LEARNING MODULE 1

(General Physiology and Toxicology)

Learning outcomes:

At the end of the unit, the students are expected to:

 Define the basic terminologies involved with Physiology and Toxicology

 Know and illustrate the concept of insect physiology and toxicology
 Know the insecticide use pattern

Insect physiology is the study of how insects live and reproduce.

Insects are arthropods meaning they have an external skeleton that covers the internal tissues.
The exoskeleton protects the internal tissue but also allows for sensory systems to function.
EXOSKELETON
The integument makes up the skeleton of insects
Very strong yet flexible for movement and providing points for muscle attachment.
Highly variable and can be adapted for various functions.
It can be very hard, e.g. mandibles, or very soft e.g. integument of larvae.
All external structures are made of cuticle, which produces the great diversity of insect species today.
It is the site of sensory organs and also the source of color

DIFFERENT LAYERS OF EXOSKELETON

Epicuticle- Thinnest layer with its primary
function of water protection.

Lipids found on its surface provides protection

against water loss in terrestrial insects and
water gain in aquatic insects.

The hydrocarbons and other lipids are

constantly being transported to the surface
through the `underlying cuticle in pore canals.

Oenocytes are a cell type usually found

associated with epidermal cells that produce
the hydrocarbons.

These are transported to epidermal cells by lipophorin, lipid carrier protein.

Hydrocarbons and other molecules on the surface can also be used by insects in chemical communication with
other insects and animals.

THE EXOCUTICLE AND ENDOCUTICLE

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They are primarily made up of a protein and chitin complex held tightly together with small molecular weight
cross-linking molecules called diphenols.

Chitin is the second most abundant biopolymer on earth.

This hydrogen bonding gives chitin some of its chemical properties; it is resistant to swelling in water, resistant
to hydrolysis by bases and dilute acids, and to being dissolved by organic solvents.

Chitin microfibrils are about 2.8-5 nm in diameter and are surrounded by a protein matrix in a helical fashion.
The degree of cross- linking with diphenols results in a hard cuticle.

The exocuticle has considerably more crosslinked protein than the endocuticle.

The exocuticle can also be tanned resulting in a brown color. Sclerotization and quinone tanning are processes
that harden the cuticle.

Both use the diphenols N-acetyldopamine and N-βalanyldopamine as a substrate for cross-linking. A
polyphenol oxidase is the enzyme that initiates the cross-linking pathways.

Some cuticle is sclerotized, some is tanned; some have different cross-linking diphenols in varying amounts,
different proteins and chitin content all contribute to giving cuticle its unique properties.

Various parts of the cuticle have different levels of diphenols resulting in harder cuticle. N-β-alanyldopamine is
found primarily in the hardest cuticle, for example the cutting edge of caterpillar mandibles.

Adult leaf cutter ants have increased concentrations of zinc in the cutting edge of the mandible.

The thickest hardest cuticle would have a thicker exocuticle while more pliable cuticle usually lacks the
exocuticle.

THE MOLTING PROCESS HEAD

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The head of an insect is composed of a series of segments, specialized for food gathering and manipulation,
sensory perception, and neural integration.

The head bears the eyes (compound eyes and ocelli), antennae, and mouthparts.

The anterior part of the head is the frons.

The anterior area below the dorsum of the head, between and behind the eyes is the vertex.

The area below the compound eye, on the side of the head, is the gena.

The liplike sclerite is the clypeus.

THE ANTENNAE

Antennae vary greatly among insects, but all follow a basic plan: segments 1 and 2 are termed the scape and
pedicel, respectively.

The remaining antennal segments (flagellomeres) are jointly called the flagellum.

Antennae function almost exclusively in sensory

perception

 Detects information as motion and

orientation, odor, sound, humidity, and a
variety of chemical cues.
 Some of the most common types of insect
antennae

Scape – basal segment and generally larger than other

segments

Pedicel – second segment

Flagellum – whiplike part beyond the pedicel (individual

segment is called flagellomere)

TYPES OF ANTENNA
TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
The last segment enlarged and bears a
conspicuous dorsal bristle called arista
Aristate
Example: houseflies

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 Antenna that have two margins toothed like a
comb
Bipectinate
Example: Certain species of moth

Antenna that has enlarged terminal segment

Capitate
Example: sap beetles

Clubbed, segments gradually increase in size

at a distance
Clavate
Example: lady bird beetles

Threadlike segment that are usually uniform

in sizes
Filiform
Examples: cockroach, grasshoppers, crickets

Elbowed with the first segment long and the

succeeding segments small and suddenly
Geniculate going off at an angle

Examples: ants, bees, chalcid wasps

Leaflike, terminal segments are expanded

forming rounded lobes.
Lamellate
Examples: June beetles

Beadlike, segments nearly similar in size and

spherical in shape.
Moniliform
Example: termites

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 Comblike, segments have long slender lateral
extensions
Pectinate
Example: male click beetles

Feathery, most segments have whorls of long

hairs
Plumose
Example: Mosquitoes

Saw-like, ½ or 2/3 of the far end of the

antenna is more or less triangular in shape.
Serrate
Example: Female click beetles

The last segment bears an elongated terminal

style or fingerlike extensions known as the
Setaceous ‘style’.

Examples: dragonfly

MOUTHPARTS
Mouthparts – vary in type according to the kind of food insects eat and also determine the damage they do.
The mandibulate or chewing type mouthparts is the basic type from which the specialized types have been
derived.
THE MANDIBULATE MOUTHPARTS:
Labrum – or “upper lip” is a movable flaplike broad-flat surface
covering the top of the mouth
Mandibles – “upper jaws” toothlike structure for chewing, grinding,
tearing or pinching-off solid food
Maxillae–“lower jaws” - behind the mandibles.
Hypopharynx – central tongue; bears the opening of the salivary
ducts.
Labium – “lower lip” structure found posterior to the maxillae

TYPES OF MOUTHPARTS

 Chewing/mandibulate type presence of a pair of heavily sclerotized mandibles which are used in
grinding and cutting of solid food. Example: caterpillars, grasshoppers
 Chewing-lapping type the mandibles and labrum is adapted for chewing and utilized for grasping prey.
Also functions in wax molding for nest materials. Examples: Honeybees

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  Cutting-sponging type mandibles are made into sharp blades and the maxillae into long probing style.
Example: horsefly
 Piercing-sucking type mouthparts are modified into a tubular organ which penetrate into tissues of
plants and take in juices from them. Example: aphids, mosquitoes, leafhoppers
 Rasping-sucking type equipped with a coneshaped beak which originates from clypeus, labrum, parts
of the maxillae and labium. Example: thrips
 Siphoning type the galeae has been fused forming a coiled tube called the ‘proboscis’ that is used for
sucking nectar from flowers. Example: adult moths and butterflies
 Sponging type the mandibles and maxillae do not function in the eating process, the remaining parts
form a proboscis that has a sponge-like end called the labella. Example: house flies

THORAX

The middle body region of insects wherein the locomotory appendages; the wings and the legs are borne.
Has three segments namely the: prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax.

LEGS
Articulated appendages borne on each thoracic segments:
Has 5 segments namely:

 Coxa
 Trochanter
 Femur
 Tibia
 Tarsus

LEG MODIFICATIONS
Ambulatorial – walking legs as in leaf and stick insects.
Cursorial- running legs as in cockroaches.
Fossorial- legs forelegs adapted for digging as in mole crickets.
Natatorial- legs of aquatic insects for swimming as in assassin bugs.
Raptorial- grasping forelegs for catching prey found in mantises.
Saltatorial- enlarged hind legs used for hopping mostly found in grasshoppers.
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Wings

 Insects have evolved many variations of the wing.

 Membranous wings are thin and more or less transparent, common among the Odonata and
Neuroptera.
 Haltere are an extreme modification among the order Diptera (true flies), in which the hind wings are
reduced to mere nubs used for balance and direction during flight.
 Elytra (sing. elytron) are the hardened, heavily sclerotized forewings of beetles (Order Coleoptera) and
are modified to protect the hind wings when at rest.
 A variation of the elytra is the hemelytra.
 Forewings of Hemipterans are said to be hemelytrous-they are
hardened throughout the proximal two-thirds while the distal
portion is membranous.
 Unlike elytra, hemelytra function primarily as flight wings.
 In both cases, the membranous hind wings (when present) are
used in flight and are folded beneath the forewings when at
rest.
 The wings of butterflies and moths are covered with scales,
and mosquitoes possess scales along wing vein

ABDOMEN

 The dorsal and ventral abdominal segments are termed terga

(singular tergum) and sterna (singular sternum), respectively.
 Spiracles usually can be found in the conjunctive tissue between the terga and sterna of abdominal
segments 1-8.
 Reproductive structures are located on the 9th segment in males (including the aedeagus, or penis,
and often a pair of claspers) and on the 8th and 9th abdominal segments in females (female external
genitalia copulatory openings and ovipositor).
 Abdominal gills serve as breathing organs of aquatic insects especially the young (nymph) of
dragonflies.
 Abdominal prolegs locomotory abdominal appendages usually
found on the larval stages of some insects (e.g. Lepidoptera)
 Cerci slender, forcep-like pointed structures found on the
eleventh segment of the abdomen
 Cornicles a paired secretory structures located dorsally on the abdomen of aphids. Cornicles secrete a
repellant substance or evoke care giving behavior of ants which protects them from predators.

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  Collophore a fleshy, peg-like structure in Collembola located on the ventral portion of the first
abdominal segment. Homeostatic – regulates H20 balance
 Sting found in most aculeate female hymenoptera which is modified from ovipositor.

WHAT IS TOXICOLOGY?

Toxicology is the branch of medical science that deals with the nature, properties, effects and the detection of
poison. It is, therefore, the science of poisons.
Fogleman (1963) defined toxicology as “the study of limits of the biological effects of a chemical or mixtures of
chemicals.
Mathieu Orfila - Modern father of toxicology
 Industrial toxicology: It deals with the safety of industrial workers from the toxic effects of poisons.
 Environmental toxicology: It deals with the metabolism, transport, translocation and physicochemical
transformation of poisons in all forms of biological systems.
 Medical toxicology: It deals with the effects of poisons in man.
 Veterinary toxicology: It deals with the effect of poisons on domesticated animals.
 Insect toxicology: It deals with such poisons which are used in killing trisects without appreciable
effect on mammals.

SCOPE OF INSECT TOXICOLOGY

 Insect toxicology plays an important role in controlling insect pests in the field of agriculture, forestry
and public health.
 Toxic chemicals so far are the main defense against pest attacks.
 No doubt there are a number of other control measures but none of them match in their efficacy, speed,
stability and cost of operations with chemical control measures.
 In view of these facts, the science of insect toxicology promises a better and brighter scope.
PRINCIPLES OF INSECT TOXICOLOGY

Organisms which are harmful to man or its property are called Pests.
Chemicals which kill these pests by their chemical action are collectively termed as Pesticides.
THE PESTICIDES INCLUDE:
Acaricides - for the control of mites and ticks.
Algicides - for the destruction of algae and other aquatic vegetation.
Bactericides - for the control of bacteria and bacterial diseases of the plants.
Arboricides - for the destruction of undesirable arborial and bush vegetation.
Fungicides - for the control of Fungi.
Herbicides - for the control of Weeds.
Insecticides - for the control of Insects
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Molluskicides - for the control of Mollusks
Nematicides - for the control of Nematodes.
Rodenticides - for the control of Rodents

MAIN PRINCIPLES OF INSECT TOXICOLOGY

1. Insecticides be able to strike the weakest link of the pest.
Life cycle
Behavior of the pest be known.
2. Assessment of loss, nature and extent of damage and the
economics involved in it be properly calculated.
3. Proper selection of insecticide or combination of insecticides be made prior evaluation.
4. Insecticides should be of such nature and quality that they bring about least disruption in the eco-
system and remain restricted in the area where they are used.

EVALUATION OF TOXICITY OF INSECTICIDES

LD50 - This value represents the lethal dose of the poison per unit weight which will kill 50 per cent population
of test animals.

LC50 - The lethal concentration of toxic compound mixed in external medium i.e. water that kills half of the
population of test animals.

KD50 - It represents the median knockdown dose sufficient to kill 50 percent population of test animals.

LT50 - This term represents the lethal time required to kill 50 per cent population of test animals at a certain
dose or concentration.

KT50 - It represents the median knockdown time required to kill 50 per cent of test animals for a given dose.

ED50 - The dose of such a chemical which brings sterility in 50 per cent population in test animals will be the
value of ED50

EC50 - It is the concentration of chemical resulting sterility in 50 percent of test animals.

Toxicity- ability of a chemical to bring about changes in the biological system of the target animal.
Acute toxicity- it is the acute stage of poisoning due to the application of a single dose.
Chronic toxicity- it is the condition of toxicity which lasts for the entire life of the target animal and has the
accumulating effect of small repeated doses
Hazard- It is the probability of being harmed due to the use/ exposure / handling of the toxic substance.
Risk-It is the degree of physical, biochemical and histochemical changes acceptable in terms of usefulness of
a chemical and its possible effects on public health.

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 LEARNING ACTIVITY
1. On an A4 size bond paper, choose 1 insect and provide an illustration together with its functions.
Gather the necessary information.
1. Basic External Insect Anatomy (draw and label)
2. Overall Body Plan (draw and label)
3. Head and Mouthparts (draw and label)
4. Insect Legs (draw and label)
5. Basic Internal Anatomy (draw and label)
6. Life Cycle (draw and illustrate the cycle)
2. Give at least 1 product example with photo of each pesticides and determine the active ingredients
used.
1. Acaricides 6. Herbicides
2. Algicides 7. Insecticides
3. Bactericides 8. Molluskicides
4. Arboricides 9. Nematicides
5. Fungicides 10. Rodenticides

3. Answer the cross word puzzle below. Fill out with CAPITAL letters only.

ACROSS DOWN

2. father of toxicology 1. Hard and thickened forewings

3. tiny hooks 3. Probability of being harmed
5. determination of relative toxicity 4. Threadlike segment
6. second most abundant biopolymer on earth 8. Have whorls of long hairs
7. basal segment 10. Walking legs
9. basal portion of forewing 11. Organism harmful to man
12. thinnest layer with water protection function 15. Secretory structure
13. whip like part 17. Running legs
14. central tongue
16. science of poisons
18. forcep-like structure
19. third body region

Name: ______________________________________________ Course/Year :______________

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PREPARED BY:
LARINO K. NAMIT, RPA

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