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Perkembangan, Sifat, dan Penggunaan Akuntansi

Prodi S1 AKUNTANSI
FakultasEkonomidan BisnisUNTAR
 PERTEMUAN KE: 3
SC&C ch.3 INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING
International Accounting
Standards
• Financial accounting is influenced by
the environment in which it operates
▪Companies develop financial reports directed at their
primary users
Previously most were residents of the same country as
the corporation
Transnational financial reporting has become more
commonplace because of the European Union, GATT and
NAFTA
 ▪U. S. companies must be able to compete in global
markets with transnational financial reporting
International Business Accounting Issues
• A company’s first exposure to
international accounting is
frequently the result of a purchase
or sale
 Problems:
1. Exchange gains or losses
2. Obtaining credit information
3. Evaluation of financial statements
  Next step may be to open an international
division

 Another issue is raising capital in foreign

markets
 Must prepare financial statements in a format acceptable to the
appropriate securities market
Factors Influencing Development of Accounting Systems
 Level of Political
Education System

Economic
Legal
Development
System

Influences on the Development of Financial Reporting

 Agricultural
Type of Resource Based
economy Tourist Based
Manufacturing

Legal Codified
System Common Law

Political Democratic
System Totalitarian

Nature of Private Enterprise

Ownership Socialist
Communist
Influences on the Development of Financial Reporting
 Growth Growing
Pattern of Stable
Economy Declining

Social Climate
Stability of currency
Sophistication of management
Sophistication of financial community
Existence of accounting legislation
Education System
Approaches to Preparing Financial
Statements for Use in Other Countries:
1. Same to all
2. Translate language
3. Translate language and currency
4. Two sets
5. World-wide standards
The International Accounting Standards
Committee
• The preparation of financial
statements for foreign users
under option #5 is being
increasingly advocated
 IASC
 Formed in 1973 to aid in this process

 International
Accounting Standards
Board
 Replaced IASC in 2001

Standard Setting by the IASC

• Original intent:
• Avoid complex details
• Concentrate on basic standards
• Steps in the process
Prior to 2012, similar to FASB
 1. Steering Committee
2. Identify issues and prepare point outline
3. Board prepares comments
4. Steering Committee prepares final Statement of Principles
5. Exposure Draft
6. Steering Committee reviews comments & prepares final
standard

Standard Setting by the IASC

• Two treatments
1. Benchmark - point of
reference
2. Alternative
 • Improvements Project (2003)
• Removed some of the existing alternative accounting
treatments
• Where an IAS retained alternative treatments
• IASB removed references to 'benchmark treatment' retermed
'alternative treatment'
• Using descriptive references
• ‘Cost model’
• ‘Revaluation model’

Standard Setting by the IASC

• 2012: new standard‐setting procedure established

 • 2013 to 2015: the IASB initiated a
research and development program
• Results in discussion papers being
developed

• Staff provides
• information to help understand the problem;
• an assessment of potential solutions; and
• a preliminary assessment of relative costs / benefits of each
approach

• Standards-level projects initiated only when solutions are high

quality and implementable
Restructuring the IASC
• In its early years, IASC acted mainly as a harmonizer
• Recently, it has begun to combine that role with the role of a catalyst

Harmonizer Catalyst

Coordinator of national initiatives

Initiator of new work at
national level
Restructuring the IASB

• Future IASB role as catalyst and initiator

should become more prominent
• Important for the IASB to focus objectives
more precisely:
 1. Develop international accounting standards
that require high-quality, transparent, and
comparable information that will help
participants in capital markets, and others, to
make economic decisions; and
2. Promote the use of international accounting
standards by working with national standard
setters
Restructuring the IASB

• Structural changes needed

 • IASB must anticipate new
challenges and meet those
challenges effectively

•
Issues needing to be addressed:
1. Partnership with national standard setters.
• IASB should enter into a partnership with national standard setters
• Work together to accelerate
 Convergence between national standards
 Resulting international accounting standards include solutions
requiring high-quality, transparent, and comparable information
 Will help participants in capital markets and others to make
economic decisions.
 Restructuring the IASB

2. Wider participation in the IASB

Board
• Wider group of countries and organizations should take part in the
IASB Board
 Being careful to not dilute the quality of the Board's work

3. Appointment
• Process for appointments to the IASB Board and key IASB
committees should be the responsibility of a variety of constituencies
• Those appointed must be competent, independent, and objective
Restructuring the IASB

 2001:
Responsibility for international standards-setting
transferred to
the International Accounting Standards Board
(IASB)
Restructuring the IASB

• New structure:
• The IASC Foundation
• The International Accounting Standards Board
• The International Accounting Standards Advisory Council
• International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee
 KEY: Appoints
IASB Structure Reports To
Advises
Monitoring Board
Approve and Oversee Trustees

IFRS Foundation 22
( Trustees)
Appoint, Oversee, Raise Funds

IASB (Maximum16 Members) IFRS Interpretations Committee

Set Technical Agenda; Approve 14 members; Issue interpretations on the
Standards, Exposure Drafts & application of IFRS and
Interpretations develop other minor amendments

Accounting Standards Advisory Forum

IFRS Advisory Council (ASAF)
~ 40 members; Advise on Provide standard setter input into technical
agenda and priorities projects
Working Groups
For Major Agenda Projects
Revising the IASB’s Constitution
• Key issues to be reviewed:
1. Whether objectives of the IASC Foundation should
expressly refer to the challenges facing small and
medium-sized entities (SMEs)
2. Number of Trustees and their geographical and
professional distribution
3. Oversight role of the Trustees
4. Funding of the IASC Foundation
5. Composition of the IASB
6. Appropriateness of the IASB's existing formal liaison
relationships
7. Consultative arrangements of the IASB
 8. Voting procedures of the IASB
9. Resources and effectiveness of the International
Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee
(UMC):
10. Composition, role, and effectiveness of the SAC
Uses of International Accounting Standards
• IASC noted that its standards are used in a variety of ways:
1. National requirements

2. Basis for national requirements

3. Benchmark to develop standards

4. By regulatory agencies
 5. By companies

 International Organization of Securities Commissions

(IOSCO) looks to the IASC to provide standards that
can be used in multinational
securities offerings
Other Issues
• Partnership with the IOSCO
• Generate standards acceptable to IOSCO

• December 2003:
• IASB published 13 revised International Accounting
Standards
• Reissued two others
 • Gave notice of withdrawal of its standard on price level
accounting

• Revised and reissued standards mark the near-

completion of the IASB’s Improvements project

• 2005: reaffirmed support and development of

IFRS
IASB Annual Improvements Project

• July 2006
• Non-urgent issues
• Amendments
Use of IASC Standards

• Adopted by
• Over 12,000 companies
• 116 countries
• EU
 • IFRS No. 1 (Discussed later)

IASB-FASB Convergence

The FASB’s Short-term International

Convergence Project
 Goal of this project is to remove a variety of individual
differences between U.S. GAAP and International
Financial Reporting Standards
that are not within the scope of
other major projects

• Project scope is limited to those differences in

which convergence around a high-quality solution
would appear to be achievable in the short-term,
usually by selecting between existing

IFRS and U.S. GAAP

IASB-FASB Convergence
The Norwalk Agreement
• December 18, 2002:
• FASB and IASB held joint meeting in Norwalk,
Connecticut
• Both standard setting bodies acknowledged…
Their commitment to the development of
highquality compatible accounting standards that can be
used for
both domestic and cross-border financial reporting
 • Also committed to use best efforts to make existing
financial reporting standards compatible as soon as
practicable and to coordinate future work programs to
help ensure that once compatibility is achieved, it will be
maintained

IASB-FASB Convergence
The Norwalk Agreement

• Both Boards agreed to:

1. Undertake a short-term project aimed at removing a variety
of differences between U. S. GAAP and IFRSs
2. Remove any differences remaining on January 1, 2005,
between IFRSs and U. S. GAAP by undertaking projects that
both Boards would address concurrently
3. Continue progress on the joint projects currently underway
4. Encourage respective interpretative bodies to coordinate
activities
Effects of International Versus
U.S. GAAP Accounting Standards
• 2000: the SEC voted to ask U.S. companies to comment
on whether it should allow foreign companies to list their
securities on U.S. stock exchanges under international
accounting rules
• Previously needed Form 20-F reconciliation
• 2007: “Acceptance from Foreign Private Issuers of
Financial Statements Prepared in Accordance with
International Financial Reporting Standards without
Reconciliation to GAAP.”

Effects of International Versus U.S.

GAAP Accounting Standards
• SEC staff report
• Focused on how recognition and measurement
requirements of IFRS were applied in practice
• Found that company financial statements generally appeared to
comply with IFRS requirements
 • Two concerns
• Transparency and clarity of the financial statements in the sample
could be enhanced
• Diversity in the application of IFRS presented challenges to the
comparability of financial statements across countries and
industries

• Is convergence a dead issue?

• No final decision by the SEC
Standards Overload

 Also a concern for IASB

 2009: IASB published IFRS for small to
medium-sized businesses
  95% of all companies
 Provide simplified standards
 Review found it needed little change
 Another area of difference with U. S.
GAAP
Framework for the Preparation
and Presentation of Financial
Statements
• Purpose - to set out concepts that underlie the preparation
and presentation of financial statements by
1. Assisting the IASC in developing future standards
2. Promoting harmonization of accounting standards
3. Assisting national standard setters
 4. Assisting preparers in applying international standards
5. Assisting auditors in forming an opinion as to whether financial statements
conform to international standards
6. Assisting users in interpreting financial
statements prepared in conformity with
international standards
7. Providing interested parties with information
about the IASC’s approach to the formation of
international accounting standards

Framework for the Preparation

and Presentation of Financial Statements
The Framework specifies:
• Chapter 1: The Objective of General-Purpose Financial
Reporting
• This topic is discussed in Chapter 2 of this text.
• Chapter 2: The Reporting Entity
 • This topic is currently under study
• Chapter 3: Qualitative Characteristics of Useful Financial
Information
• This topic is discussed in Chapter 2 of this text.
• Chapter 4: The Framework: The Remaining Text

• The original framework approved in 1989

Underlying Assumption
Going concern
• If this presumption is invalid, appropriate
disclosure and a different basis of reporting are
required
Elements of Financial Statements
• Asset
• Liability
• Equity
• Income
• Expense
• The concept of
recognition
– Probable
– Measurable
Concepts of Capital
Maintenance

• Concepts:
1. Financial capital
maintenance
2. Physical capital maintenance
• Selection of “measurement basis” and the
“concept of capital maintenance” chosen will
determine the accounting model
• IASC does not intend to prescribe a model
Revised Conceptual Framework

• 2012: Conceptual framework added to

IASB agenda
• 2013: Exposure Draft released (Nine
Chapters)
• Introduction
• Chap 1—Objective of general purpose financial
reporting
• Chap 2—Qualitative characteristics of useful financial
information
• Chap 3—Financial Statements and the reporting entity
• Chap 4—Elements of financial statements
• Chap 5—Recognition and derecognition
• Chap 6—Measurement
• Chap 7—Presentation and disclosure
• Chap 8—Concepts of capital and capital maintenance
IASB–FASB Project Financial Statement
Presentation
• A joint project to develop a new joint standard
for presenting financial statements
• Ultimately, new standard will replace IAS No. 1 & IAS
No. 7

• Main objective is to address fundamental

issues relating to presentation and display of
information in the financial statements,
including the:
• Relationship between items across financial statements
• Disaggregation of information so that it is useful in
predicting an entity’s future cash flows
 • Provision of information to help users
assess an entity’s liquidity and financial
flexibility
Agenda Consultation Initiative
• July 2011: the IASB initiated an
agenda consultation initiative
• Plan – Obtain input every three years on the
direction and the overall balance of its work
• December 2012: First consultation
culminated in the release of a Feedback
Statement that identified several key
themes:
• A period of calm
 • Prioritize work on the Conceptual Framework
• Targeted improvements to certain standards
• Updates to assist implementation and
maintenance
• Updates to improve the standard-setting
process
Agenda Consultation Initiative
• Resulted in the following initiatives:
• Improved implementation
• Resume work on the Conceptual Framework
• Developed a list of research projects to explore (each to
result in a report or discussion paper):
1. Emissions trading schemes
2. Business combinations under common
control
 3. Discount rates
4. Equity method of accounting
5. Intangible assets, extractive activities, and research and development
activities
6. Financial instruments with the characteristics of equity
7. Foreign currency translation
8. Nonfinancial liabilities (amendments to IAS no. 37)
9. Financial reporting in high inflationary economies

IAS No. 1:
“Presentation of Financial Statements”
• Written due to constituents expressing concerns about
the complexity of the implementation task and existing
guidance on first‐time adoption
• Considerations:
1. Fair presentation and compliance with IASC standards
 2. Accounting policies
3. Going concern
4. Accrual basis of accounting
5. Consistency of presentation
6. Materiality and aggregation
7. Offsetting
8. Comparative information
IAS No. 1:
“Presentation of Financial Statements”
• 2003 Amendment
• Encourages companies to apply professional
judgment in determining what information
to disclose and how to structure it in their
financial statements
 • Key provisions
• Materiality
• Financial statements
• Notes
IFRS No. 1:
“First Time Adoption of a
International Reporting Standards”
• Amendments made IAS No. 1 complex and
difficult to apply
IFRS No. 1 was issued
• Principles
• Recognize all assets and liabilities whose recognition is
required under existing IFRSs
 • Do not recognize items as assets or liabilities when existing IFRSs do
not allow such recognition
• Reclassify assets, liabilities, and equity as necessary to comply with
existing IFRSs
• Apply existing IFRSs in measuring all recognized assets and liabilities

PERTEMUAN KE: 4
ARB-2: HAKIKAT DAN PENGGUNAAN AKUNTANSI
• Definisi dan Peranan Akuntansi
• Definisi
• Akuntansi seni atau ilmu?
• Sifat dan peranan akuntansi
• Pengukuran dalam Akuntansi
• Hakikat pengukuran
• Jenis ukuran
• Jenis skala
• Pemikiran Dibalik Tatabuku Berpasangan
• Prinsip Akuntansi Berlaku Umum (GAAP) • Arti GAAP;
• GAAP;GAAP KHUSUS; OCBOA?
• GAAP KECIL VS GAAP BESAR?
• Kebijakan dan Perubahan Akuntansi
• Rekayasa Akuntansi
• Salah Saji Keuangan Selektif
• Perataan Laba
• Manajemen laba
• Kreativitas dalam akuntansi
 • Kecurangan dalam akuntansi
• Proletarianisasi teknis dan idiologis para akuntan
• Kesadaran para pengguna yang direkayasa
• Perspektif etika dalam akuntansi
• Utilitarianisme
• Deontologi
• Pemikiran akan kelayakan
• Kesimpulan
KOMITE TERMINOLOGI AICPA :
Akuntansi Adalah Seni Pencatatan, Penggolongan ,Dan Peringkasan
Transakasi dan Kejadian Yang Bersifat Keuangan dengan Cara Yang
Berdaya Guna dan dalam Bentuk Satuan Uang , serta
Menginterpretasikan Hasil Proses Tersebut .
Pengertian Lebih Luas :
 Proses Pengindentifikasian,Pengukuran dan Pengkomunikasian
Informasi Ekonomik Untuk Memungkinkan Pembuatan
Pertimbangan Keputusan oleh Pengguna Informasi .
Definisi terkini:
Akuntansi adalah suatu aktifitas jasa yang menyediakan
informasi kwantitatif terutama yang bersifat keuangan tentang
entitas ekonomi yang diperkirakan bermanfaat dalam pembuatan
keputusan- keputusan ekonomik , dan dalam menetukan pilihan
diantara alternatif tindakan yang ada

3 DEFINISI AKUNTANSI:
Sebaga Seni,
Teknologi
Ilmu
 JASA AKUNTANSI SELAIN AUDIT TRADISIONAL
• Kepada penyedia modal , laporan keuangan, siaran pers (pers release),
pertemuan analis, buku fakta, perusahaan menerima informasi tentang
kebenaran dlm pinjaman.
• Kepada pelanggan dan penyedia, penyedia informasi tentang kwalitas
produk dan menerima informasi trentang kelayaan kredit dan kwalitas
pelangan .
• Masarakat umum dan perusahaan menerima informasi tentang
kebijakan dan aturan pajak, persyaratan ketenagakerjaan, kwalitas
udara dan air, pengaruh lin kungan , pengaruh ketenagakerjaan,
pembayaran pajak.
• Dari pegawai, perusahaan memnerima informasi tentang surat
referensi /koMpetensi,kebijakan ketenagakerjaan ,kompensasi, dan
informasi yang berkaitan dengan pekerjaan.
BIDANG MANFAAT AKUNTANSI
• Pelaporan keuangan;
 • Penentuan dan perencanaan pajak;
• Audit independen;
• Sistem informasi akuntansi;
• Akuntansi manajemen dan biaya;
• Akuntansi laba nasional;
• Konsultasi manajemen;
• Akuntansi internasional;
• Akuntansikeperilakuan;akuntansi sosio-ekonomi;
• Akuntansi pemerintahan;
• Akuntansi nir laba.
 SIFAT DAN PERANAN AKUNTANSI
• Sifat-sifat baik dari praktik akuntansi:
• Kejujuran Akuntan;
• Kepedulian Terhadap Status Ekonomi Pihak Lain dalam
bentuk akuntabilitas;
• Kepekaan terhadap Nilai Kerja Sama dan Konflik melalui
Penggunaan Teknik Akuntansi Managemen;
• Karakter Akuntansi Yang Komunikatif dengan
Menyampaikan Pengalaman Ekonomik Melalui Ungkapan
Akuntansi;
• Penyebaran Informasi Ekonomi Dengan Menyediakan
Informasi Ekonomik Untuk Pengambilan Keputusan
 KENDALA-KENDALA AKUNTANSI
• Dominasi dari imbalan eksternal yang mengancam
kebebasan auditor;

• Kekuatan institusi yang merusak;

• Kegagalan membedakan sifat baik dengan hukum.

PENGUKURAN DALAM AKUNTANSI
• Secara umum akuntansi dipandang sebagai salah satu
alat pengukuran sekaligus sebagai disiplin
pengkomunikasian :
 • Pengukuran adalah pelekatan suatu angka pada
suatu obyek atau peristiwa menurut aturan tertentu;
• Mengindentifikasikan dan memilih obyek,dan atribut
yang relevan,
• Limitasi data, karakteristik lingkungan,kurangnya
obyektifitas dan kemampuan verifikasi, dapat menjadi
kendala dalam pengukuran.
TIPE TIPE UKURAN
• Ukuran langsung dan tidak langsung
• Berkaitan dengan dimensi waktu keputusan untuk
merujuk apakah obyek akuntansi dan atributnya
 mengukur peristiwa masa lalu, sekarang atau yang
akan datang.
• Pengukuran fundamental,pengukuran turunan.
• Pengukuran empiris , atau melalui keputusan resmi
yang bersifat arbitrase.
TIPE TIPE SKALA
•Skala Nominal
•Skala Ordinal
•Skala Interval
•Skala Rasio
 Akuntansi Mendasarkan Pada Skala Skala
Tersebut
PRINSIP PRINSIP AKUNTANSI BERTERIMA UMUM
• Menganggambarkan Kondisi Dimana Suatu Metode Akuntansi
Dianggap Diterima Oleh Umum ,
• Mencakup ketentuan, aturan, dan prosedur praktik akuntansi
yang berlaku umum;
• Menurut Skinner Harus Memenuhi Sbb :
 Digunakan Dalam Sejumlah Kasus Yang Signifikan Dimana Keadaan Cocok
• Mendapat Dukungan Melalui Masyarakat Akuntansi Profesional atau Badan
Badan Otoritatif seperti SEC di USA
• Mendapat Dukungan Sejumlah Pengajar dan Pemikir Akuntansi yang Diakui
 PABU
• PABU mencakup pengumuman pengumuman dari badan penetap
standar, seperti: FASB dan INTERPRETASInya, OPINI APB, AICPA
• Pedoman audit dan akuntansi industri dan pernyataan posisi AICPA
dan interpretasi AICPA
• Publikasi lain dari FASB,seperti buletin teknis dan pernyataan APB
• Publiklasi SEC seperti terbitan seri akuntansi.
• Praktik praktik yang diakui dan sering muncul publikasi AICPA,
accounting trends and techniques
• Makalah makalah terbitan AICPA pernyataan konsep FASB buku
teks ,dan artikel artikel
• Saat ini IFRS, ISA sebagai acuan PABU yang terkini
 PABU KECIL,PABU BESAR,OCBOA
• Dalam kenyatannya terdapat perusahan yang ke cildan
besar;
• Dalam penerapan PABU kemungkinan terjadi kendala bagi
perusahan kecil karena dibebani oleh biaya administratif
dalam rangka un tuk menaati aturan aturan yang tidak
relevan dengan usahanya .
• Perusahaan harus lebih dibebaskan dari persyaratan yang
ada sehingga diperlukan definisi yang jelas untuk
membedakan perusahaan kecil dan besar.
• PABU harus mengakomodasikan perbedaan tersebut yang
tertuang dalam PABU resmi .
• Isu: GAAP Khusus, OCBOA (other comprehensive bases of
accounting)?
 KEBIJAKAN DAN PERUBAHAN AKUNTANSI
• Kebijakan akuntansi dari sebuah pelaporan entitas
adalah prinsip prinsip akuntansi yang dipandang paling
tepat untuk menyajikan laporan keuangan,perubahan
dalam posisi keuangan ,dan hasil operasi dengan
sewajarnya sesuai dengan pri nsip akuntansi yang
berterima umum dan karenanya diadopsi untuk
penyiapan laporan keuangan.
ETIKA DAN REKAYASA AKUNTANSI
• Kejujuran akuntan pada umumnya dan auditor pd khususnya.
• Kepedulian terhadap status ekonomi orang lain dlm bentuk penatalayangan
dan pertanggungjawaban .
• Kepekaan terhadap nilai kerja sama dan konflik ,melalui kerjasama
menegemen akuntansi

• Rekayasa akuntansi:
 Hipotesa salah saji secara selektif,
 Perataan laba,
 Manajemen laba,
 Kreativitas dalam akuntansi,
 Akuntansi mandi besar (big bath accounting)
 Kecurangan dalam akuntansi  Kejatan kerah putih  Kegagalan audit.

PEMERATAAN LABA
• Pemerataan earning yang dilaporkan sebagai upaya
yang dilakukan untuk memperkecil fluktuasi tingkat
pendapatan yang dianggap normal perusahaan .
• Upaya managemen untuk mengurangi variasi yang
tidak normal dalam earning pada tingkat yang
diizinkan oleh prinsip prinsip akuntansi yang sehat.
HIPOTETIS SALAH SAJI KEUANGAN SELEKTIF
 Manager lebih memilih standard pelaporan yang longgar dari pada
yang ketat shg memungkinkan : bonus yang tinggi , mempengaruhi
pemegang saham, mencegah pengambil alihan,
 Keuntungan pemegang saham diperoleh dari standard akuntansi
yang longgar , karena peningkatan nilai perusahaan.
 Auditor mungkin memilih aturan pelaporan yang sama untuk
menjaga keharmonisan dengan klien ,atau aturan yang kaku untuk
dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai tameng .
 Penetapan standard lebih memilih hipotetis salah saji untuk
perlindungan diri sendiri
  Akademisi lebih memilih hipotetis salah saji selektif karena akan
memberi peluang bagi akademisi menyediakan teori usulan yang
akan menghasilkan imbalan jasa.

KONKLUSI
• Kita akan memiliki suatu kekaguman bahwa disiplin
ilmu akuntansi yang nampak biasa dan praktis ternyata
dapat menjadi begitu rumit,
• Ilmu akuntansi ternyata merupakan bagian dari ilmu
sosial dengan aturan-aturan praktis dan teori-teori
yang mendukung,
• Pembaca diasumsikan telah menguasai aturan-aturan
dari sumber lain.
 SWD ch.1 Pengertian Teori Akuntansi
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