02 Boiler Design in General - Part 2

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Boiler Design to meet

Wide Range of Coal
Specifications – Challenges
- Part 2
Mankind is in pursuit of truth, let us work towards this

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Arrangement
Introduction
Coal Property Variations & Design Issues
Grouping of Indian Coals for Boiler Design
Boiler Efficiency
Effect Of Ash On Boiler Design
Conclusion
Points to Ponder

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Missing
Customer Needs
Zero RH Spray
Accidental Un-realized
Boiler efficiency? Keeping high
excess air
Running
unit with Excellent
high APH
outlet temp
Redundant
Wasted Ineffective SB
Ritual Air & Fuel moisture loss
Specified Requirement
Realised Performance (Design)
Dr V T Sathyanathan
PLANT EFFICIENCY & HEAT RATE
482.8 Mkcal/hr 420 Mkcal/hr 180.6 Mkcal/hr 172 Mkcal/hr
boiler 210
T
MW 200 MW
120.7 t/h auxpower 10 MW
4000 kcal/kg
87.0 % 2000 kcal/kwhr 43.0 %
2299 kcal/kwhr 37.4%
2414 kcal/kwhr 35.6 %

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Coal Property Variations

Design Issues

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Cumulative
Heat Release
Rate of Four
Indian Coals
( Nandakumar. K, 1992 )

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Why Design Coal is important for

Boiler Performance Design
Starts from combustion air calculation
Flame temperature
Furnace behavior changes
Completion of Combustion
SH & RH behavior changes
Will reduce boiler efficiency
Amount of unburnt
Increases fuel requirement
Can lead to loss of capability to generate – High ash
levels
Limitation on fuel handling & preparation

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Coal Properties Affecting

Boiler Design
Calorific Value
Ash Quantity & Properties
Fuel ratio ( FC/VM)
Coal Reactivity
Moisture
Grindability
Proximate Analysis, Ultimate Analysis, Ash Properties
& Coal Petrography - insight into the coal properties
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Coal property variation – Effect

on Boiler Performance
Calorific Value Quantity of coal to be fired
Ash Quantity Radiation shielding, Erosion, Quantity of ash to be

handled
Ash Furnace wall conditions, heat transfer
characteristics
Fuel ratio Combustibility, Heat release rates
(FC/VM)
Coal Reactivity Excess air requirement & coal fineness
Moisture Heat transfer, mill capacity & outlet temperature, Boiler

exit gas temperature, Boiler efficiency
Grindability Mill capacity

Dr V T Sathyanathan
110
100
% HEAT RELEASE
Heat from FC
90
80 Heat from VM
70
60
50 2
40
30
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
TIME IN MINUTES
Coal 2 Coal 1
HEAT RELEASE PROFILES OF Coal 1 & Coal 2

(courtesy - Mr. K. Nandakumar AGM R & D / BHEL, Trichy.

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Cumulative
Heat Release
Rate of Four
Indian Coals
( Nandakumar. K, 1992 )

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Effect Of Fuel On Boiler Design

Wide range of coal properties
Lead to oversized pulverising/firing equipment
• Limitation on turn down
• Auxiliary power consumption will go up.
Oversized furnace
• Attaining rated SH, RH outlet temperature becomes
difficult.
Oversizing pulverisers and airheaters to
handle occasionally high moisture coals
when handling normal moisture coals
• there will be excessive tempering air
• higher gas outlet temperature

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Normally specified Coal Properties

Proximate Analysis
Ultimate Analysis
Calorific Value
Ash Constituents
Ash Fusion Temperatures
Hard Grove Index
YGP Index

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Typical Indian Coals

Proximate Analysis
Unit Design Worst Best
Coal Coal Coal
Fixed carbon % 22.0 20.0 25.0

Volatile matter % 21.0 19.5 23.0
Moisture % 15.0 16.5 14.0
Ash % 42.0 44.0 38.0
Total % 100.0 100.0 100.0
HHV Kcal/kg 3300 3000 3600

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Typical Indian Coals

Ultimate Analysis
Unit Design Coal Worst Coal Best Coal
Carbon % 33.73 30.90 38.26

Hydrogen % 2.35 2.09 2.49
Oxygen(difference) % 5.48 5.00 5.96
sulphur % 0.37 0.36 0.38
Nitrogen % 0.75 0.85 0.57
Moisture % 15.00 16.50 14.00
Ash % 42.00 44.00 38.00
HARD GROVE INDEX 55 54 56

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Ash Characteristics -Typical Indian Coals

Design Worst Best
Initial Deformation Temp. Deg.C 1150 1100 1200

Hemispherical Temp. Deg.C 1400 1400 1400
Fusion Temp. Deg.C 1400 1400 1400
Ash Analysis:
A – SiO2 % 60.08 61.40 60.30
A – Al2O3 % 29.50 28.50 29.80
B – Fe2O3 % 4.10 3.90 4.70
B – CaO % 1.70 1.93 1.57
B – MgO % 0.75 0.92 0.59
B – Na2O + K2O % 0.65 0.85 0.53
A – TiO2 % 1.70 1.60 1.80
- P2O5 % 0.80 1.10 0.13
- SO3 % 0.27 0.31 0.25

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Heat Transfer in Furnace - Uncertainties

Furnace wall condition
The deposition potential prediction by use of slagging
indices still subjective
Laboratory determination of emissitivity &
absorptivity does not reflect the furnace conditions.
Heat release rates
FC/VM ratio only indicative ; coal petrography may indicate
different results
Particle fineness
Higher fineness at times can separate the slow reactive
particles from the high reactive, resulting in delayed
combustion.
Accuracy of Prediction by theoretical methods
affected by complexity of factors

Dr V T Sathyanathan

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Ash Analysis
Provides indicators to
Slagging / fouling / deposition
potential
Erosion potential
Corrosion potential

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Slagging/deposition
Slagging/deposition indices
Ash deformation temperatures
Lower the number, higher the tendency for deposition
Base/ Acid Ratio
In certain ranges the combinations have low melting
temperatures, resulting in higher deposition
Iron/ Calcium ratio
lower fusiblity temperatures in certain ranges
Iron Content in Ash
Higher the content , more the propensity for deposition
Silica / Alumina Ratio
Lower fusiblity temperatures at higher ratios
Viscosity Index
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Slagging Indices
( based on a typical design stage input)
Design Coal Worst Coal Best Coal

Base / Acid 0.11 Low 0.11 Low 0.15 Low
Ratio
Iron / Calcium 1.32 High 1.39 High 4.86 Severe

Ratio
Silica / 2.13 Medium 2.26 Medium 2.20 Medium

Alumina Ratio

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Design of heat transfer surfaces

Furnace design is the most crucial part of boiler
design
Coal characteristics decide the heat release
rates, furnace wall conditions and consequently
the the furnace heat transfer
Proper understanding of the coal behaviour w.r.t
combustion and heat transfer very essential in
designing for satisfactory boiler performance

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Furnace Heat Transfer

Combustion Heat release rate
Emissivity, absorptivity and thermal
conductivity of deposits.
Ash dust loading
Pulverised fuel fineness
Mill Combination (Top, Middle, Bottom)
Air regime for combustion

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Designing for Erosion Protection

Indian coals contain large quantum of ash
The quantity of ash passing thru the boiler is of the order of 125
kg/ Million kcal (compared to 40 kg/Mkcal for an average grade
coal)
Indian coal-ash highly erosive- 60% Silica.
Flue gas velocity in the range of 10-12 m/s
adopted
Additional thickness provided on tubes in
erosion prone areas
Sacrificial shields/ baffles provided on
leading tubes/ bends

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Coal Ash – the Crucial Factor

The behavior of the ash during the
combustion process and managing
the coal-ash are the major issues in
boiler design
Deposition & Slagging
Heat transfer upsets
Fouling – deposit in convection pass

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Factors Influencing Furnace

Heat Transfer
Radiative properties of the flame
Flame Temperature
Combustion Heat release rate
Emissivity, absorptivity and thermal conductivity of
deposits.
Ash dust loading
Pulverised fuel fineness
Mill Combination
Air regime for combustion

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Coal property variation – Effect

on Boiler Performance
Calorific Value Quantity of coal to be fired
Ash Quantity Radiation shielding, Erosion, Quantity of ash to be

handled
Ash Furnace wall conditions, heat transfer
characteristics
Fuel ratio Combustibility, Heat release rates
(FC/VM)
Coal Reactivity Excess air requirement & coal fineness
Moisture Heat transfer, mill capacity & outlet temperature, Boiler

exit gas temperature, Boiler efficiency
Grindability Mill capacity

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Coals being specified currently:

Design Coal
Worst Coal
Best Coal
Range of coals –
covers properties better than the best coal
worse than the worst coal

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Coals for Boiler Design-

Design- Typical Analysis
Best Design Worst
Range
coal coal coal
Total
% 14.00 15.00 16.50 12-18
Moisture
Ash % 38.00 42.00 44.00 35.5-49.5
Volatile
% 23.00 21.00 19.50 25-16.5
matter
Fixed
% 25.00 22.00 20.00 27.5-16
Carbon
Gross
Calorific Kcal/Kg 3700 3300 3000 4100-2350
Value
Hard Grove
56 55 54 60-52
Index
Initial
deformation Deg.C 1200 1150 1100 1050-1250
temp. (IDT)
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Coal, Ash & Moisture quantities

500 MW boiler – Typical Values
Best Design Worst Range of

coal coal coal Coal
Coal 332 377 418 303-529
quantity t/h
Ash quantity 126 158 184 108-262
t/h
Moisture t/h 18 57 69 13-95
Performance design and equipment sizing to cater to

the range of Coal , Ash & Moisture quantities

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Design Approach – Yester Years

Design Coal – formed the basis for
Boiler design
Optimising the boiler performance
Sizing the boiler auxiliaries
Worst Coal – formed the basis for
checking the capacity of the boiler to
generate the rated output

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Design Approach – Present

Requirements
Requirements to be complied for the most stringent
conditions resulting either from the range of coals or
from the range of operating conditions or from both
occurring simultaneously
Equipment sizing margins specified over the Worst of

Design, Best or Worst Coals requirements

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Furnace Design
Impact of Coal& Ash variations
Large furnace required for
High ash, low grade coal
Coals with slagging / deposition tendency
Low reactive coals
Smaller furnace required for
Low ash, high calorific value coals
Non slagging coals
Highly reactive coals
Furnace performance depends on the sizing basis
and the coal being fired
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Superheater & Reheater Design

High ash/low grade coals require lesser surface area
Low ash/good coals require more surface area
Heat transfer impacted by the furnace outlet temperature
variations
Surface heat transfer conditions influenced by ash
properties
Erosive ash warrants low flue gas velocities
Large surface area required to offset the sub-
optimum heat transfer at low velocities
De-superheating spray/ short fall in temperature could be
experienced with coals with extreme properties

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Economiser Design Considerations

Flue gas temperature leaving has to be

high enough to meet mill drying
requirements with Low HHV and highest
moisture coals
low to minimise the gas temp leaving AH
with design and low moisture coals
Additional provisions like Economiser
gas bypass to be provided with wide
band of coals
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Primary & Secondary Air

Impact of Coal Variations
Primary Air flow depends on the coal flow t/hr

Coal requirement changes with HHV
Primary air & Secondary air requirements
change with HHV
Warrants tuning of the air regime for
optimum combustion with individual coal

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Mill Selection Requirements

Spare Mills required:
At TMCR worst coal Two
At BMCR worst coal firing One
At BMCR design coal firing Two
All mills together to meet BMCR very worst coal
Mills required for a 500 MW unit
Normal operation 6/7
To meet the above conditions 10

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Additional Mills –
Implication on Boiler
Bigger Primary air Fans
Bigger Primary airheaters
Increased boiler height
Additional ducting & dampers
Complicated fuel pipe routing
Additional space, Cramped layouts
Additional Coal Bunkers
Coal handling system enhancement
Additional C&I
Additional equipment for maintenance
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Additional Mills –
Implications on Performance
Normal design for optimum performance with middle
mills operation
Furnace & SH/RH performance depends on the
elevations in service – wider variations with more
number of mill elevations
Top mills in service result in more heat to the SH&RH
Bottom mills in service result in lesser heat to the
superheater & reheater
Increased SH / RH spray or short fall in temperatures
when firing coals with extreme properties

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Fans & Ducts – Design Requirements

Air / flue gas flow
The highest of the requirement with
Design/Worst/Best coal
• Best Coal - The highest Secondary air flow
• Worst coal - The highest Primary air flow, the highest
flue gas flow
Excess air
25%(rated operation with 20%)
Ambient conditions
The highest ambient temperature
Operating Conditions
BMCR or Single stream operation at 60% load
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Fan Selection & Performance

Impact of Coal Variations
Margins applied over the highest duty

requirement
Makes the equipment unduly large
Results in operating points considerably
lower than the design point
Drive motors operate at 40% load at
normal load
Reduce the efficiency at operating point &
increase power consumption
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Fan Design Point – 500 MW Boilers

Description Unit 1980s 2000s %
Worst Coal kcal/kg 3300 3200 97
HHV
Design Coal kcal/kg 4050 4000 99
HHV
PA Fan – cum/s 152.3 185 121
Volume mmwc 1143 1278 112
Head
ID Fan – cum/s 533.8 593.3 111
Volume mmwc 409 502 123
Head
Application of margins on worst conditions
increases equipment sizes.
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Duct Sizing
Sizing for all the worst conditions –
leads to large size ducts
Operate at much low velocity at rated
load with normal coals
Low flue gas velocity often leads to ash
settlement in the ducts.

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Dust Collector
Low grade coals, with high ash warrant

large dust collectors
Higher equipment cost
Higher Ash handling system cost
More space requirement

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Designing for Range of Coals

Quantity Range Performance
Variation wrt of impact
Design Coal Variation
Coal -20% to + 40 % 60% Fuel preparation &

firing system
Ash -30% to +65% 95% Furnace SH/RH/Eco
Moisture - 77% to +66% 143% Heat transfer,

Airheater
performance, Boiler
efficiency
Optimising the performance with design coal

Balancing the contrasting requirements with extreme coals

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Grouping of Indian Coals for

Boiler Design

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Most of the coal resources

are concentrated within 78 to
88 E longitude and 22 to 24 N
latitude
44 major coal fields in

peninsular India - 450 seams
Raniganj, Talcher, Ib-Valley,

Jharia, N.Karanpura, Korba,
Godavari, Singareni,
Rajmahal, Karanpura,
Singarauli, Wardha and
Bokaro, account for 90% of
the reserves.

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Distribution of Fuel Ratio

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0-0.2 0.2-0.4 0.4-0.6 0.6-0.8 0.8-1.0 1.0-1.2 1.2-1.4 1.4-1.6 1.6-1.8 1.8-2.0 2.0-2.2 2.2-2.4 2.4-2.6 2.6-2.8
Range of Fuel Ratio

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Distribution of Ash
Per Million Kcals
Number of Coals
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20-40 40-60 60-80 80- 100- 120- 140- 160- 180-
100 120 140 160 180 200
Ash Range (Kgs)

Number of Coals
10
00
0
20
40
60
80
10 -10
20 20
10 -10
40 40
10 -10
60 60
10 -10
80 80
11 -11
00 00
11 -11
20 20
11 -11
40 40
11 -11
60 60
11 -11
80 80
12 -12
00 00
IDT Range (Deg.C)
12 -12
20 20
12 -12
40 40
12 -12
Distribution of Initial
60 60
12 -12
80 80
Deformation Temperature
-1
30
0
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Dr V T Sathyanathan
FIXED CARBON / VOLATILE MATTER - DISTRIBUTION

( Group 1 - 0.6 to 1.2 ; Group 2 - 1.2 to 1.8 ; Group 3 - 1.8 to 3.01)
160
144
140
120
101
100
No. of Coals
80
60
40 33
20
0
1 2 3
Coal Group

Dr V T Sathyanathan
ASH LOADING - DISTRIBUTION

( Group 1 - 20 to 90 Kg/MKcal; Group 2 - 90 to 140 Kg/MKcal;Group 3 -140 to 200 Kg/MKcal)
160
148
140
120
100
No. of Coals
88
80
60
42
40
20
0
1 2 3
Coal Group

Dr V T Sathyanathan
INITIAL DEFORMATION TEMPERATURE - DISTRIBUTION

( Group 1 -1000 to 1100 Deg C; Group 2 - 1100 to 1200 Deg C;
Group 3 - 1200 to 1290 Deg C)
180
161
160
140
120
No. of Coals
100 93
80
60
40
24
20
0
1 2 3
Coal Group

Dr V T Sathyanathan
COAL GROUPING CONSIDERING ALL THE 3 ASPECTS
250
223
200
150
No. of Coals
100
50
30
16
0
1 2 3
Coal Group

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Boiler Efficiency

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Boiler Efficiency
This is influenced by coal properties,
ambient temp. & relative humidity,Boiler
exit gas temp.
Determines the heat input to the boiler
Forms the basis for air & gas weight
calculations,quantity of coal fired

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Boiler Efficiency (contd..)

Every 20degc increase in exit gas temp. reduces the
boiler efficiency by 1%
Increase in excess air by 1%reduces the boiler
efficiency by 0.04%
Higher moisture and higher H2 content and lower
calorific value of coal decreases the boiler efficiency
-1%H2 increase leads to approximately 1.3% loss
and 1%M increase leads to 0.2%loss in efficiency

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Effect Of Ash On Boiler

Design

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Boiler Design At Various Ash Levels

ROM
unwashed Washed Washed
Coal-1 Coal-2
Coal
Proximate Analysis
FC % 24 31 37
VM % 22 22 25
M % 12 13 14
Ash % 42 34 24
HHV kcal/kg 3400 3610 4315

HGI 50 50 50
Ash kg / Mkcal fired 124 94 56

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Boiler weight and cost
%Ash 42 34 24
Weight Base -7% -11%
SG package cost Base -6% -10%

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Conclusion

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Conclusion
Steam generator performance greatly
influenced by the coal/ash properties
Special design considerations required to
ensure satisfactory performance for the
range of coals
Trade offs required to accommodate wide
bands- increases the cost and at times
compromises the equipment performance.
The design of a modern day power plant is a
synthesis of thermal performance criteria with
economic considerations.
Dr V T Sathyanathan
Points to Ponder
Coal Properties
Possibility of narrowing the variation band
Specification for the Very Worst coal
Should we consider all the worst factors
occurring simultaneously?
Equipment sizing criteria
Scope for a revisit based on the operating
experience

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Impact on Boiler Design

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Gas Temp Vs Surface

Spacing
(Ref B&W book)

Dr V T Sathyanathan

Dr V T Sathyanathan

Dr V T Sathyanathan

Dr V T Sathyanathan
Points to Remember on Design Coal

Design coal in 95% if not in 99.5% is never got
by operating group
Design coal mainly used
Sizing boiler furnace & other heat transfer surfaces
Sizing equipments (Best or worst coal)
Designer proving guarantees
As base coal for comparing operating efficiency
Never compare the operating efficiency
calculated one to one.
Uncontrollable losses must be properly
addressed
Dr V T Sathyanathan
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Dr V T Sathyanathan

Boiler Design to meet

Mankind is in pursuit of truth, let us work towards this

Mankind is in pursuit of truth, let us work towards this

Ritual Air & Fuel moisture loss

PLANT EFFICIENCY & HEAT RATE

482.8 Mkcal/hr 420 Mkcal/hr 180.6 Mkcal/hr 172 Mkcal/hr

87.0 % 2000 kcal/kwhr 43.0 %

2299 kcal/kwhr 37.4%

2414 kcal/kwhr 35.6 %

Mankind is in pursuit of truth, let us work towards this

Coal Property Variations

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Mankind is in pursuit of truth, let us work towards this

Why Design Coal is important for

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Coal Properties Affecting

Coal property variation – Effect

Ash Quantity Radiation shielding, Erosion, Quantity of ash to be

Moisture Heat transfer, mill capacity & outlet temperature, Boiler

Mankind is in pursuit of truth, let us work towards this

HEAT RELEASE PROFILES OF Coal 1 & Coal 2

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Effect Of Fuel On Boiler Design

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Normally specified Coal Properties

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Typical Indian Coals

Fixed carbon % 22.0 20.0 25.0

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Typical Indian Coals

Carbon % 33.73 30.90 38.26

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Ash Characteristics -Typical Indian Coals

Initial Deformation Temp. Deg.C 1150 1100 1200

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Heat Transfer in Furnace - Uncertainties

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Design Coal Worst Coal Best Coal

Iron / Calcium 1.32 High 1.39 High 4.86 Severe

Silica / 2.13 Medium 2.26 Medium 2.20 Medium

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Design of heat transfer surfaces

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Furnace Heat Transfer

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Designing for Erosion Protection

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Coal Ash – the Crucial Factor

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Factors Influencing Furnace

Mankind is in pursuit of truth, let us work towards this

Coal property variation – Effect

Ash Quantity Radiation shielding, Erosion, Quantity of ash to be

Moisture Heat transfer, mill capacity & outlet temperature, Boiler

Mankind is in pursuit of truth, let us work towards this

Coals being specified currently:

Mankind is in pursuit of truth, let us work towards this

Coals for Boiler Design-

Coal, Ash & Moisture quantities