Semasiology is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of the word.

The
name comes from the Greek semasia “signification” (from sema “sign”, semantikos
“significant” and logos “learning”).
According to the native linguists the meaning of the word is the expression of
concepts of things fixed in sounds. There are 2 types of the meaning of the word: the
lexical meaning and the grammatical meaning.
The lexical meaning of the word is the realization of the concept or emotion by
means of a definite language system.
The grammatical meaning of the word is the expression in speech relationship
between words based on contrastive features of arrangements, in which they are used,
e.g., grammatical meaning of case, gender, etc. The lexical meaning is identical in all
grammatical forms. It is the same throughout its paradygm. The grammatical meaning
differs from one form to another: moves, moved, moving... The grammatical meaning
is more abstract and more generalized than the lexical meaning, it unites words into
big groups such as parts of speech or lexico-grammatical classes. It is recurrent in
identical sets of individual forms of different words. E. g. students, lessons, pens,
whose common element is the grammatical meaning of plurality.
Word meaning is able to change in the course of the historical development of the
language. The factors accounting for semantic changes may be subdivided into 2
groups: extralinguistic and linguistic causes.
When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something different, the
result is a change in word meaning. Change of meaning refers to the alternation of the
meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to a particular
word. Changing word meaning has never ceased since the beginning of the language
and will continue in the future. The changes in meaning are gradual, and words are
not changed in a day.
Types of semantic change:
- Extension of meaning
- Narrowing of meaning
- Elevation of meaning
- Degradation of meaning
Extension (widening of meaning) is the extension of semantic capacity of a word,
i.e., the expansion of polysemy in the course of its historical development, e.g.,
manuscript originally “smth hand-written”.
Narrowing of meaning is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a
narrow or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more
general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in
present-day English.
For example, meat. Food is original meaning; flesh of animals is meaning after
Narrowing. Disease – discomfort – illness.
For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original,
usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. Such adjectives have
thus taken on specialized meanings.
 a general = a general officer
 an editorial = an editorial article
Some material nouns are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more
specific sense.
 glass a cup-like container or a mirror
 iron device for smoothing clothes
Change in associative meaning
Both extension and narrowing of meaning are talking about the changes in conceptual
meaning. Next we will talk about the changes in associative meaning.
o Elevation of meaning
o Degradation of meaning
Elevation of meaning is the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to
positions of importance.
Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble but change
to designate something agreeable or pleasant.
A “snarl” word becomes a “purr” word, or a slang becomes a common word.
E. g., face – visage, girl – maiden.
Degradation of meaning is a process by which words with appreciatory or neutral
affective meaning fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense.
A “purr” word becomes a “snarl” word.
E. g., to begin – to fire away, to eat – to devour, to steal – to pinch.
Change in word meaning may result from the figurative use of the language.
Metaphor and metonymy are two important figures of speech.
Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on similarity.
E.g., A cunning person may be referred to as a fox. Here “fox” means something
other than its literal meaning. The word “fox” gets the figurative meaning of “a
cunning person”.
Metonymy is another important factor in semantic change. It is a figure of speech by
which an object or an idea is described by the name of something else closely related
to it.
E.g., seat. Seat (its sense is extended to the right to sit as a member of a committee,
such as the House of Commons)
He lost his seat in House of Commons.
The word “seat” has acquired the meaning of “the right to sit as a member” through
the above metonym.
 1. Extension and narrowing of meaning.
P 60 EX 7
A
1. Foreigners
early 15c., foreyner; see foreign + -er (1)
In American English from 1620s through mid-19c., however, it was used of a
person from a different colony or state. Earlier as a noun in English was simple
foreign (early 14c.), probably from Old French, which used the adjective as a
noun meaning "foreigner;" also "outskirts; the outside world; latrine, privy."
Spelling furriner, representing pronunciation, is from 1832, originally in Irish
dialect pieces but by 1840s picked up by American dialect writers (Thomas
Chandler Haliburton).
2. Standard
mid-12c., "flag or other conspicuous object to serve as a rallying point for a
military force," from shortened form of Old French estandart "military
standard, banner." According to Barnhart, Watkins and others, this is probably
from Frankish *standhard, literally "stand fast or firm," a compound of
unrecorded Frankish words cognate stand (v.) and hard (adj.). So called
because the flag was fixed to a pole or spear and stuck in the ground to stand
upright. The other theory [OED, etc.] calls this folk-etymology and connects
the Old French word to estendre "to stretch out," from Latin extendere. Some
senses (such as "upright pole," mid-15c.) seem to be influenced by if not from
stand (v.). Standard-bearer in the figurative sense is from 1560s.
B
1. Fruit
late 12c., "any vegetable product useful to humans or animals," from Old
French fruit "fruit, fruit eaten as dessert; harvest; virtuous action" (12c.), from
Latin fructus "an enjoyment, delight, satisfaction; proceeds, produce, fruit,
crops," from frug-, stem of frui "to use, enjoy," from suffixed form of PIE root
*bhrug- "to enjoy," with derivatives referring to agricultural products. The
Latin word also is the source of Spanish fruto, Italian frutto, German Frucht,
Swedish frukt-
Originally in English meaning all products of the soil (vegetables, nuts, grain,
acorns); modern narrower sense is from early 13c. Also "income from
 agricultural produce, revenue or profits from the soil" (mid-14c.), hence,
"profit," the classical sense preserved in fruits of (one's) labor.
Meaning "offspring, progeny, child" is from mid-13c.; that of "any
consequence, outcome, or result" is from late 14c. Meaning "odd person,
eccentric" is from 1910; that of "male homosexual" is from 1935, underworld
slang. The term also is noted in 1931 as tramp slang for "a girl or woman
willing to oblige," probably from the fact of being "easy picking." Fruit salad
is attested from 1861; fruit-cocktail from 1900; fruit-bat by 1869.
2. Starving
Old English steorfan "to die" (past tense stearf, past participle storfen), literally
"become stiff," from Proto-Germanic *sterbanan "be stiff, starve" (source also
of Old Frisian sterva, Old Saxon sterban, Dutch sterven, Old High German
sterban "to die," Old Norse stjarfi "tetanus"), from extended form of PIE root
*ster- (1) "stiff."
The conjugation became weak in English by 16c. The sense narrowed to "die of
cold" (14c.); transitive meaning "to kill with hunger" is first recorded 1520s
(earlier to starve of hunger, early 12c.). Intransitive sense of "to die of hunger"
dates from 1570s. German cognate sterben retains the original sense of the
word, but the English has come so far from its origins that starve to death
(1910) is now common.
C
1. Poison
early 14c., "person so mentally deficient as to be incapable of ordinary
reasoning;" also in Middle English "simple man, uneducated person, layman"
(late 14c.), from Old French idiote "uneducated or ignorant person" (12c.),
from Latin idiota "ordinary person, layman; outsider," in Late Latin
"uneducated or ignorant person," from Greek idiotes "layman, person lacking
professional skill" (opposed to writer, soldier, skilled workman), literally
"private person" (as opposed to one taking part in public affairs), used
patronizingly for "ignorant person," from idios "one's own".
In plural, the Greek word could mean "one's own countrymen." In old English
law, one who has been without reasoning or understanding from birth, as
distinguished from a lunatic, who became that way. Idiot box "television set" is
from 1959; idiot light "dashboard warning signal" is attested from 1961. Idiot
savant attested by 1870.
2. Rascal
mid-14c., rascaile "people of the lowest class, the general mass; rabble or foot-
soldiers of an army" (senses now obsolete), also singular, "low, tricky, dishonest
person," from Old French rascaille "rabble, mob" (12c., Modern French racaille),
as Cotgrave's French-English Dictionary (1611) defines it: "the rascality or base
and rascall sort, the scumme, dregs, offals, outcasts, of any company."
This is of uncertain origin, perhaps a diminutive from Old French rascler, from
Vulgar Latin *rasicare "to scrape" on the notion of "the scrapings." "[U]sed in
objurgation with much latitude, and often, like rogue, with slight meaning"
[Century Dictionary]. Used also in Middle English of animals unfit to chase as
game on account of some quality, especially a lean deer. Also, formerly an
adjective.

D
1. Splendid
1620s, "marked by grandeur," probably a shortening of earlier splendidious
(early 15c.), from Latin splendidus "bright, shining, glittering; sumptuous,
gorgeous, grand; illustrious, distinguished, noble; showy, fine, specious," from
splendere "be bright, shine, gleam, glisten," from PIE *splnd- "to be manifest"
(source also of Lithuanian splendžiu "I shine," Middle Irish lainn "bright"). An
earlier form was splendent (late 15c.). From 1640s as "brilliant, dazzling;"
1640s as "conspicuous, illustrious; very fine, excellent." Ironic use (as in
splendid isolation, 1843) is attested from 17c.
2. Hero
late 14c., "man of superhuman strength or physical courage," from Old French
heroe (14c., Modern French héros), from Latin heros (plural heroes) "hero,
demi-god, illustrious man," from Greek hērōs (plural hērōes) "demi-god," a
variant singular of which was hērōe. This is of uncertain origin; perhaps
originally "defender, protector" and from PIE root *ser- (1) "to protect," but
Beekes writes that it is "Probably a Pre-Greek word."
Meaning "man who exhibits great bravery" in any course of action is from
1660s in English. Sense of "chief male character in a play, story, etc." first
recorded 1690s. Hero-worship is from 1713 in reference to ancient cults and
mysteries; of living men by 1830s. In Homer, of the Greeks before Troy, then a
comprehensive term used of warriors generally, also of all free men in the
Heroic Age. In classical mythology from at least the time of Hesiod (8c.
B.C.E.) "man born from a god and a mortal," especially one who had done
service to mankind; with the exception of Heracles limited to local deities and
patrons of cities.
P. 64 EX 8
Fruitless effort – fruitless means non-achieving
A ray of hope – something that holds the promise of hope
Hot rage – logic behind this is that when you start feeling rage, you become “hot”
meaning your face becomes red, hot and your emotions reach their peak
The eye of a needle – it has form of an eye
The head of the firm – meaning the person who leads the company is the “brains” of
the company
The mouth of the river – the word “mouth” appears to have come from Old English
word “mūp”, meaning mouth or an opening
To meet smb’s interest – the interests are similar, and they cross
P. 65 EX 11
A soul – a person
Silhouette – portraits of her posture
One table – people that are sitting at one table
Sandwiches – a nosh
The Stars and Stripes – the flag with stars and stripes
Redcap – a member of the military police
Home – the family under one roof