finite combustion time of gasoline, but this factor is only a fraction of the total 20 percent. Hence fuel x will still give a significantly higher efficiency (by about 14 to 17 percent). 9.6 The autoignition "induction period” + usually has the form: 1 © p “exp(E/RT) where n is a positive exponent of order 1 (which depends on the fuel), p is the charge pressure, E is the activation energy (positive), R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature of the unburned charge. Explanations: (1) As speed increases flame speed increases due to the higher turbulence within the cylinder. So the time of exposure of unburned mixture to conditions conducive to autoignition (in other words the time available for preflame reactions) is reduced, So knocking tendency is decreased. 115(2) A compression ratio increase, increases the pressure and temperature of the end gas, and so reduces the induction time. This increases the tendency to knock. (That there is less residual gas in higher compression ratio engines, also helps to increase the flame speed, which reduces the tendency to knock slightly.) (3) The higher the surface to volume ratio the more heat transfer and the less the tendency to knock. (4) The farther away the end gas is from the spark plug, the more time is available for preflame chemistry prior to flame arrival. Thus the tendency to knock increases. Hence, the spark plug should be located to { provide least flame travel distance from plug to end-gas location. Also, contact between end-gas unburned mixture and hot spots like exhaust valve should be avoided. (5) Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) increases the heat capacity of the charge and so reduces the unburned gas temperature. Thus, the tendency to knock is reduced. The flame speed is also reduced by addition of EGR, but not to a sufficient extent to overcome the induction period increase. (6,7) Increases in T, or p, cause the temperature or pressure of the ; end-gas during combustion to increase. Thus, the induction period is ; decreased, and the tendency to knock is increased. : (8) Fuel/air ratio. The minimum induction period occurs with slightly rich mixtures (¢ = 1.1). Also, the cylinder pressure is a maximum for ¢ = 1.1, which results in maximum end-gas pressure and temperature at i these conditions. (These effects are slightly offset by the higher flame speed at ¢= 1.1). Thus knock is most likely for ¢= 1.1. For richer mixtures (¢ > 1.1) the tendency to knock decreases because the vaporization of the additional fuel cools the incoming charge, and the value of Yy( ¢,/e,) for richer mixture is higher so the compression stroke end-gas temperature rise is lower. Thus end-gas temperatures go down even though 116DEPENDENT VARIABLES Effect of Increase in Engine Total Tendency Independent Cylinder Flame burn Induction to Variable Press Temp speed time period Knock Explanation Speed, rev/min + ; - note 1 Compression + + 5 + 2 ratio Surface/volume = * es 3 Spark plug distance from + + 4 cylinder axis 4 EGR - - + + = 5 ye * - + 6 > + - + 1 - - + + - 8 * - + 9 Charge motion - + - + e 10 (swirl, squish) Fuel + - " octane no. + for increase, - for decrease, 0 for no change in dependent variable. 117maximum cylinder pressure does not decrease significantly. Hence the induction period increases. For leaner mixtures, the maximum cylinder pressure decreases because the heating value per unit mass of mixture decreases. Hence, end-gas temperatures and pressures decrease, increasing the induction period and decreasing the tendency to knock. (9) Wall temperature. Hotter walls increase the heat transfer to the unburned mixture during intake, and decrease the heat transfer from the end- gas later in the compression process. So end-gas temperatures increase. Thus, induction period decreases and tendency to knock increases. (10) Inereases in charge motion reduce the tendency to knock. This is due to faster flame propagation (enhanced by increased charge motion), and due to increased heat transfer from the end-gas to the walls during the latter part of the compression process. (11) The fuel's octane number defines its resistance to knock. The higher the octane number the better the fuel-air mixture resists knock. 9.7 To estimate the temperature of the unburned fuel-air mixture (reactants) assume the mixture is compressed isentropically through the given pressure ratio from the given initial conditions. Use the isentropic compression chart of Fig. IY. (Or could use (1/T,) = (p/p,)°0 1%). Method: Given @, = @ (Try¢ = 333 K) = 130 J/kgel re 4 then 6,(T,) = + a8 = 6, +n filn(p\/p,), with nf = 292 J/kg+K from Table 4.6 Set up table: - gee a URS Ive 101 1.0 ° 130 -30 615 6.1 528 658 20 770 7.62 593 123 “101,120 tat 102 832 ° 1,630 16.1 an ai 10 2,310 22.9 gm 1,044 20 2,650 26.2 954 1,088 30 2,310 22.9 ota 1,084 118 ;20 to Come anys Ive *-30 =... == Te 30 9.8 As each small element of unburned mixture burns, the pressure only changes a small amount, So we can assume each element burns at constant pressure. For an adiabatic constant-pressure combustion process: hy oh Bou . ame For ¢ = 1.0, Eq. (4.32) gives: any, = 7129.7 - 2951 x, fu 7 kJ/kg air Assume a value for x, = 0.1, then the = -H25 ki/kg air (Note your choice of x, will affect your answer.) Method: For element which burns at @, we know 7,(8,) and p(6,), €.g., from Problem 9.7. Find h, , from unburned mixture chart, Fig. 4-3. Find h,. Use trial and error with burned gas u-s chart, Fig. 4-8, to find the burned gas state. Then (1) either know p, so find v and u consistent with h (known) = u + py, or (2) (easier) use u, = h, - pv = h, - n,RT, to evaluate n, 3, ip at appropriate point on chart e.g., p = 1000 KPa, T = 2400 K, v = 0.7 m/kg, which gives n,f = 1000 x 0.7/2400 = 0.292 kJ/kg+K. Find consistent u, and T,, given h, and p. 119oe : ame : adinbectit z ® Comnyriion — / 7 een A See arg com bustiin / 7 & é ; & a a 2 & c & & = Figure for problem 9.8 120Results: e -30 ° 30 P, kPa 615 1,630 2,310 TK 528 665 720 hy ye KU/kg air 260 435 505 hy, kd/kg air 7157 18 88 “i/kg air 828 -690 ~636 1,"« 2,300 2,425 2,480 * From burned gas u-s chart by trial and error. To find the temperature of the elements that burned at -30 and 0° at 30°, follow an isentropic compression to p(30°) = 2310 kPa: 615 bYe. 22erk. is compressed to 2600 K. 2310 kf a ork element which burned at -30° | 1s compressed to 2810 K. { element which burned at 0° 9.9 We assume that knock ovcurs tnrougnout the end-gas at 10° ATC. At this 6, unburned mixture (end-gas) conditions are: P= 2310 kPa, T, = 720 K Assume all end-gas burns adiabatically at constant volume. Then: wy su and y= vy Now: ulm Us yt MWe i Us at 720 K = 380 kJ/kg air From Eq. (4.32), for ¢ = 1, au, eju 7 7118.2 ~ 2956x, kd/kg air So: uy =u, = 380 - 118.2 - 295.6 = 34 kJ/kg air 121292 x 720 2310 x 10 Also: = 0.09 = 0.1 m/kg Pind u, = ~34 kJ/kg air and v, = 0.1 m/kg on urs burned gas chart, Fig. 4-8. This gives: T, = 2800 K , p= 8700 KPa Now calculate the volume fraction just before onset of knock. Use the relation since p is uniform. + x at 10° ATC = 0.55 4g * 720 K and T, varies between 2450 - 2600 K, Assume T,, = 2600 K, Then: NG 0.45 720 _ a vy 0.23 so gt o= 53 = Ot vp 7g 7 Se 9.10 (a) Mean piston speed 5: 5, = ALN = 2 x 0,085 x 2000/60 = 5.7 a/s (>) Average flame travel speed given by distance travelled + time of flame travel: 1222 +0.015) 2000 30 20 m/s (c) Turbulence intensity at TC given by Eq. (8.23) as: uy 70.5 8, = 0.5 x 5.7 = 2.9 ws (4) Laminar flame speed given by Eqs. (9.33), (9-35), (9-36), and (9.38). First find $, ) using Eq. (9.35) and Table 9.2: ° S.,9 * 30-5 - 54.9 (1.0 - 1.21)? = 28 om/s Ls Find a, and 8, for Eq. (9.33) from Eq. (9.36): 2.4 = 0.271 x 1.0875) 2 2.13 0.357 + 0.14 x 1.0777 = 0.22 Now find S,(x, = 0) from Eq. (9.33): 70.22 = 95 cm/s 5, 650 ) + 206358 é ep =, of Lo) s, Now allow for residual fraction of 0.08 (assume mole fraction and mass fraction are essentially the same since M, = M,) using Eq. (9.38): S,(0-08) = §,(0)(1 - 2.06 #9°77) = 95(1 = 2.06 x 0.08777) = 67 ems 0.75 (e) Figure 9-30 gives S,/S, as a function of (u'/S,)(p/p_) Use ofS Le i Fig. 9-2a to obtain p(TC) = 17.5 atm and Paotoneg(TC) = 13 atm. Find Ty at TC to find S, at TC: . aensy 0.3/1.3 TWTy ap = Prc/P spi? (17,5/7.5) = 1.22 So Sur = 67 x 1.22793 x (17,577.5) 01?» 85 m/s Figure 9-30 gives 123S/S, = 7-5, or S, = 6.4 m/s (f) The mean expansion speed u, is given by Eq. (9.47) as: . op (54/05) 4 : ee eo - 25 8, yay a eT STITT wnere we have assumed x,» 0.2 at TC. Thus: Up = 25S, = 16 ws Summary: Velocities (in m/s) are: SS Ys “te SL, spk Sp,1c 4,70 5.7 20 2.9 0.67 6.4 16 Note that Up =u, xo (they are approximately the same parameter), SS. Saul =s,. The expansion speeds (Up and u,) are approximately (p,/p,) times the the turbulent flame speed S, (but less because a significant fraction of the mixture has burned at TC). 9.11 (a) Reducing the amount of EGR reduces the burned gas fraction in the inceylinder unburned mixture. This increases the laminar flame speed (see Fig. 9-26) and thus increases the local diffusion of the thin wrinkled flame sheet (important while the flame is small), and decreases the characteristic burning time t, in £q. (9.49) of each "lump" of unburned mixture entrained within the flame front (important when the flame is larger and turbulent). Thus the burning process is "faster". (>) Use of two spark plugs instead of one effectively doubles the flame area during the early stages of flame development (see Fig. 9-16). So, until the flames meet, the burning rate is faster. Two plugs also reduces the variability cycle-to-cycle in the early stages of flame development (because two flames are developing in parallel) which improves engine stability. 124(ce) The generation of swirl within the cylinder increases the burning rate. Swirl is thought to increase the turbulence intensity in the flame front. Whether this is because the swirling flow is more stable and persists within the cylinder longer during compression than normal intake generated flow patterns (which swirl does), and therefore when it does break up before combustion gives higher turbulence, or whether the gas expansion on combustion in the swirling flow creates high shear (or due to both these effects) is unclear. (d) Higher clearance height near the plug results in larger flame surface area while the flame is small, permitting more rapid initial flame growth. More central plug location allows the flame to grow to a larger size before the flame front contacts the periphery (cylinder liner) thereby losing flame area. Thus a more central plug location leads to a faster mass burning rate due to larger flame area. 9.12 The combustion process takes a finite crank angle interval, from start to finish. If the spark is too far advanced, combustion starts too early and the cylinder pressure before TC will be higher than it need be; the compression work (done by the piston on the gas) will then be higher than necessary. If the spark is excessively retarded, combustion starts too late and the cylinder pressure early in the expansion stroke (after TC) will be lower than it could be, thereby decreasing expansion stroke work. Another way to say this is that more mixture burns later with retarded timing; the ratio this gas expands through before exhaust is therefore reduced, decreasing expansion stroke work. The best spark timing, which gives maximum brake torque (MBT), "centers" the burning process (50 percent burned) at about 10° ATC. This is the compromise between "too early" and "too late"; the "best" location of the 50 percent burned point is affected by the amount of heat transfer to the wall which is largely from the burned gases. 125MBT timing depends on the rate of flame development and propagation. Slower flames need more spark advance to keep the 50 percent burned point at about 10° ATC; faster flames need less spark advance. Increasing engine speed lengthens the flame development period a@, (in crank angle degrees) and, to a lessor extent, lengthens the rapid burning period 48,. Hence the spark must be advanced to maintain MST timing. Decreasing engine load increases the residual gas fraction. This reduces the laminar flame speed and lengthens the flame development angle; it also lengthens the rapid burning period. So as load is decreased, spark timing must be advanced to maintain MBT. 9.13 (a) Cycle-by-eycle variations in cylinder pressure and imep are caused by eycle-by-cyele variations in the combustion process. Major causes of eycle-by-cycle combustion variations are thougnt to be: (1) Variations in gas motion near the spark plug at time of ignition from one cycle to the next; (2) Variations in mixture composition near the plug at tine of ignition, cyele-by-cycle; (3) Variations in overall fuel/air ratio in the cylinder, cycle-by-cycle. Mixture motion variations lead to different movement of the flame center from the spark plug each cycle. This changes the geometry of the flame interaction with the chamber walls, changing flame front area and thereby changing the mixture burning rate. (If the flame center moves towards the cylinder wall it interacts witn the cylinder wall sooner, losing area earlier; if it moves towards the cylinder axis, the reverse is true.) Local mixture composition variations, fuel/air equivalence ratio and residual gas fraction, affect the local laminar flame speed. Variation in laminar flame speed near the spark plug will affect the initial rate of flame development from the spark discharge. 126Overall variations in fuel/air equivalence ratio (due primarily to variations in amount of fuel which enters the cylinder each cycle) will affect the overall burn duration. (>) Faster than average cycles will have, effectively, overadvanced spark timing; slower than average cycles will have retarded timing. Hence non-average cycles will have lower torque. Thus, cycle-by-cycle variations in combustion result in a reduction in torque and increase in fuel consumption. Slower burning cycles are more likely to become partial burning cycles, which cause driveability problems and higher HC emissions. The fastest cycles, since they are substantially overadvanced, will be the cycles which determine the knock limit of the engine. 9.14 (a) "Knock" occurs when the unburned mixture ahead of the flame towards the end of the combustion process (the end-gas), spontaneously ignites (in part or whole) before the flame front can propagate through it. This results in high local pressures in this end-gas region, which set up strong pressure waves within the cylinder. These pressure waves, and subsequent motion of the piston and cylinder block, cause a "knocking" sound. (>) The induction period, or time required to autoignite the fuel, air, residual, end-gas mixture depends on mixture pressure and temperature. These variables have their highest values in the end-gas region at wide- open-throttle resulting in the shortest induction times and greatest tendency to knock. (ce) Retarding the spark timing from MBT timing reduces the peak cylinder pressure. This reduces the peak end-gas temperature, and therefore reduces the tendency to knock. Modest spark retard has only a small effect on engine torque. Thus spark retard gives substantial knock relief with only a small decrease in output. Spark retard can be effected rapidly. Other control variables take longer to implement and have a greater impact on power. 127(4) The substantial variation cycle-by-cycle in when knock occurs, and in the pressure oscillations or knock intensity which result (see Fig. 9-6c) are thought to be due to variation in temperature and pressure of the end- gas due to different burning rates cycle-by-cycle. It is also believed that variations in shape of the end-gas region cycle-by-cycle, due to differences in the flame front shape, contribute to variations in pressure oscillations and knock intensity even when the flame propagation rates are similar. 9.15 Figure 9-39 and accompanying text give typical voltage levels for different phases of the spark discharge. The glow discharge voltage is about 300 - 500 V. Since almost all the 50 mJ coil energy is transferred during the glow discharge phast 50 mJ = 400 x I(A) x 2(ms) which gives the glow discharge current as 60 mA. (>) If the total supplied electrical energy is 50 mJ, and almost all of this is transferred during the glow discharge, Fig. 9-0 indicates that the energy transferred to the plasma is about 5 J, i.e., about 1/10th the energy supplied. ‘The breakdown energy can be estimated from the voltage and current values in Fig. 9-39: voltage = 3 kV, current = 100 A, time = 20 ns. Thus Egy = 3. 109 x 100 x 20 x 109 = 6 wy About 5 J or 80 - 90 percent of this energy will be transferred to the plasma. (e) One-tenth of the coil energy is 5 J. Find the chemical energy in 500 om? of stoichiometric mixture at 0.5 atm and a temperature of about 325 K, Use ideal gas law: 6 g pyemgt m= 500 x 10° (8314730) x 325 2 = 0.38 Mass of fuel in 0.3 g of stoichiometric mixture is 0.3 x 0.067/(1 + 0.067) = 0.02 g. Gasoline heating value is 44 MJ/kg, so cylinder mixture energy 128content 1s 0.02 x 1073 x 4u x 10° = 830 J. Ratio of electrical energy delivered to plasna (5 mJ) to cylinder mixture energy is 5 x 1073/830 = 6x10, Let radius of flame kernal with fuel chemical energy equal to 5 mJ be rv. Then: 43 mass of burned gas in kernal m= 37D, Pe re S 8107 2 0.56 kaye? density py = Rr, (8319737) 3506 : b'b 3 mass of fuel in kernal mp = 34r°p 4 chemical energy of kernal = mQ yy = 3 Equate this chemical energy to 5 mi: 5x 103 = der? x 0.56 x 9 which gives r= 0.9 om 129Chapter 10 COMBUSTION IN COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES 10.1 Sequence of processes which must occur in a direct~injection compression-ignition engine before the fuel in the fuel system is fully burned is: (1) Liquid fuel injected through the fuel nozzle orifices at high velocity as a result of large pressure drop across the orifice. (2) Atomization of liquid fuel, rapidly, into small (- 20 - 40 um diameter) droplets to form "sprays". (3) Entrainment of compressed high-pressure high-temperature air into each high velocity fuel droplet spray. (4) Evaporation of the fuel from the droplet surfaces, and mixing of this fuel vapor with air within these sprays. (5) Spontaneous ignition of a portion of the fuel-air mixture in the developing sprays: subsequent spontaneous ignition of adjacent and other mixture regions where ignition was imminent. (6) Once the "premixed" fuel-air mixture has burned, fuel burns with air as it mixes in unsteady diffusion flames surrounding each spray. (7) AS excess air mixes with gases which burned early in the expansion stroke, combustion (of CO, unburned HC, soot) goes much closer to completion due to availability of excess oxygen and (with CO) due to recombination at lower burned gas temperatures. 10.2 Small high-swirl DI diesel engines are about 10 percent more efficient than equivalent prechamber IDI diesel engines for the following reasons: (1) The combustion "heat" or chemical energy release profile for the DI engine is shorter in duration, and has a higher initial rate near TC than does the profile for an IDI engine (see Fig. 10-10). This results in higher efficiency. 130(2) The pre-chamber surface area, plus the nozzle surface area, of the IDI engine results in a larger chamber surface area than for the DI engine. Thus the IDI engine heat losses are larger, which lowers efficiency. (3) The use of a prechamber results in increased compression stroke work since gas must be forced through the passageway into the prechamber. After TC, since highest pressures occur in the prechamber, and not above the piston, the expansion-stroke work-transfer to the piston (for the same peak pressure) in the IDI engine is lower. Thus efficiency is reduced. (4) The higher compression ratio of the IDI engine (used to offset higher heat losses during compression when starting the engine) reduces efficiency slightly due to nigher surface/volume ratio and increased impact of crevices. 10.3 Given isooctane/air elements at 1000 K and 6.5 MPa at top center with = 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2, find the burned gas temperature of each element after constant pressure combustion, Use the unburned and burned gas charts, Figs. 4-3 and 4-5 to 4-9. Find aoe from Fig. 4-3 at 1000 K: o= 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 ey 813, 840 860 893, 17 kJ/kg air Find, = nh, = hy, * hp. Values of an, | are given by Eq. (4.32), with x) = 0 in kJ/kg air as: o= 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 ane y “51.9 -17.8 “103.8 -129.7 155.6 nee 813 840. 860 893 iT Dy 761 162 156 763 161 that is, h = 760 kJ/kg air, constant. Now find the value of T, from the data in Figs. 4-5 to 4-9 which gives uy(T,) = AA(T,) - RAT, = 760 - 5using Fig. 4-14 to find M.(T,) (approximately). (1) For $= 0.4, M, = 28.75; + T, = 1900 K > (2) For ¢ = 0.6, = 28.7; * T, = 2275 K (3) For ¢ = 0.8, M) = 28.4; + Ty = 2580 K (4) For ¢ = 1.0, M, = 28.05; > 7, 2775 K (5) For 9 = 1.2, a 2765 K aon pil ieLitld - be kK 200. loo: oO Od O-+ Oe OF bo Vea Fust Jane nina mis 10.4 Use Eq. (4.69) to calculate the combustion inefficiency from measured amounts of HC (0.8 g/kWeh), CO (3 g/kWeh), and particulates (0.7 g carbon/ kWeh), and sfe (210 g/kWeh). Equation (4.69) can be written where i are in g/kWeh, Then 0.8 x 42.5 + 3 x 10.1 + 0.7 x 33.8 tans = 0,01 + n= 998 132(The values for G4, are taken from Table D.¥ in Appendix D. ) aa 10.5 Details of naturally aspirated DI diesel engine in Fig. 1-23 are: 8 cylinders, 13.4 liter displacement, bore = 128 mm, stroke = 130 mm, rg = 17, operated at 2300 rev/min. (a) Mass of air in each cylinder per cycle: use Eq. (2.27b): m, = 0.9 x 1.184(kg/m?) x (a/4) x 0.1287 x 0.13 x 10%(e/ke) = 1.88 (1.18 kg/m? is the density of air at standard conditions.) Mass of fuel in each cylinder per cycle: Mp = O(F/A) m= 0.7 x 0.069 x 1.8 = 0.087 g Volume of liquid fuel: ie 7 Mp/Pp = 0.087/0.86 = 0.1 om? = 100 am? (b) Injection pressure is 500 atm, cylinder pressure at time of injection is 50 atm. Use Eq. (10.32) to estimate the Sauter Mean Diameter of droplets in spray: Dgy( um) = A(gp)70°135p_9-12ty 0-131 a ft where A = 23.9 for multihole nozzles, ap is in MPa, 9, 18 in ken, ang Ve 48 in mn? per stroke. Hence. 71 )-0.135, 0.121 0.131 Dow = 23.9 x (450 x 10) x (1.184 x 17) x 100) = 38 um (ce) Number of drops per injection =n. Then: 3 4D nm) = Ve Hence: n= 100 x 10° x 3/Lum x (38 x 107°/2)3) = 3 If the average drop spacing is h, each drop is at the center of a cube of side h, Then the total air volume V, is 133

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