Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT), 2020

Pavement Materials – CENG 6305

Chapter 2:
SITE INVESTIGATION
 SITE INVESTIGATION
2

Site Investigation involves the investigation of subgrade soils and

identification of suitable sources of materials for the construction of
embankments and pavement structures, and fill materials along a
proposed route of a road.

The results of site investigation provide pertinent information to
decide on one or more of the following subjects:

Selection of roadway alignment;

Decision on the need for subgrade or embankment foundation treatment;

Investigation of slope stability in cuts and embankments;

Location and design of ditches and culverts;

Selection and design of the roadway pavement;

Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and construction materials; and

Design of foundations for bridges and other structures.
 SITE INVESTIGATION
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The process of site investigation can be

separated into the following steps:

Desk Study

Site Reconnaissance

Ground Investigation

Laboratory Testing

Final Report
 DESK STUDY
4

The desk study is work taken up prior to commencing the work on site and
the Ground Investigation.

The steps of the desk study are:

Collect and investigate geological maps, soil maps, land use maps,
topographical maps, aerial photos, and climate maps.

Study past investigations and other relevant existing documents.

Investigate logs of past test pits and results of past laboratory tests.

Carry out the desk study and produce a map at a convenient scale
showing the limits of the geological formations and the indications of
materials.

A desk study should be done to obtain sufficient information to plan the
field investigation. It saves much time later and improves the planning and
quality of the investigation.
 SITE RECONNAISSANCE
5

The Site Reconnaissance phase of a site investigation is normally

the form of a walk over survey of the site to:

Verify the assumptions made regarding the limits of geological
formations

Confirm the indications relative to sources of materials identified during
the office review

Identify potential problem areas (e.g. embankments on compressible
soils, expansive soils, deep or potentially unstable cuts, major rock
excavations, slope instability, marshy ground, springs or seepage, ponds
or streams, etc.)

Define practical means of detailed field investigations

If possible and as required, conduct limited probes and sampling to
assess the general characteristics of homogenous soil areas and to
identify particular problem areas
 Ground Investigation: Planning
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There are two aspects to the site investigation: the geological

structure and character of the site, and the testing of the soil both
in the laboratory and in-situ. The planning should consider the
following:

Is the succession of strata known over the whole site and is there
correlation across the whole site? Should any key measurements, such
as depth to bedrock or peat, be made?

Are the different strata fairly homogenous over the site or do local
variations exist? Are there more complex areas of strata that require
investigation or closer examination during construction?

Will there be areas where the excavated material will be unsuitable
for fill and will need to be replaced? Are there areas that need to be
assessed to ascertain working methods?
 Ground Investigation: Planning
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Are there ground structures that need closer examination – for example
the extent of disturbed strata, the location and extent of natural cavities
and mine workings, their liability to cause subsidence or movement, the
extent and depth of surface movement and instability?

Are there other phenomenon likely to give rise to instability such as
fractures and river crossings or alluvial areas that may have buried soft
material or peat? Are there likely to be any undetected structures?

Will any part of the route be subject to flooding? What contact will there
be with water bearing strata and will ground water lowering methods be
required during construction?

Do requirements for the carrying out of special in-situ tests or the taking of
undisturbed samples affect the conduct of the qualitative investigation?
 Ground Investigation: Planning
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These questions should be asked for the whole route, and must
be related to the proposed geometry of the road and its
structure.

Investigations must be carried out to the depth at which ground
conditions cease to affect the work. The more complex the
situation, the more extensive the investigation will need to be.

Bridge sites, high embankments and deep cuttings are all points
of engineering complexity and should be examined thoroughly.

The investigation must then be planned to answer the above
questions and associated problems. These are frequently used
to clarify the interpretation of the site as a whole.
 Ground Investigation: Methods
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Principal methods of investigating ground conditions:

Trial Pits: shallow excavations going down to a depth of 6m
used extensively at the surface for sampling, carry out in-situ
tests (DCP, SPT or CBR), and to identify the nature of the
ground;

Boreholes: used to determine the nature of the ground
(usually below 6m depth) in a qualitative manner and then
recover undisturbed samples for quantitative examination.
 The two principal types of boring machine used for site
investigation are light percussive and drilling machines.

Geophysical techniques using seismic and resistivity methods
 Ground Investigation: Purpose
10

Ground Investigation is carried out for:

Preliminary design: to provide sufficient data with sufficient accuracy,
coverage and applicability to support preliminary design, decision,
and permit reasonably accurate preliminary estimates of material
quantities and construction costs.

Final design: to provide design parameters with sufficient accuracy,
and coverage on subgrade, fill and pavement materials, foundation
of structures, etc.

The objectives of field investigations are to:

Determine subgrade soil type encountered and its properties,

Determine allowable bearing capacity for foundations of structures,

Determine drainage conditions (groundwater level),

Construction materials (natural or sources of crushed aggregate),

Identify sand and water sources
 Ground Investigation
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The investigations for any typical project can

broadly be categorized as:

Earthwork and subgrade soils

Construction materials

Foundations of structures

Sand and water sources and drainage
conditions
 Ground Investigation: Earthworks and Subgrade
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New Roads: Depth of Investigation

Common investigations include identification of the nature of soils (subgrade and embankment
materials), moisture at equilibrium, moisture-density relationship, and strength (bearing capacity)

It is always required to plan and conduct soil surveys in a manner that examines subgrade
materials according to their suitability in load bearing layers within the zone of the design depth

The design depth is defined as the depth from the finished road level to the depth that the load
bearing strength of the soil no longer has an effect on the pavement’s performance in relation to
traffic loading.

According to ERA (2002), test pits should be dug through the existing ground level down to at least
30 cm below the expected subgrade level. The depth of any pit should in no case be less than
1.5m unless rock or other material impossible to excavate by hand is encountered.
 Ground Investigation: Earthworks and Subgrade
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New Roads: frequency of investigation:

Frequency and spacing of the test pits should depend on engineering judgment and
be guided by a prior review of documents as well as a preliminary visual survey of
the road alignment and the results of the investigations during preliminary design.

Ethiopian Road Authority, 2002

Investigation Stage Test Description Frequency of Cumulative Sampling
Feasibility/Preliminary Identification 1 km
CBR 2 - 5 km
Final Identification 0.5 km
CBR 1 km

Tanzanian Pavement Design manual, 1999

Road Type Indicator Tests Strength Tests
Paved trunk roads Min 4 per km Min 2 per km
Other paved roads Min 2 per km Min 1 per km
Gravel roads Min 2 per km Min 1 per 2 km
 Ground Investigation: Earthworks and Subgrade
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New Roads: frequency and depth of investigation

If deep cuts are proposed because the material is variable,
drilling should be considered at the final design stage.

The position (in plan and elevation) of each test pit must be
accurately determined and recorded.

Layers of soils should be described and the log of each test
pit should be drawn in the Final Report.

A soil map should be prepared indicating the aerial limits of
each soil type.
 Ground Investigation: Earthworks and Subgrade
15

New Roads: Tests

Gradation

Atterberg Limits

Moisture Content

Compaction Test

CBR and Swell

The design moisture content to be adopted in the design of new pavement is

determined based on the project conditions, taking into consideration the depth
to water table and rainfall characteristics.

Measurement of the moisture content in the subgrade below existing pavements
is helpful in determining the design moisture content to adopt in the design of
new pavements in the same vicinity.

If tests show that the available natural materials do not meet the quantity or
quality (as per specifications) requirements for subgrade and/or pavement
layers, treatment tests shall be carried out.
 Ground Investigation: Earthworks and Subgrade
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Existing Roads: Common Investigations

Test pits should be dug through the existing pavement layers to the
subgrade level (design depth) at the recommended frequency

Testing of subgrade on an existing road include:

Gradation

Atterberg Limits

Compaction Test

CBR and Swell

DCP, Field Moisture Content, and Field Dry Density
 Ground Investigation: Materials
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Existing Pavement Materials

Where an existing road is to be upgraded (or rehabilitated) on

the same alignment, the existing pavement materials may
provide materials for improved subgrade, subbase or other
pavement layers.

In such a case, measurements of the thickness and width shall be
recorded every 100m and one sample per kilometer shall be
taken where the layer is considerable; at least 15cm thick.

Each sample shall be submitted to tests as per the specifications
corresponding to the intended use of the material.
 Ground Investigation: Materials
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Soil and Gravel Borrow Pits

Pavement material searches are generally restricted to a 10km corridor entering
on the road considering the following factors:

Quality of the materials, so as to comply with the specifications for intended use

Location of the proposed borrow areas, so as to minimize haul and obtain the most
economic use of materials

Ease of working (land acquisition, clearance of the site, access, overburden, thickness of
exploitable horizon, etc)

Soil and gravel borrow pits are located at economical intervals in order to
provide construction materials for

Materials for selected subgrade (capping layers)

Subbase materials (natural gravels)

Gravel wearing course materials

Cement- and lime-stabilized materials

The minimum thickness of deposit normally considered workable is on the order of
one meter. The absolute minimum depends on the area of the deposit and the
thickness of overburden (30cm may be workable)
 Ground Investigation: Materials
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Soil and Gravel Borrow Pits

Test pits should be dug approximately on a 50m grid (preliminary) or 25-30 m
grid (final), through the full depth of the layer(s) proposed for use (a minimum of 5
test pits is recommended).

The position of each test pit, the characteristic features of the site, the means of
access and location, and layers, including top soil and overburden, shall be
accurately described and their thicknesses measured.

A sufficient number of samples, each of sufficient quantity, are to be taken to
carry out the following tests:

Grading

Atterberg Limits

Compaction Tests

CBR and swell at 4 days interval

For the types of gravel susceptible to crushing during compaction, the grading and CBR
of the compacted specimen shall be determined after compaction and compared with
the grading and the CBR before the compaction test

If the tests show that the available natural materials do not meet the quality
requirements, treatment tests shall be carried out
 Ground Investigation: Materials
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Crushed Stone Aggregates (Quarry Materials)

Potential sources of stone should be identified, approximate quantity estimates
should be made based on visual observations during the preliminary design,
however, more detailed and reliable quantity estimates should be made during
the final design stage.

The location of each potential source of stone shall be indicated on a key plan. A
site plan of each potential quarry shall be prepared, showing the characteristic
features of the site and the means of access and location.

Emphasis must be given during the field studies to the identification of material
sources that meet the following criteria:

The material sources must be located as close as possible to the project road

The material sources must be located at frequent intervals along the road

The material sources should have little overburden and low extraction costs

Quarry sites must be located at sites suitable for the erection of crushing plants

Blasting should be minimized to produce stone fragments ready for crushing

Materials should require minimal processing to achieve a suitable specification
 Ground Investigation: Materials
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Crushed Stone Aggregates (Quarry Materials)

Each selected potential quarry site shall be investigated:

Test holes shall be dug or drilled on a 30m grid (average) to prove
overburden and ascertain quantities.

Samples of fresh rock shall be obtained by hand, or pneumatic drilling from
existing faces and outcrops, deeper samples shall also be obtained by
blasting.

Depending on the consistency of the rock and whether it is an existing or a
new quarry, 5 to 10 samples are required per quarry during the final stage
of the investigation, as against 3 samples during the preliminary investigation.

A site plan of each potential quarry shall be prepared, showing the
characteristic features of the site and the means of access and location.

The position and level of each borehole and sampling point shall be
accurately recorded on the site plan, after the quarries have been drilled.
 Ground Investigation: Materials
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Crushed Stone Aggregates (Quarry Materials)

The following laboratory tests are carried out to verify the suitability
of the rock to produce materials for unbound base course materials,
and aggregates for bitumen-bound premixes:

Los Angeles Abrasion

Aggregate Crushing Value

Sodium Sulphate or Magnesium Sulphate Soundness

Plasticity Index on fines from the Los Angeles Abrasion test

Mineralogical analysis

Gradation and flakiness

Resistance to polishing

Water absorption

Bitumen affinity, sand equivalent and

Plasticity index of material passing the 0.425 mm sieve
 Ground Investigation: Drainage and water source
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Information on surface drainage conditions, flood levels,

ground water level, etc.

The needs for water during construction must be evaluated,
in particular in areas where it is scarce.

Major water sources need to be sampled and analyzed
(chloride, sulfate, organic content, pH, etc) in order to check
their suitability for use in construction of pavement and
concrete structures.

Sources of sand for concrete and mortar need to be
sampled and tested (grain size, organic impurity,
soundness, mortar strength, etc.).
 Ground Investigation: Foundations of Structures
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During preliminary design, borings will be required at the

anticipated locations of the bridge substructures, although the
geometry of bridge is still subject to change during final design.

Soil samples, disturbed and undisturbed as appropriate, should be
retrieved for laboratory testing.

The possible foundation solutions should be identified during the
preliminary stage. During the final stage, limited exploration to
verify the design assumptions is recommended.

For culverts, a detailed exploration with drilling rigs may not be
required. Limited exploration by way of test pits using hand
augers should be sufficient.
 Ground Investigation: Foundations of Structures
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As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing

programs shall define the following, where applicable:

Soil strata: thickness, variability, identification and classification,
relevant engineering properties (i.e. shear strength, compressibility,
stiffness, permeability, expansion or collapse potential, etc.)

Rock strata: depth, identification and classification, quality (i.e.
soundness, hardness, jointing and presence of joint filling,
resistance to weathering, compressive strength, etc.)

Ground water elevation

Ground surface elevation

Local conditions requiring special consideration
 Ground Investigation: Special investigation
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Special investigations relate to:

Deep cuts: selecting suitable tests, potential for water
reappearance, slope stability, etc.

Embankments over soft and compressible soils:
selecting suitable investigation techniques (in-situ-static
and dynamic penetrometer tests, boring, van test,
etc.), and selecting possible foundation treatments

Detail investigation on expansive soils and

Detail investigation on natural slopes.
 Final Report
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Contents of the field investigation report

Summary of the test programs

General description (Subgrade, materials, drainage
& water, and foundation conditions)

Detail analysis

Recommendation for design (as required)

Test hole logs and soil profile