EFFECT OF SEEDING RATE AND ROW SPACING ON THE YIELD

AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF BREAD WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L.)

IN BALE HIGHLANDS, SOUTH EASTERN ETHIOPIA

M.Sc. THESIS

HUSEN AMAN

JUNE 2019

MADDA WALABU UNIVERSITY, BALE-ROBE

i
 EFFECT OF SEEDING RATE AND ROW SPACING ON THE YIELD
AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF BREAD WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L.)
IN BALE HIGHLANDS, SOUTH EASTERN ETHIOPIA

A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Plant Sciences,

School of Graduate Studies

MADDA WALABU UNIVERSITY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE (AGRONOMY)

By

Husen Aman

June 2019

Madda Walabu University, Bale-Robe

ii
 MADDA WALABU UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

We hereby certify that we have read and evaluated this thesis entitled as ‘Effects of Seeding
Rate and Row Spacing on the Yield and Yield Components of Bread Wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.) in Bale Highlands, South Eastern Ethiopia’ prepared, by Husen Aman under
our guidance, which we recommend to be submitted as fulfilling the Thesis requirement.
Jemal Abdulkerim (Ass. Prof.) _________________ _________________
Major Advisor Signature Date
Mengesha kebede (PhD) _________________ ________________
Co-advisor Signature Date

As member of the Board of Examiners of the M.Sc. Thesis Open Defense Examination, we
certify that we have read, evaluated the Thesis prepared by Husen Aman Jara, and examined
the candidate. We recommended the Thesis be accepted as fulfilling the Thesis requirement
for the Degree of Master of Science in Agronomy.
Dr. Girma Kebede _________________ ________________
Chairperson Signature Date
Dr. Edosa Fikru _________________ ________________
Internal Examiner Signature Date
Dr. Dawit Dalga _________________ ________________
External Examiner Signature Date

iii
 DEDICATION

This piece of work is dedicated to my father Aman Jara, to all my families and to my lovely
wife Baresa Abdulmanen, who inspired and encouraged me in all aspects during my research
work.

STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR

iv
By my signature below, I declare that this Thesis is my own work. I have followed all ethical
and technical principles of scholarship in the preparation, data collection, data analysis and
compilation of the thesis.

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for M.sc. degree at
Madda Walabu University and is deposited at Madda Walabu University post graduate
Internet room and library to be made available to borrowers under rules and regulations of
the library. I solemnly declare that this is not submitted to any other institution anywhere for
the award of any degree, diploma, or certificate.

Brief quotation from this thesis is allowable without special permission, provided that
accurate acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended
quotation from or the head of the major department fully or partially may grant reproduction
of this scripture or the dean of the School of Graduate Studies when in his judgment the
proposed use of the content is in the interest of scholarship. In all other reproduction for any
purpose or by any means shall not be allowed without written permission.

Name: Husen Aman Signature: ________________

Place: Madda Walabu University, Bale Robe

Date of Submission:

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

v
The author was born in September 1985 at Bale Zone, Ginnir District, known as
Mumicha/Getara Kebele. He attended his elementary School at Mumicha Elementary School
and Secondary education at Ginnir Secondary Schools from 1994-2003. He joined Bako
ATVET College in 2004 and graduated in July, 2006 with Diploma in Plant Science. After
his graduation, he worked for three years in Bale Zone Harana Buluq District; where he
served as Development Agent starting from September 2007 up to September 2009. After
serving for three years, in 2010, he joined Jimma University College of Agriculture and
Veterinary Medicine to pursue his Degree of Bachelor of Science study in Horticulture. He
graduated with the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Horticulture in July 2011. After
graduation, he was employed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to work
as a crop production and protection expert in Bale Zone Harana Buluq District Pastoral
Development Office from 2012-2013. He then worked as vice head of Rural Land
Administration and Environmental Office in Bale Zone Harana Buluq District from 2014-
2015. In 2016, he worked as deputy head of Harana Bulluq Pastoral Development Office and
in 2017; he worked as deputy head of Dinsho Agricultural and Natural Resource Office.
After working for one year, he joined the School of Graduate Studies of Madda Walabu
University to pursue a study leading to the degree of Master of Science in Agronomy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

vi
Right from the outset, I would like to thank and praise the almighty Allah for keeping me
healthy and energetic to successfully undertake the course work, field, and library research,
and to compile this manuscript.

I am highly grateful to my major advisor Jemal Abdulkerim, for his consistent guidance,
encouragement and critical remarks while developing the proposal, for giving constructive
and valuable comments and suggestions that shaped this thesis. My deepest gratitude goes to
my co-advisor Dr. Mengasha Kebede for his careful scrutiny during the preparation of the
proposal, pertinent comments while supervising the field research, and for reviewing the
thesis manuscript.

I express my sincere gratitude to Sinana Agricultural Research Center (SARC) and Madda
Walabu University for the provision of experimental site and field equipment and other
facilities, and for providing the full assistance of the staff of the SARC Agronomy Division.

I wish to acknowledge the Oromia National Regional State for giving me the opportunity to
upgrade my knowledge through this study and financial support to finish this work. I express
my deep sense of gratitude to the Oromia Seed Enterprise (Bale Robe branch) and Bale Robe
Meteorological Station for supplying seed and meteorological data, respectively.

Finally, I am indebted to my family as a whole, my mother, Mako Mussa, my father, Aman

Jara and, Abdulmanen Kedir and I wish to express my special appreciation to my wife,
Baresa Abdulmanen, for her love, patience, understanding and taking care of our son, Rayen.

vii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

CEC Cation Exchange Capacity
CIMMIYT Centro Internacional De Mejoramiento De Maíz Y Trigo
CSA Central Statistical Agency
CV Coefficient of Variation
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
IRRI International Rice Research Institute
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
SARC Sinana Agricultural Research Center
USDA United States Department of Agriculture

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page

STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR v

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii
viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF TABLES IN THE APPENDIX xiii
ABSTRACT xiv
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1. Origin and Distribution of Bread Wheat 5
2.2. Production and Importance of Bread Wheat in the World 5
2.3. Production and Productivity of Bread Wheat in Ethiopia 6
2.4. Factors Affecting Seeding Rate of Bread Wheat 7
2.5. Effect of Seeding Rate on Productivity of other Small Cereals 8
2.6. Effect of Seed Rate on Growth, Yield and Yield components of Bread Wheat 9
2.7. Effect of Row Spacing on Growth, Yield and Yield Components of Bread Wheat 14
2.8. Interaction Effect of Seed Rate and Row Spacing on Growth, Yield and Yield
Components of Bread Wheat 17
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 18
3.1. Description of the Study Sites 18
3.2. Treatments and Experimental Design 20
3.3. Experimental Procedure 21
3.4. Data Collection and Measurements 21
3.5. Statistical Data Analysis 23
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

3.6. Partial Budget Analysis 23

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 24
4.1. Growth and Phonological Parameters 24
4.1.1. Days to 50% Emergency 24
4.1.2. Days to 50% Heading 24
4.1.3. Days to 90% Physiological Maturity 25

ix
 4.1.4. Plant Height 26
4.2. Yield and Yield Components 27
4.2.1. Number of Effective Tillers 27
4.2.2. Spike Length 29
4.2.3. Number of Kernels per Spike 30
4.2.4. Above Ground Biomass Yield 31
4.2.5. Grain Yield 32
4.2.6. Thousand Kernel Weight 34
4.2.7. Harvest Index 35
4.3. Correlation Analysis on Yield and Yield Components of Bread Wheat 36
4.4.Partial Budget Analysis 36
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 39
6. REFERENCE 41
7. APPENDICES 51

LIST OF TABLES

Table page

1. Interaction effect of row spacing, seed rate and site on crop phenology of bread wheat at
Bale Robe and Sinana in 2018/19 cropping season 26

x
2. Crop phenology, plant height, effective tillers and spike length of bread wheat as influenced
by the main effects of sites, seed rate and row spacing in 2018/19 cropping season 28
3. Interaction effects of row spacing, seed rate and site on spike length and number of kernel
per spike of bread wheat at Bale Robe and Sinana in 2018/19 cropping season. 31
4. Above ground biomass yield and grain yield of bread wheat as influenced by the main
effects of seed rate, row spacing and site in 2018/19 cropping season. 33
5. Interaction effect of row spacing, seed rate and site on thousand kernel weight and harvest
index of bread wheat at Bale Robe and Sinana in 2018/19 cropping season 35
6. Partial budget analysis to estimate net benefit influenced by row spacing and seeding rate of
bread wheat at Bale Robe and Sinana in 2018/19 cropping season. 38

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures page

1. Map of the study area 19

xi
2. Rainfall, maximum and minimum temperatures recorded during the 2018/19 main cropping
season at Bale Robe and Sinana 20

LIST OF TABLES IN THE APPENDIX

Appendix Table Page

1. Soil chemical properties of the study areas. 52

xii
2. Correlation analysis of bread wheat agronomic parameters. 52
3. Mean squares of crop phenology, growth parameters, yield components, yield, thousand
kernel weights and harvest index of bread wheat due to seed rates, row spacing and sites
and their interaction at Bale Robe and Sinana in 2019 cropping season. 53

EFFECT OF SEEDING RATE AND ROW SPACING ON THE YIELD

AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF BREAD WHEAT (Triticum aestivum L.)
IN BALE HIGHLANDS, SOUTH EASTERN ETHIOPIA

ABSTRACT

xiii
Even though Bale Zone is one of the major wheat belt areas in Ethiopia, the productivity is
low as compared to the world average due to yield limiting factors like poor agronomic
practices inappropriate seeding rate, improper adjustment of row spacing, and other factors.
In view of this, a field experiment was conducted to identify the effect of seeding rate and row
spacing on yield and yield components of bread wheat at Madda Walabu University Research
Site (Bale Robe) and Sinana Agricultural Research Center (SARC), during 2018/19 main
cropping season. Four levels of seeding rate (100, 125, 150, and 175 kg ha -1) and three row
spacing (15, 20, and 25 cm) were tested under field condition in factorial arrangement in
randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The result showed that
days to heading, days to physiological maturity, spike length, number of kernel per spike,
thousand kernels weight and harvest index were significantly (p<0.05) affected by the main
effect of seeding rate, row spacing and site. Days to heading, days to physiological maturity,
thousand kernels weight and harvest index were significantly (p<0.05) affected by the main
effect of seeding rate, and row spacing. Whereas days to emergency, plant height, number of
effective tillers, biomass yield, and grain yield, were not affected by the interaction effect of
seeding rate, row spacing and site. Hence, seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 combined with row
spacing 20 cm gave the highest grain yield of 4324.5 and 3940.3 kg ha-1 at Sinana and Bale
Robe, respectively. Furthermore, the highest net benefit of ETB 52,967 ha-1 was obtained by
combined use of seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 with row spacing 20 cm. Based on the agronomic
performance and yield result of this study, 150 kg ha -1 seeding rate and 20 cm row spacing
are preferable. However, further study has to be done under different seasons and locations
to exploit the recommendation of the present study.
Key Words: Bread wheat; grain yield; row spacing; seeding rates

xiv
 1. INTRODUCTION

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is an annual crop plant belonging to the family Poaceae
(grass family). The origin of wheat is south western Asia in the area known as the Fertile
Crescent, from where the crop spread to the rest of the world (Adebayo and Ibrahem, 2015).
Wheat is primarily used as a staple food providing more protein than any other cereal crop
(Iqtidar et al., 2010). It is not only for making bread, biscuit and pastry products, but also for
the production of starch and gluten. The raised bread loaf is possible because the wheat kernel
contains gluten, an elastic form of protein that traps minute bubbles of carbon dioxide when
fermentation occurs in leavened dough, causing the dough to rise (Rahel and Fekadu, 2016).

It is one of the most important cereals grown in the world. It was grown on more than 2.16
million hectares of land with a total production of 65.1 million tons of grain in 2013 (FAO,
2013). China leading the ranking of producers, which is insufficient to supply its domestic
market (FAO, 2017). The main wheat producing countries in the world are China, India, USA,
Russia, France, Pakistan, Germany, Canada, Turkey and Kazakhstan, and the main producing
countries in Africa are South Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania
and Nigeria (FAO, 2017).

In Ethiopia, ranking fourth in total cereals production (16 percent) next to maize, sorghum
and teff, which is produced by close to 5 million smallholder farmers, which makes about 31
percent of all small farmers in the country (CSA, 2017). Both the bread and durum wheat are
widely cultivated in the highlands of the country, which ranges between 6 and 16°N, and 35
and 42°E, at altitudes ranging from 1500 to 3000 m.a.s.l and with mean minimum
temperatures of 6 °C to 11 °C (Samuel et al., 2017). Also, the annual rain fall for wheat is
500-1200 mm, which requires medium (50–60%) humidity for their growth, but at the time of
maturity, crop requires less humidity and warm season and also the optimum temperature for
wheat is 20-25 °C for to germinate from the soil, for tillering 16-20 oC and for proper
development 20-23 °C (Eyob et al., 2015).

1
Nearly both wheat types in country are produced under rain-fed conditions, predominantly by
small farmers and a few government owned large-scale (state) farms and commercial farms
also produce wheat (ICARDA, 2016). Currently, in Ethiopia between 2013-2015 year 15
bread and durum wheat variety were released by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural
Research (MoA, 2016). At national level, during the 2009/10 E.C. season 1.69 million hectare
of land is covered with wheat and a total production of more than 4642 million kg are
produced annually. It contributes the total grain 13.38%, 15.17% at national area and
production respectively, with national average yield of 2736 kg ha-1 (CSA, 2018). The results
of the year 2017/18 agricultural sample survey from production and yield of crops for private
peasant holdings at Oromia National Regional State indicated that a total land area of about
83.32% (4,797,159.00 ha) was under cereals. From this wheat covered 11.89% (898,682.57
ha) and gave 2971 kg ha-1 of grain yield (CSA, 2018).

Wheat production in Ethiopia faced immense production constraints that are affecting both its
yield potential and industrial quality (Amare et al., 2015). Hence, the average productivity of
wheat in Ethiopia is very low; about 2.65 t ha-1 which is much below that of the world’s
average of about 3.39 t ha-1 (USDA, 2019). Seeding rate has significant influence on majority
of agronomic traits of bread wheat (Nizamani et al., 2014). Bread wheat sowing at the
optimum seeding rate and at the appropriate row spacing significantly enhance the number of
grains per spike, the spike length, grain weight per spike and 1000-grain weight and then
finally produce high grain yield (Iqbal, 2010). Seed rate is one of the most important
agronomic factors which need great emphasis for maximum yield of crops. High seed rate
increases the competition among crops for common resource particularly water, nutrients and
sunlight which resulting in low quality and low yield. If low seed rate is used yield will be
less due to lesser number of plants per unit area (Hameed et al., 2002).

Crop plants should cover the soil as early as possible to intercept maximum sunlight to
produce higher dry matter as the intercepted solar radiation and dry matter production are
directly related (Singh and Singh, 2002). Closely spaced and quick growing crops which can
intercept more light within a short period gives higher yields as compared to wider spaced
crops. As such for the proper light interception at various growth stages, optimum plant

2
population is necessary (Singh and Singh, 2002). As plant density increases, the amount of
dry matter in vegetative parts also increases. Both the biological and economic yields increase
with increasing plant population up to a certain point and subsequently no addition in
biological yield can be obtained and economic yield decreases (Singh and Singh, 2002).

Optimum seed rate is one of the most important agronomic practices for maximum yield of
crop. If more seed rate is used, plant population will be more and there will be competition
among plants for water, nutrients and sunlight resulting in low quality and low yield. If less
seed rate is used yield will be less due to lesser number of plants per unit area (Hamid et al.,
2002). The optimum planting density at one site may not be applied at other locations because
of regional variation in weather and soil type that further trials needed at each site to validate
general recommendations (Azam-Ali and Squire, 2002).

Row spacing affects crop yield as it not only determines the optimum crop stand, but also
facilitates inter-culture and convenient herbicide application for effective and efficient weed
management also facilitates the inter-cropping of other crops with it. In addition, proper row
spacing is important for maximizing light interception, penetration, light distribution in crop
canopy and average light utilization efficiency of the leaves in the canopy and, thus, affects
yield of a crop (Hussain et al., 2003). Row spacing requirements of wheat depend on
architecture and growth pattern of the varieties. For higher yield, higher proportion of incident
radiation at the soil surface must be intercepted by crop canopy (Eberbach et al., 2005). In
case of wider row spacing, solar radiation that falls between crop rows remains unutilized;
plants become crowded and suffer from mutual shading if the row distance is too narrow.
Moreover, yield may be reduced in narrow spacing due to increased competition of plants for
nutrient and moisture (Das and Yaduraju, 2011)

The establishment of optimum population per unit area of the field is essential to get
maximum yield. Under conditions of sufficient soil moisture and nutrients, higher population
is necessary to utilize all the growth factors efficiently. The level of plant population should
be such that maximum solar radiation is utilized (Singh and Singh, 2002). The full yield
potential of an individual plant is fully exploited when sown at wider spacing. Yield per plant

3
decreases gradually as plant population per unit area increases. However, the yield per unit
area is increased due to efficient utilization of growth factors (Singh and Singh, 2002).

In this regard, inappropriate crop management practices such as low seed rate, improper row
spacing, delay in sowing and traditional sowing methods are found to be the key elements
contributed to low productivity of wheat crop (Iqbal et al., 2010). For instance, in Ethiopia
wheat is planted in broadcast by smallholder farmers for many decades. In spite of high seed
rate requirement, broadcasting also results in cluttered plant population which is not suitable
for agronomic management and cause inter-plant competition for optimum plant nutrients,
sunlight, moisture and aeration (Hayatullah et al., 2000; Hamid, 2002; Awake et al., 2017).

Planting higher seed rate than the recommended rate is not encouraged because of its
negative impact on seed quality, particularly on seed size and weight. If the row is too wide,
the crop is unable to rapidly shade the inter-row area to capture sunlight and weeds quickly
become established. If the row is too narrow, inter-row crop competition results in poorer
yields, difficulties in disease and insect control, and greater likelihood of lodging. Optimum
seeding rate and proper adjustment of row spacing are the most important production factors
for higher grain yield as well as for quality crop.

Moreover, in the study area there is a trend by farmers to use higher seed rates and planted in
broadcast without row spacing as they have increased the rate of fertilizer. Thus, a research
initiated to evaluate different seeding rates and row spacing is found very important to
enhance the productivity of bread wheat in the study area. Therefore, this experiment was
conducted to identify the effect of seeding rate and row spacing on yield and yield
components of bread wheat.

4
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Origin and Distribution of Bread Wheat

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important cereal crops of the world and
is a staple food for about one third of the world’s population. The origin of wheat is south
western Asia in the area known as the Fertile Crescent, from where the crop spread to the rest
of the world (Adebayo and Ibrahem, 2015). It is grown in the world, with China leading the
ranking of producers, which is insufficient to supply its domestic market (FAO, 2017).

The first cultivation of wheat occurred about 10,000 years ago, as part of the ‘Neolithic
Revolution’, which saw a transition from hunting and gathering of food to settled agriculture.
These earliest cultivated forms were einkorn and emmer wheat and their genetic relationships
indicate that they originated from the south-eastern part of Turkey (Dubcovsky and Dvorak,
2007). There are different classifications of wheat species cultivated in the different parts of
the world, like bread wheat or common wheat, macaroni wheat or durum wheat, emmer wheat,
einkorn, Indian dwarf wheat, spelt wheat and kamut or QK-77 wheat (USDA, 2018).

2.2. Production and Importance of Bread Wheat in the World

Globally, there is no doubt that the number of people who rely on wheat for a substantial part
of their diet amounts to several billions. Therefore, the nutritional importance of wheat
proteins should not be underestimated, particularly in less developed countries where bread,
noodles and other products (e.g. bulgar, couscous) may provide a substantial proportion of the
diet. Wheat provides nearly 55% of carbohydrate and 20% of the food calories (Adams et al.,
2002). It contains carbohydrate 78.10%, protein 14.70%, fat 2.10%, minerals 2.10% and
considerable proportions of vitamins (thiamine and vitamin-B) and minerals (zinc, iron).
Wheat is also a good source of trace minerals like selenium and magnesium, nutrients
essential to good health (Adams et al., 2002).

Although useful as a livestock feed, wheat is used mainly as a human food. It is nutritious,
concentrated, easily stored and transported, and easily processed into various types of food.

5
Unlike any other plant-derived food, wheat contains gluten protein, which enables leavened
dough to rise by forming minute gas cells that hold carbon dioxide during fermentation. This
process produces light textured bread. Wheat supplies about 20 percent of the food calories
for the world's people and is a national staple in many countries. Besides being a high
carbohydrate food, wheat contains valuable protein, minerals, and vitamins. Wheat protein,
when balanced by other foods that supply certain amino acids such as lysine, is an efficient
source of protein (Lance and Garren, 2002).

Wheat production increased sharply in the 1960s and gradually afterwards, mostly as a result
of higher yields per ha, in a technology shift commonly labeled the “green revolution”. The
green revolution resulted in the development of rust-resistant semi dwarf wheat that could
utilize large amounts of nitrogen fertilizer and had a higher yield. Between 1980 and 2013, the
world’s annual harvested area of wheat decreased by 0.24%, but yield increased by 1.41%.
Average annual world yields increased from 1855 kg ha -1 in 1980 to 3264 kg ha -1 in 2013
(FAO, 2015).

During 2018/19 wheat is produced on 216.41 million hectares of land and 732.87 million
metric tons of wheat is produced in the world and the world’s average yield was 3.39 t ha-1
(USDA, 2019).
2.3. Production and Productivity of Bread Wheat in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia wheat grain is used in the preparation of a range of products such as:- the
traditional stable pancake (“injera”), bread (“dabo”), local beer (“tella”), and several others
local food items (i.e. “dabokolo”, “genfo”, “kinche”). Besides, wheat straw commonly used
as root thatching material and used as feed for animals. Wheat contributes approximately 200
kcal/day in urban areas, compared to about 310 kcal/day in rural areas. It accounts for about
11% of the national calorie intake (Gashaw et al., 2014).

It is an important staple food crop in the diets of several in Ethiopian, providing about 15
percent of the caloric intake for the country’s over 90 million population especially, in rural
and urban areas (Eyob et al., 2015). In Ethiopia, both bread and durum wheat are widely

6
 cultivated in the highlands of the country, largely in the areas like South East, Central and
North West parts in the main wheat producing region such as Oromia, Amhara, Southern
Nation, Nationalities and Peoples and Tigray (Samuel et al., 2017).

At national level, during the meher 2016/17 (2009 E.C) season 1.69 million hectare of land
was covered with wheat and a total production of more than 4537 million kg are produced
annually, while it contribute out of total grain 13.49%, 15.63% at national area and production
respectively, with national average yield of 2675 kg ha-1 (CSA, 2017).

In Ethiopia due to low soil fertility, soil erosion, weeds, disease and insect pests, low and poor
distribution of rainfall in lowland areas, unavailability of improved inputs (seeds, pesticides,
fertilizers, farm implements, etc), seasonal labor shortage, draft power shortage, land
shortage, low prices and lack of credits are the major constraints of wheat production in
Ethiopia (Gashaw et al., 2014). The productivity is even much below that of Kenya and
African average by 29 and 13%, respectively (FAO, 2014). Due to a number of constraints
such as inappropriate use of seeding rate, fertilizer rate and row spacing, soil fertility
degradation, soil erosion, and occurrence of different pests, the average productivity of wheat
in Ethiopia is very low. Although different improved bread wheat varieties such as HAR-
1685, HAR-604, Kakaba, Danphe, Digalu, Shorima, Huluka and others are produced widely
in the country, the actual productivity of the varieties is still low due to improper utilization of
agronomic practices including seeding rate and row spacing. Seeding rate has significant
influence on majority of agronomic traits of bread wheat (Nizamani et al., 2014). Bread wheat
sowing at the optimum seeding rate and at the appropriate row spacing significantly enhance
the number of grains per spike, the spike length, grain weight per spike and 1000-grain weight
and then finally produce high grain yield (Iqbal, 2010).

2.4. Factors Affecting Seeding Rate of Bread Wheat

The seed rate depends on different factors, the most important of these factors include: plant
characteristics, growth period duration, planting time and methods, soil fertility, plant size,
available moisture, sun shine, planting pattern and situation of weeds (Shirtliffc and Johnston,
2002). Similarly, Ashenafi (2000) reported that seeding rate depends on the tillering capacity

7
of the crop varieties, sowing date, soil conditions, and cultivation intensity (i.e. the better the
soil condition and seed bed preparation the higher will be the tillering capacity of the
varieties).

Grain yield of wheat can be increased significantly by narrow row spacing and high seeding
rates. The narrow spacing gives 7 to 8% increase in grain yields where planting occur near
optimum Marshal and Ohms (1987). Seed rate studies indicated that rates for broad cast bread
wheat had to exceed rates for drilled seeds by 20-30%. On the other hand, 150 kg ha -1 of seeds
was recommended for broadcast and maresha incorporated seeded, while drilling required a
seed rate of 125 kg ha -1. It was recognized, however, that varieties with poor tillering ability
required seed rates as high as 160 kg even when drilled (Tanner et al., 1991).

2.5. Effect of Seeding Rate on Productivity of other Small Cereals

Generally speaking, a more dense plant stand allows the crop to compete better with weeds.
After a certain point, however, the benefits of an increased plant population do not outweigh
the cost of additional seed, especially when seed cost is high (Upadhyay, 2006). A research
conducted on barley has shown that the effects of seeding rate on barley yield and malting
quality have been variable, but most studies have indicated little or no improvement in yield
at rates above 200 seeds m-2 (McKenzie et al. 2005; O’Donovan et al., 2009). Results from
these studies indicate that a 200 seeds m -2 seeding rate may be optimal for both feed and
malting barley.

International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) reported that, components of yield could be
divided into panicle number, seed per panicle and seed weight. Panicle number is mostly
determined by the tillering ability of the variety, which is a function of the number of seedling
per unit area. In general a healthy crop new improved variety, under optimum condition,
should bear about 350-400 panicles per m2 (IRRI, 2006). Decreasing seeding rate would
increase unproductive tillering. On the other hand, increasing seeding rate would also increase
density which increases unhealthy seedlings with small panicles due to competition for
resources, and increase susceptibility to pests and diseases (IRRI, 2006). On the other hand,

8
Zeng and Shannon (2000) reported that seeding rates of 100 and 150 kg ha -1 were considered
to be within the range of normal seeding densities in direct-seeded cultural systems of rice
crop. Increased seeding rates can also affect other aspects of crop production. A denser stand
may increase susceptibility to sclerotinia (Dosdall et al., 2004). Thus, there are tradeoffs
which must be considered in deciding on a seeding rate.

2.6. Effect of Seed Rate on Growth, Yield and Yield components of Bread Wheat

Grain yield of cereals is a product of three yield components: the number of ears per unit area,
the number of kernels per ear and individual kernel weight. Ear number is the first yield
component to be fixed, and, thus, assumes particular importance. Intensive productive
tillering and higher number of kernels per ear compensate for grain yield at low seeding rates
(Bavec and Bavec, 1995).

Plants grown at the highest seed rate of 150 kg ha -1 attained early heading than seed rate of
100 kg ha-1 and 125 kg ha-1. The earliness to days to heading might be due to the higher
competition to resources as the result plants no longer stay in vegetative stage (Amere, 2015).
Similar result was obtained by Gaffar (2007) who reported that increasing sowing density
from 200 up to 400 grains per meter square in wheat crop significantly decreased the number
of days to 50% heading. Abiot (2017) who reported that days to 50% heading was delayed
(62.88 days) when lower seeding rates (100 kg ha -1) was used, while earlier days to 50%
heading (60.8 days) was recorded from highest seeding rates.

Increasing seeding rates from 100-200 kg ha -1 grains caused a significant increase in the
number of days from sowing to 50% heading in wheat. Earliness for days to heading had the
advantage to escape terminal moisture stress which is a good character to cope up with the
rainfall variability in the growing area but the productivity potential and other important
characters depend on the varieties. Therefore, varieties exhibiting earliness for days to
heading might have such advantage in area where terminal moisture stress is as one problem
of wheat production (Jemal et al., 2015).

9
Maturity of shoots started earlier at higher seeding rates Read and Worder (1981).
Furthermore, Melaku (2008) indicated that increasing levels of seeding rate promoted early
physiological maturity of teff. Days to 90% physiological maturity, the closer inter-row
spacing (20 cm) hastened physiological maturity than other inter row spacing. Tesfaye et al.
(2012) and Yordanos (2013) also concluded that closer inter row spacing (increasing plants
density) shortened days to physiological maturity in potato and rice, respectively. This could
be due to the presence of intense inter plant competition at the closer row spacing that might
have led to the depletion of the available nutrient that results plants tend to mature earlier.

The effect of three seeding rates, i.e. 40, 50 and 60 kg grains per fed (4200 m 2) on yield and
technological characters of three Egyptian wheat cultivars (Sakha 69, Gemmeiza 5 and Sids
1) (Toaima et al., 2000). Similarly, Gafaar (2007) studied the growth, yield and its
components and quality characters of four bread wheat varieties as affected by the sowing
densities, and found that increasing sowing density from 200 up to 400 grains m -2
significantly increased each of plant height, number of spikes m -2 and yields, but significantly
decreased the number of days to 50% heading, spike length, number of spikelet/spike, number
of grains/spike, 1000-kernel weight, spike yield and protein percentage. Ali et al. (2004)
studied the productivity of some wheat cultivars grown under different plant densities (300,
400 and 500 grains m-2). They reported that increasing plant density from 300 to 400 or 500
grains m-2 significantly increased plant height, number of spikes/m2 and yields, but
significantly decreased grain weight/ spike and 1000- grain weight.

In other study, reduction of seed weight due to increase of seeding rate (Varga et al., 2000)
and reduction of harvest index (Zaheer et al., 2000.) were reported. Generally, there is a
positive relation between harvest index and grain yield, and this relation is stronger in dwarf
wheat cultivars. Similarly, increase of spike per unit of area (Varga et al., 2000; and Hanson,
2001) and reduction of number of seeds per spike (Zaheer et al., 2000 and Hanson, 2001) due
to increasing of sowing density was also reported.

Plant height is regulated by the genetic makeup of the plant and the environmental factors
(Shahzad et al., 2007). Planting density determines the growing situation by affecting the

10
competition for space and production resources. Increased plant density resulted in increased
height of the plants, this is because high plant density remains with minimum space for
horizontal expansion of the plant and increase the competition for light interception between
plants drives upward growth (Tewodros et al., 2017). Soomro et al. (2009) noted that wheat
sown at higher seeding rate (175 kg ha-1) produced greater plant height i.e. 101.25 cm
followed by 150 kg ha-1 i.e. 99.09 cm and 125 kg ha-1 i.e. 94 27 cm. Another research finding
by Worku (2008) also concluded that plant height increased consistently with increasing
seeding rate from 72.7 cm at the seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 to 80.4 cm at the seed rate of 150
kg ha-1.

Higher seeding rate caused to changing plant height and stem thickness because of the lower
light penetrating in to the plants canopy bed and more inter specific competition to
more absorption light. These factors (higher seeding rate and lower light penetration)
increasing inter node length, reducing stem thickness and increasing plant height (Otteson et
al., 2007). Rahim et al. (2012) also reported that the significant difference on plant densities
of 450 and 300 plants m2 with highest and lowest plant height, respectively. Other researchers
also reported in wheat that the height of plants grown at the lowest seeding rate was
significantly lower than the height of plants grown at higher seeding rates (Haile Deressa et
al., 2013; Ghulam et al., 2011). Moreover, this result was in harmony with the finding of Fani
et al. (2014) who indicated that with increasing density, plant height slightly increases and
there after decreases that could be because restrictions on plant food sources therefore, in
treatment 150 and 200 kg ha-1, maximum plant height was observed.

The highest number of effective tillers per 0.5 m row length (69.33) was obtained at 200 kg
ha-1 seeding rate while, the lowest number of effective tillers per 0.5 m row length (25.66) was
obtained at 100 kg ha-1 seeding rate. Such increment in number of effective tillers might be
due to increasing sowing density that attributed to increasing number of plants per plot and
also tillering capacity (Jemal et al., 2015). Increase in number of tillers per unit area is due to
increased seeding rate (Abiot, 2017). However, effective tiller number decreased with
increasing seed rate beyond 125 kg ha-1 while higher number of effective tiller is obtained at

11
125 kg ha-1 seed rate. This can be explained that, as the seed rate is higher it result with
narrow free space which limit the tillering capacity of the plant (Tewodros et al., 2017).

Seeding rate can impact on wheat tillering, grain yield and protein quality (Staggenborg et al.,
2003). Hence, achieving higher agronomic performance and better end-use quality requires
optimizing and periodically reviewing management practices such as seeding rates. It was
reported that, in a dense wheat population, grain yield was decreased due to competition
between plants that induced self-regulation (Jennifer et al., 2006). However, in cultivars that
produce fewer tillers, higher seeding rates compensated for reduced tiller and promoted more
main stem spikes (Staggenborg et al., 2003). Wheat quality was not reduced at higher seeding
rates as protein content, kernel weight and test weight were unaffected (Jennifer et al., 2006:
Bryan, 2001).

On the other hand, it was stated that protein concentration declined as seeding rates and yields
increased (Geleta et al., 2002). The decrease in plant height in response to lowering the
seeding rate to 100 kg ha-1 may reflect formation of more secondary tillers in less populated
stands, which tend to be shorter in stature. At the highest seeding density, the increased intra-
plant competition may have also contributed to the reduction in plant height. Chaudhary et al.
(2000) and Arif et al. (2003) reported that increased tillers with increase in seed rate. By
increasing seed rate the number of grains spike -1 is reduced (Khan et al., 2002) and Mehrvar
and Asadi, 2006). Khan et al. (2002) and Mehrvar and Asadi (2006) concluded that by
increasing seed rate the 1000-grains weight is reduced. These results are in analogy with the
findings of earlier workers Arif et al. (2003); Khan et al. (2001) who reported higher yield
with seed rate of 150 kg ha-1 however disagree with those of Rafique et al. (1997) who
concluded that seeding rates did not influence the grain yield of wheat.

The length of spike plays a vital role in wheat towards the grain per spike and finally the
yield. Varieties have different genetic potential regarding the spike length. Longer spike at
125 kg ha-1 seed rate can be referred to the ideal plant population which resulted in optimum
crop plant competition. Suleiman (2010) reported that, at the lower seed rate the spike length
was higher compared to higher seed rate. This could be due to the availability of ample

12
resources required by the wheat crop for growth and development and there is presence of
more free space between plants that are used to avoid competition between plants in the lower
seeding rate rather than the higher seeding rate.

The potential of wheat spike is determined by the grains spike -1 which is an important yield
component of grain yield. The significant difference was observed between plant densities of
durum wheat cultivar in terms of grains per spike. Increasing the rate of seeding from 100 to
150 kg ha-1 decreased the number of grains per spike from 32.02 to 29.60 at the seed rate 100
and 150 kg ha-1 respectively. This is because at higher plant density most grains would fade at
early stage because of competition between growing grains to absorb preserved matters and as
the result low grains per spike would be produced (Rahim et al., 2012). Moreover, the number
of kernels per spike decreased with an increase in seeding rate. Number of kernels per spike
was not significantly affected by main effect of row spacing (Abiot, 2017).

The lowest kernels weight produced from highest seeding rate might be due to thickening of
population density which resulted in competition of nearby plants in absorbing nutrients and
moisture. Baloch et al. (2010) concluded that the higher the seeding rate in bread wheat
resulted in decreased 1000-kernels weight. Similarly, at high densities (250 and 300 kg ha -1)
thousand seeds weight declined whereas in low densities of 50 and 100 kg ha -1 seed thousand
weights increased. Moreover, Iqbal et al. (2010) concluded that lower seeding rates (125 kg
ha-1) produced significantly heavier grains (40.74 g) than higher seeding rate (200 kg ha -1) that
produced lighter (37.83 g) grains.

Biomass yield represents overall growth performance of the plant as well as the crop and is
considered to be the essential yield parameter to get useful information about overall growth
of the crop. Jemal et al. (2015) also reported that higher biomass yield was recorded on
increased seeding rates of 200 and 175 kg ha -1. Increase seeding rates up to 350 or 400 grains
m-2 increased grain, straw and biomass yields. Further decrease in planting densities beyond
125 kg seed rate ha-1 resulted in slightly lower grain yield although not statistically different,
whereas an increase in seed rate beyond 125 kg ha-1 resulted with statistically lower grain
yield. Baloch et al. (2010), who reported a decline in yield of wheat with increasing seed rate;

13
this might be explained that dense wheat population creates keen competitions between plants
for production resources leading to a decreasing grain yield. This might be due to shriveled
grain and lodging of crop which results from having higher plant population ha-1.

The harvest index is indicator of the genetic potential of plant to produce economic yield,
high harvest index under control treatment can be accompanied with high grain yield under
water stress. Positive relationship found between grain weight and harvest index. It means that
increased grain weight results in increased harvest index (Amare, 2017). Harvest index had
inter-relationship with grain yield and above ground biomass yield that the highest harvest
index was the result of greater grain yield. The ability of a cultivar to convert the dry matter
into economic yield is indicated by its harvest index. The higher the harvest index value, the
greater the physiological potential of the crop for converting dry matter to grain yield.
Hussain et al. (2012) found that higher harvest index was reported in 20 cm row spacing.

2.7. Effect of Row Spacing on Growth, Yield and Yield Components of Bread Wheat

There have been controversial reports in the literature regarding the role of row spacing in
wheat production. Sharma and Thakur (1990) reported that grain yield was non-significantly
affected by sowing wheat either at 22 or 30 cm row spacing. Raj et al. (1992) reported that
row spacing (15, 22.5 or 30 cm) had no effect on grain yield, but the yields were lower in the
wider row spacing (30 cm). Singh and Srivastava (1991) reported that tiller numbers, grains
spike-1 and 1000-grain weight increased with increasing row spacing. Bakht et al. (2007)
reported that maximum grain yield was obtained when wheat was sown at row spacing of 30
cm. In India, recommended row spacing for most of the wheat cultivars is 22.5 cm. In Nepal,
a hilly country, Pandey et al. (2013) did not find significant yield differences in row spacing
of 15, 20 and 25 cm.

Row spacing has an effect on yield and yield components of wheat. Regarding the number of
tillers, different results are reported. Row spacing has significant effect on the number of
tillers where the highest number of tillers was obtained at 15 cm row spacing, while the
lowest number of tiller was at 25 cm (Dawit et al., 2014a). Yadav and Choudhary (2015) also

14
reported that among the spacing, narrow spacing of 17.5 cm produced more tillers than 20 and
22.5 cm row spacing due to more uniform spatial distribution and less plant competition than
wide spacing. However, Saini et al. (2014) reported that 15 cm row spacing produced lower
number of effective tillers but there was no significant difference between 22.5 and 30 cm
row spacing. Similarly, Pandey et al. (2013) reported that 20 cm row spacing produced more
number of effective tillers compared to 15 and 25 cm. On the other hand, Rahel and Fikadu
(2016) reported non-significant difference on total and effective number of tillers among 20,
25 and 30 cm row spacing. Regarding to row spacing, as row spacing increased from 20 cm to
30 cm plant height decreased from 80.36 to 78.61. Tallest plants were likely from higher
seeding rates and narrow row spacing might be due to the presence of increased competition
for light as the plant population becomes denser (Abiot, 2017).

Maximum spike length was observed in 30 cm row spacing than 15 cm and 22.5 cm row
spacing. Wider row spacing with relatively lower number of shoots m-2 might have decreased
competition among plants for nutrient, water, space and light interception that contributed
towards increased length of spike (Nizamani et al., 2014).

Maintenance of optimum row spacing can help to optimize tillering capacity. Tiller count m-2
was influenced significantly due to variable row spacing. In 20 cm row spacing plants utilized
all available resources more efficiently including light, water, air and nutrients for producing
more tiller per square meter than 30 cm row spacing but was at par with 25 cm row spacing.
These results are in consonance with the findings of Iqbal (2010) and Ali et al. (2016) who
observed that narrow row spacing increased number of tillers per unit area significantly over
wider row spacing.

The highest number of grains per spike at 15 cm row spacing with completely weed free plot
and no significant difference between 20 and 25 cm row spacing with completely weed free
plot (Dawit et al., 2014a). On the other hand, Saini et al. (2014) reported that row spacing of
15 cm produced lower number of grain per spike than 22.5 and 30 cm row spacing. The
maximum thousand grain weights were recorded at 25 cm with completely weed free (Dawit
et al., 2014a). Rahel and Fikadu (2016) also reported that thousand grain weights were not

15
influenced by row spacing and the interaction effect of seed rate and row spacing. Similarly,
Pandey et al. (2013) obtained no significant effect of row spacing in kernel number per spike
and thousand grain weights.

Row spacing also has prominent effect on biomass yield of wheat. Maximum biomass yield
(11650.60 kg ha-1) was observed at 20 cm row spacing followed by 25 cm row spacing
(10970.50 kg ha-1) while lowest biomass yield (10765.70 kg ha-1) was recorded at 30 cm row
spacing. Higher biomass yield was obtained at the narrower row spacing than wider row
spacing this might be due to better resource utilization in narrow rows than wider rows.
It was reported that the highest grain yield of wheat was recorded at 20 cm row spacing with
completely weed free plot, while the lowest grain yield was recorded at 25 cm row spacing
with weedy check Dawit et al. (2014a). The result observed by Hozayn et al. (2012) shows
that highest grain yield is obtained from the treatment which included 20cm row spacing. In
contrast, Pandey et al. (2013) obtained no significant difference between row spacing among
7.5, 15, 22.5 and 30 cm and the results contradicts with finding of Din et al. (2017) who
obtained the maximum (4888 kg ha-1) grain yield at 15 cm, followed by 20 cm row and the
minimum (2019 kg ha-1) grain yield was recorded at 40 cm row spacing. While for normal
spacing 20-25 cm between rows depending on cultivars, for tillering cultivars row spacing
22.5-25 cm, 20 cm for non tillering cultivars are optimum and for delayed sowing spacing of
15-18 cm (Rahel and Fikadu, 2016).

Row spacing requirements of wheat depend on architecture and growth pattern of the
varieties. For higher yield, higher proportion of incident radiation at the soil surface must be
intercepted by crop canopy. In case of wider row spacing, solar radiation that falls between
crop rows remains unutilized; plants become crowded and suffer from mutual shading if the
row distance is too narrow. Moreover, yield may be reduced in narrow spacing due to
increased competition of plants for nutrient and moisture (Sayed et al, 2017). Proper row
spacing is important for maximizing light interception, penetration, light distribution in crop
canopy and average light utilization efficiency of the leaves in the canopy and, thus, affects
yield of a crop (Hussain et al., 2003).

16
2.8. Interaction Effect of Seed Rate and Row Spacing on Growth, Yield and Yield
Components of Bread Wheat

Proper row spacing and seed rate are most important management factor affecting the
agronomic characteristics of bread wheat (Ansari et al., 2006, Marwat et al., 2002, Chaudhary
et al., 2000). Chaudhary et al. (2000) reported that seed rate of 150 kg ha-1 increased the
number of grains spike-1 and down the number of fertile tillers m -2. Khan et al. (2001) reported
higher wheat yield at seed rate of 100-150 kg ha-1 in 27-13.5 cm row spacing, respectively.

The seed rate of 150 kg ha -1 with 22.5 cm row spacing for maximum wheat yield (Arif et al.,
2003). They also found that plant height, grains spike-1, and 1000-grain weight decreased with
increase in seed rate, however, tillering increased with increasing seed rate. Increasing seed
rate of wheat from 100 to 200 kg ha -1 increased the grain and straw yields (Kumpawt, 1998).
Seed rate of 150 kg ha-1 maximum 1000-grain weight was obtained in the years 2005-06,
2006-07 and 2007-08, as against the minimum observed at seed rate of 200 kg ha -1. Hence,
interaction between seed rate and row spacing significantly influenced the 1000-grain weight
in 2005-06 where maximum number of grains spike -1 was recorded in the plot treated with
seed rate of 150 kg ha-1 at 22.5 cm row spacing (Ali et al., 2010).

The interaction effect of seed rate and row spacing was observed that 9 kg seeds/ha in
combination with 25 cm spacing produced the tallest plants (129.17 cm). The lowest plant
height (111.67 cm) was produced by the interaction of 7 kg seed rate with 10 cm row spacing
(Fatema et al., 2005). Muhammad et al. (2016) conclude that the main effects of seeding rate
was prominent in enhancing overall 1000-grain weight as an increased seed rate (150 kg ha -1)
produced higher average value i.e. 39.33 g. While 20 cm wider rows produced higher value of
1000-grain weight i.e., 39.39 g. A suitable combination of seed rate and row spacing i.e. 150
kg ha-1 and sown at 20 cm produced maximum 1000grain weight (40.29 g).

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Study Sites

17
The study was conducted during 2018/19 main cropping season at Madda Walabu University
research site (Bale Robe) and Sinana Agricultural Research Center (SARC). Both the study
areas are located in Bale Zone of Oromia Regional State. Madda Walabu University main
campus site (Bale Robe) (07º 08’30.24” N latitude and 39º 59’ 53.30” E longitude and an
altitude of 2460 meters above sea level). The site was located at a distance of 430 kilometer
southeast of Addis Ababa and Sinana Agricultural Research Center (SARC) site (070 07´N
latitude and 400 10´E longitude, and altitude of 2400 meters above sea level), in Southeastern
Ethiopia. Similarly Sinana Agricultural Research Center (SARC) site is located at a distance
of 463.3 kilometer Southeast of Addis Ababa and 33.3 kilometer east of Robe town on the
road to Goro and Sof-umar cave. During the 2018/19 main /meher/ cropping season (July-
January) under rain fed condition.

The agro-climatic condition of both sites was humid and characterized by bimodal
distribution of rainfall pattern forming two barley growing seasons in a year. The two growing
season are the main/summer/ rainy season locally called bona (which extends from August to
January) and the other growing season is a short/spring/ rainy season locally called gana/belg
(extends from March to July) after the time of crop harvest. The dominant crops widely
grown around the two experimental sites are bread wheat, followed by durum wheat, barley,
maize, oat, pulses and vegetables, etc. The area receives an annual rainfall of 900 to 1150 mm
and the minimum and maximum temperatures are 9 °C and 21 °C, respectively (Geremew et
al., 1998).

18
Figure 1. Map of the study area (Source: - Google earth by using GPS)

The soil of the experimental site at Madda Walabu University Main Campus (Bale Robe) had
organic carbon of 1.75% (moderate), total nitrogen content of 0.15% (moderate), available
phosphorus content of 14.34 mg kg soil-1 (low), available potassium content of 492.20 mg kg
soil-1 (high), C: N ratio of 11.67, cation exchange capacity 26.16 meq/1000g soil (high), pH
of 6.28 (acidity) and percent sand, silt and clay content of 22, 26 and 52, respectively with
clay texture. The soil of Sinana Agricultural Research Center had organic carbon of 2.35%
(moderate), total nitrogen content of 0.17% (moderate), available phosphorus content of 12.96
mg kg soil-1 (low), available potassium content of 523.80 mg kg soil-1, C: N ratio of 13.82,
cation exchange capacity of 49.46 meq/1000g soil (high), pH of 6.12 (acidity) and percent
sand, silt and clay content of 20, 26 and 54, respectively with clay texture (Appendix Table
1).

The total annual rainfall during the main cropping season (August - January) was 378.4 mm
and 282.6 mm at Bale Robe and SARC site, respectively. The mean minimum and maximum
temperatures during the cropping season were 8.5 0C and 21.7 0C at Bale Robe, respectively,

19
with the matching records of 8.7 0C and 23.5 0C for SARC (Figure 2), (Source: - Bale Robe
Meteorological Station).

Rain fall Bale-Robe Rain fall Sinana Max. T. Bale-Robe

Min. T. Bale-Robe Max. T. Sinana Min. T. Sinana

180 30
160
25
140

Temprature (°C )
120 20
Rain fall (mm)

100
15
80
60 10
40
5
20
0 0
July August September October November December
Months

Figur
e 2. Rainfall, maximum and minimum temperatures recorded during the 2018/19 main cropping
season at Bale Robe and Sinana (Source: Bale-Robe Meteorological Station)

3.2. Treatments and Experimental Design

The field experiment was conducted in factorial arrangement with combination of three row
spacing’s (15 cm, 20 cm, and 25 cm row spacing) and four seeding rates of bread wheat (100,
125, 150 and 175 kg ha-1). The experimental design was Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBD) with three replications. The gross plot size was 2 m x 6 m (12 m 2) containing 40
rows for 15 cm, 30 rows for 20 cm, and 24 rows for 25 cm row spacing, respectively. The
spacing between plots and blocks were 0.5 and 1 m, respectively. Thus, the net plot size was
1.6 m x 3 m (4.8 m 2). There were 20 rows at 15 cm spacing, 15 rows at 20 cm spacing and 12
rows at 25 cm spacing.

3.3. Experimental Procedure

20
The experimental field was prepared by tractor twice. Accordingly, the field was ploughed
starting from June 2018. The plots were prepared as per the layout, leveled manually and the
treatments were assigned randomly and the seeds were drilled in furrows as per treatment of
15 cm, 20 cm and 25 cm apart manually on July 2018. The recommended seed rate is 150 kg
ha-1 for wheat and row spacing is 20 cm.

The bread wheat variety Obora, (UTIQUE96/FLAG-1), which is well adapted in the agro-
ecology of the study area, was planted at Bale Robe and Sinana on 5th and 19th August 2018,
respectively. Uniform dose of NPS was applied within the rows with recommended NPS 100
Kg ha-1 and urea 50 kg ha-1, 2/3 of urea was used at sowing and the remaining was applied as
top-dressing at mid tillering stage and panicle initiation stages of the crop (40 days after
emergence) after first weeding was completed on each plot. The weeds were removed with
hand hoeing and weeding and all the necessary field management practices was carried out as
required during the experimental period. Harvesting was done when the crop physiologically
matured. The harvested crop was sun-dried for eight days and threshed. All field activities
(land preparation, planting, fertilizer application and weeding) were done according to local
production practices. All data on growth, yield and yield component were measured from the
central areas of each plot.

3.4. Data Collection and Measurements

Days to 50% emergence (DE):- It was taken when 50% of the plants emerged from each plot
by visual observation.

Days to 50% heading (DH):- The data was taken when the ears or panicles were fully visible
or produced spikes above the sheath of the flag leaf on 50% of the plants from each plot that
was determined by visual observation.

Days to 90% physiological maturity (DM):- Days to physiological maturity was recorded
by counting the number of days from date of sowing until when 90% of the plants changed
green color to yellowish, lost its water content and attained physiological maturity in each

21
plot. It also indicated by senescence of the leaves as well as frees threshing of seeds from the
glumes when pressed between the thumb and the forefinger.
Plant height (cm):-Plant height was measured from 10 randomly selected plant samples per
plot as the height from ground level to the tip of the spike excluding owns. It was recorded as
the average of ten selected main tillers from each plot at maturity across the treatment level.
Number of effective (fertile) tillers: - Numbers of effective (fertile) tillers per plant counted
from 10 randomly selected plants from each plot at harvesting.
Spike length (cm):-The spike length was measured from ten randomly selected plants of the
inner rows in centimeter and the mean length was recorded on each plot by measuring from
the base to the upper most part of the spike excluding awns at maturity.
Number of kernels per spike (NKPS):- Number of kernels per spike was counted from ten
randomly selected plants from the inner rows of each plot and the mean kernel number was
taken at harvest.
Thousand grains weight (g):-Thousand grains were counted after threshing randomly from
each plot yield with measured moisture content and their weight were measured with sensitive
balance then after adjusted to 12.5%.
Above ground biomass yield (kg ha -1):-Total biomass or biological yield was measured by
weighing the sun dried total above ground plant biomass (straw and grain) from the net plot
area of each plot.
Grain yield (kg ha-1):- Grain yield was measured by taking the weight of the grains
threshed from the net plot area of each plot and converted to kilograms per hectare after
adjusting the grain moisture content to 12.5%.
Harvest index (%):- Harvest index of each treatment was calculated as the percent ratio of
grain yield to the total above ground biomass.

Grain yield kg ha−1

Harvest index( %)=
( Aboveground dry biomass kg ha−1 )
×100

3.5. Statistical Data Analysis

22
The data were subjected to analysis of variance via GLM procedure using SAS software
program version 9.1 (SAS Institute, 2003). Homogeneity of variance was tested using the F-
test as described by Gomez and Gomez (1984) and combined analysis of variance was used
for the two locations. Least significant difference (LSD) test at 5% probability level was
employed to separate treatment means where significant treatment differences existed.

3.6. Partial Budget Analysis

The partial budget analysis as described by CIMMYT (1988) was done to determine the
economic feasibility of seed rate and row spacing. Economic analysis was done using the
prevailing market prices for inputs at planting and for outputs at the time the crop was
harvested. It was calculated by taking into account the additional input and labor cost
involved and the gross benefits obtained from row spacing bread wheat varieties.

All costs and benefits were calculated on hectare basis in Ethiopian Birr. Average yield was
adjusted downward by 10% to reflect the difference between the experimental yield and the
yield farmers could expect from the same management practices as described by CIMMYT
(1988). The field price of bread wheat calculated as sale price minus the costs of harvesting,
threshing, winnowing, bagging and transportation. The total cost that varied included the sum
of labor cost during planting. The net benefit was calculated as the difference between the
gross field benefit ha-1 and the total costs that varied.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Growth and Phonological Parameters

23
4.1.1. Days to 50% Emergency

Analysis of variance of the data revealed that days to 50% seedling emergence was highly
significantly (P<0.01) affected by the main effects of site. In contrast, the main effect of
seeding rate and row spacing displayed non-significant effect (P>0.05). Furthermore, an
interaction between seeding rate and row spacing, and the three way interaction between seed
rate, row spacing and site had also showed non-significant effect (p>0.05) (Appendix Table
3). Seeds took to emerge 7.55 and 5.50 days at Bale Robe and Sinana, respectively (Table 2).
The possible reason for delayed emergence at Bale Robe as compared to Sinana could be due
to relatively late rainfall at Bale Robe as compared to Sinana during planting time which
could extend the indicated crop phenology (Figure 2).

4.1.2. Days to 50% Heading

Days to 50% heading was highly significantly (p<0.01) affected by the main effect of seeding
rate, row spacing and site. Similarly, the interaction effect with seeding rate and row spacing
highly significantly (p<0.01) affect days to heading. Moreover, the interaction effect of seed
rate, row spacing and site were highly significantly (P < 0.01) affected by days to 50%
heading (Appendix Table 3). Days to 50% heading took 74.0 and 72.0 days at Bale Robe and
Sinana, respectively when lower seeding rates of 100 kg ha-1 and wider row spacing of 25 cm
were used. On the other hand, earlier days to 50% heading (72.0 days at Bale Robe and 70.0
days at Sinana) was recorded from seeding rates of 175 kg ha -1 and rows spacing of 15 cm
(Table 1). The earliness to heading in highest seeding rate might be due to the higher
competition to resources; this might help plants to escape terminal moisture stress.

The result disagrees with the finding of Guy et al. (2013) who noted that the row spacing by
seeding rate interaction was not significant for days to heading.

4.1.3. Days to 90% Physiological Maturity

Days to 90% physiological maturity was highly significantly affected by the main effect of
seeding rate, row spacing and site. Similarly, seed rate and its interaction effect with row
spacing had highly significant (p<0.01) effect on physiological maturity. Moreover, days to

24
90% physiological maturity showed highly significant (p<0.01) response to seeding rate, row
spacing and site (Appendix Table 3). Similar with days to 50% heading, the increment in
seeding rate might have enhanced physiological maturity of the bread wheat. Seeding rate had
highly significant (P<0.01) effect on physiological maturity of bread wheat.

Days to 90% physiological maturity took 138.0 and 136.0 days at Bale Robe and Sinana,
respectively, when lower seeding rate of 100 kg ha -1 and wider row spacing of 25 cm used. On
the other hand, earlier days to 90% physiological maturity (135.0 days at Bale Robe and 133.0
days at Sinana) was recorded from seeding rate of 175 kg ha -1 and row spacing of 15 cm
(Table 1). The possible reason for delayed maturity at Bale Robe could be due to higher total
rainfall at Bale Robe which could extend the indicated crop phenology (Figure 2). The highest
seeding rate associated with early maturity might be due to plant competition for available
resources, which creates stress that helps to speed up maturity.

The result disagree with the finding of Photiades et al. (1984) who noted that the interaction
between row spacing and seed rate was not significant for any of the traits in the eight trials of
the 1979-81 seasons, with the exception of 1000-grain weight of bread wheat only the 32 cm
row spacing was affected by seed rate.

Table 1. Interaction effect of row spacing, seed rate and site on crop phenology of bread
wheat at Bale Robe and Sinana in 2018/19 cropping season
Days to physiological
Days to heading
Seed rate (kgh-1) Row spacing (cm) maturity
Bale Robe Sinana Bale Robe Sinana
b d c
100 15 73.00 72.00 136.03 135.00e
20 73.00b 72.01d 138.01a 136.00c

25
 25 73.67a 71.00e 138.03a 136.00c
125 15 73.00b 72.00d 136.02c 135.00e
20 73.00b 72.00d 137.21b 135.00e
25 74.00a 71.01e 138.02a 135.61d
150 15 72.00d 70.00g 136.01a 133.00g
20 72.61bc 70.61ef 135.67d 134.00f
25 74.00a 71.00e 137.00b 134.02f
175 15 72.00d 70.00g 135.00e 133.03g
20 72.00d 70.00g 135.02e 133.01g
25 72.31cd 70.00fg 135.67d 134.00f
LSD (5%) 0.41 0.32
CV (%) 0.34 0.14
CV = coefficient of variations; LSD = least significant difference; Means followed by the same letters
within each column and row are not significantly different.

4.1.4. Plant Height

The analysis of variance indicated that the main effect of seeding rate and row spacing had
highly significant (P<0.01) effect on plant height. In contrast, the main effect of seeding rate
and row spacing displayed non-significant effect (P>0.05) . Furthermore, an interaction between
seeding rate and row spacing, and the three way interaction between seed rate, row spacing
and site had also showed non-significant (p>0.05) effect on plant height (Appendix Table 3).
In case of seeding rate, plant height declined slightly at the highest seeding rate. As seeding
rate increased from the lowest (100 kg ha-1) to the highest (175 kg ha-1), the height of the plant
correspondingly increased from (84.4 cm) to (96.1 cm) (Table 2). Regarding to row spacing,
as row spacing increased from 15 cm to 25 cm plant height decreased from 91.38 cm to 89.37
cm (Table 2). Tallest plants were likely from higher seeding rate and narrow row spacing.
This result might be due to the presence of increased competition for light as the plant
population becomes denser. High density caused to changing plant height and stem thickness
because of the lower light penetrating into the plants canopy bed and more inter specific
competition to more absorption light.

Similarly, Otteson et al. (2007) pointed out that these factors (higher seeding rate and lower
light penetration) increasing inter-node length, reducing stem thickness and increasing plant
height. Soomro et al. (2009) noted that bread wheat sown at higher seeding rate (175 kg ha-1)

26
produced higher plant height (101.25 cm) followed by 150 kg ha-1 (99.09 cm) and 125 kg ha-1
( (94.27 cm). Rahim et al. (2012) also reported that the significant difference on plant
densities of 450 and 300 plants m-2 with highest and lowest plant height, respectively. Other
researchers also reported in wheat that the height of plants grown at the lowest seeding rate
was significantly lower than the height of plants grown at higher seeding rates (Haile et al.,
2013; Ghulam et al., 2011). Moreover, this result was in harmony with the finding of (Fani et
al., 2014) who indicated that with increasing density, plant height slightly increased and there
after decreases that could be because restrictions on plant food sources, therefore, in treatment
150 and 200 kg ha-1, maximum plant height was observed.

4.2. Yield and Yield Components

4.2.1. Number of Effective Tillers

The analysis of variance indicated that the main effects of seeding rate and site significantly
(p<0.05) affected number of effective tillers. In contrast, the main effect of row spacing
displayed non-significant effect (P>0.05) . Furthermore, an interaction between seeding rate and
row spacing, and the three way interaction between seeding rate, row spacing and site also
showed non-significant (p>0.05) effect on number of effective tiller (Appendix Table 3).

The number of effective tillers in the present study increased consistently with increasing
seeding rate up to 150 kg ha-1. The highest number of effective tillers (3.1) was observed at
seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 while, the rest of treatments were statistically at par with each
other (Table 2). In line with the present finding, Ali et al. (2010) reported that the number of
effective tillers increased as seeding rate increased. Similarly, Jemal et al. (2015) concluded
that the highest number of effective tillers per 0.5 m row length (69.33) was obtained at 200
kg ha-1 seeding rate while, the lowest number of effective tillers per 0.5 m row length (25.66)
was obtained at 100 kg ha-1 seeding rate. However, it disagrees with Iqbal et al. (2012) who
stated that more number of tillers (503.40) was observed at seeding rate of 175 kg ha -1 while
less number of tillers (404.40) was recorded at seeding rate of 125 kg ha-1 and was statistically
less (464.6) from seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1.

27
On the other hand, with regard to location the highest number of effective tillers (2.92) was
recorded at Bale Robe while, the minimum number of effective tillers (2.74) was recorded at
Sinana. The possible reason for the highest number of effective tillers at Bale Robe could be
due to relatively higher and uniformly distributed rainfall during the cropping season at Bale
Robe which could cause the crop to produce more effective tillers (Figure 2).

Table 2. Crop phenology, plant height, effective tillers and spike length of bread wheat as
influenced by the main effects of sites, seed rate and row spacing in 2018/19 cropping season

Factors Days to 50% emergency Plant height (cm) Effective tillers

Bale Robe 7.55a 90.38 NS 2.92a

Sinana 5.50b 90.44 NS 2.74b
LSD (5%) 0.24 0.53 0.16
Row spacing (cm)
15 6.54 NS 91.38a 2.78 NS
20 6.54 NS 90.48b 2.91 NS
25 6.50 NS 89.37c 2.81 NS
LSD (5%) 0.29 0.65 0.20
Seed rates (kgha-1)
100 6.44 NS 84.44d 2.82b
125 6.55 NS 86.29c 2.74b
150 6.55 NS 94.76b 3.10a
175 6.55 NS 96.16a 2.67b
LSD (5%) 0.34 0.76 0.23
CV (%) 7.75 1.25 12.50
CV = coefficient of variations, LSD = least significant difference, Means followed by the same letters
within each column and row are not significantly different.

4.2.2. Spike Length

The statistical analysis results revealed that spike length was highly significantly (P<0.01)
affected by the main effects of seeding rate, row spacing and site. On the other hand, seeding
rates and its interaction with row spacing were non-significantly (p>0.05) affected. Moreover,
the interaction effect of seed rate, row spacing and site had highly significantly (P<0.01)
affected the spike length (Appendix Table 3).

28
The tallest spike length of 10.0 cm at both sites was recorded from those plots planted with
seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 and widest row spacing of 25 cm. While, shortest spike length (8.0
cm at Sinana and 8.2 cm at Bale Robe, which were statistically similar) was recorded from
plots treated with seed rate of 175 kg ha-1 and narrow row spacing of 15 cm (Table 3). At the
lowest seeding rate of 100 kg ha -1, the spike length was higher compared to higher seeding
rate of 175 kg ha-1. This might be due to more free space between plants at the lowest seed
rates and less intra-plant competition for available resources that resulted in tallest spike
length.

The current result was in agreement with the finding of Rajesh et al. (2017) who reported that
spike length was maximum under 22.5 cm spacing (9.45 cm) was significantly higher than the
20 cm spacing (9.12 cm) and the spike length was obtained maximum under the seed rate of
125 kg ha-1 (9.30 cm) was significantly higher over 100 and 150 kg ha-1.

Similarly, Seleiman et al. (2010) reported that the tallest spikes were obtained from 250 and
300 grains per m2 but without significant differences between both of them. However, the
shortest spikes were recorded by using the highest seeding rate (400 grains m -2). Nizamani et
al. (2014) reported that maximum spike length was observed in 30 cm row spacing than 15
and 22.5 cm row spacing. Wider row spacing with relatively lower number of shoots m -2
might have decreased competition among plants for nutrient, water, space and light
interception that contributed towards increased length of spike.

4.2.3. Number of Kernels per Spike

The analysis of variance indicated that number of kernels per spike was highly significantly
(p<0.01) affected by the main effects of seed rate and row spacing but sites significantly
(p<0.05) affected. However, seeding rate and its interaction effect with row spacing showed
non-significant (p>0.05) effect on number of kernels per spike. Moreover, interaction effect
of seeding rate, row spacing and site was highly significantly (P<0.01) affected the number of
kernels per spike (Appendix Table 3). Like that of spike length, maximum number of kernels

29
per spike (54.3) was obtained from the seeding rate of 100 kg ha -1 and row spacing of 20 cm at
Sinana. However, it was statistically at par with the combination of 100 kg ha -1 and row
spacing of 20 cm used at Bale Robe; while, the minimum number of kernels per spike -1 (45.0)
was obtained from the seeding rate of 175 kg ha -1 with row spacing of 25 cm at Sinana (Table
3).

This result was in line with the finding of Ali et al. (2010) who stated that, maximum number
of grains spike-1 was received in the years 2005-06, 2006-07 and 2007-08, as against the
minimum observed at seed rate of 125 kg ha-1. Highest number of grains spike-1 (41, 39 and
42) were recorded at row spacing of 22.5 cm in experimental years, as against minimum (36,
38 and 38) observed at row spacing of 11.25 cm in 2005-06, 2006-07 and 2007-08
respectively. Hence interaction between seed rate and row spacing significantly influenced the
number of grains in 2005-06 where maximum number of grains spike -1 was recorded in the
plot treated with seed rate of 150 kg ha-1 at 22.5 cm row spacing.

Rajesh et al. (2017) concluded from his research findings the number of kernel per spike was
observed 25 cm (46.66) wheat was significantly higher over 20 cm (45.41) and the maximum
number of kernel per spike was under 125 kg ha -1 of seed rate (45.22) which was significantly
higher over the seed rate of 150 kg ha-1 (44.20).

Table 3. Interaction effects of row spacing, seed rate and site on spike length and number of
kernel per spike of bread wheat at Bale Robe and Sinana in 2018/19 cropping season.

Spike length Number of kernel per

Seed rate (kgha- spike
1
) Row spacing (cm) Bale Robe Sinana Bale Robe Sinana
100 15 9.21efg 9.12 fgh
52.90 b
52.60b
20 9.72abc 9.61cd 53.30ab 54.30a
25 10.00a 10.00 a
53.70 ab
53.32b
125 15 9.00f-i 9.26 ef
50.21 cde
50.22cde
20 9.42de 9.73bcd 51.11c 53.00b

30
 25 9.73bc 9.90ab 50.40cd 51.00c
150 15 8.52k 8.60jk 49.40de 49.32e
20 8.81ij 8.95hij 49.85 de
49.53de
25 9.00ghi 9.32ef 49.42 de
47.29f
175 15 8.26l 8.06l 47.13 fgh
46.20hi
20 8.63jk 8.74jk 47.46fg 46.82gh
25 9.13fgh 8.91hij 47.82 fg
45.00i
LSD (5%) 0.25 1.127
CV (%) 1.69 1.36
CV = coefficient of variations; LSD = least significant difference; Means followed by the same letters
within each column and row are not significantly different.

4.2.4. Above Ground Biomass Yield

Analysis of variance showed that the main effect of seeding rate highly significantly (P< 0.01)
affected the above ground biomass yield. However, the main effect of row spacing and site did
not show significant difference. Similarly, both two way and three way interaction between
seed rate, row spacing and site did not significantly (p<0.05) affect above ground biomass yield
(Appendix Table 3). Highest above ground biomass yield (12598.4 kg ha-1) was obtained from
the seeding rate of 175 kg ha-1 but there was no statistical difference on biomass yield
between 150 and 175 kg ha-1 seed rates. While, the lowest above ground biomass yield
(9139.3 kg ha-1) was obtained from the seeding rate of 100 kg ha -1 (Table 4). The increase in
above ground biomass production might be attributed to the increased plant population due to
higher seeding rates and taller plants.

The present result was in agreement with the finding of Zewdie et al. (2014) who reported a
positive association between biomass yield and plant height, thus taller plants resulted in
higher biomass yield in bread wheat. Similarly, Jemal et al. (2015) also reported that higher
biomass yield was recorded on increased seeding rates of 200 and 175 kg ha -1 on bread wheat.
Similarly, Iqbal et al. (2012) also found that biological yield was increased as seeding rate
increased from 125 kg ha-1 to 150 and 175 kg ha-1.

4.2.5. Grain Yield

31
Analysis of variance showed that the main effects of seeding rates, rows spacing and sites had
highly significant (p<0.0) effect on grain yield. However, the interaction effect of seeding rate
and row spacing not significantly (p<0.05) affected grain yield. Similarly, an interaction
effect of seeding rate and row spacing and site did not significantly (p<0.05) affected the
grain yield (Appendix Table 3). Accordingly, the maximum grain yield of 4324.5 kg ha-1 was
obtained at Sinana; while, the minimum grain yield (3940.3 kg ha-1) was recorded at Bale
Robe (Table 4). The possible reason for higher grain yield could be due to good soil fertility
and optimum temperature condition at Sinana area during cropping season which could
increase the indicated grain yield (Figure 1). On the other hand, concerning the seed rates, the
highest grain yield (5041 kg ha-1) was obtained from the seeding rate of 150 kg ha -1 and the
lowest grain yield (3337 kg ha-1) was obtained from seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 (Table 4).

Based on the result of the present study; increasing seeding rate results in increasing grain
yield. The maximum grain yield obtained from the use of 150 Kg ha -1 seeding rate might be
due to high density of plants in rows, increased number of spikes per rows as well as its
longer spike length. Similarly, Haile et al. (2013) reported that the lowest seeding rate (100
kg ha-1) resulted in a grain yield of 3851 kg ha -1, which was significantly lower than the yield
obtained at the other seeding rates (150 and 175g ha-1). Likewise, Hussain et al. (2010) and
Worku (2008) reported that grain yield increased as seeding rate increased from 50 to 150 and
from 100 to 150 kg ha-1, respectively.

Ali et al. (2010) also concluded that grain yield was higher at seeding rate of 150 kg ha -1
followed by 175 and 200 kg ha-1 as against the seeding rate of 125 kg ha -1. Similar result was
also reported by Iqbal et al. (2010) who concluded that seeding rate of 150 kg ha -1 produced
significantly higher grain yield (4120 kg ha -1) followed by 175 and 200 kg ha -1 seeding rates
(3904 and 3785 kg ha-1). However, seeding rate of 125 kg produced significantly lower grain
yield (3.669 t). Another research finding by Nazir et al. (2000) also showed that 150 kg ha-1
seeding rate produced significantly the highest grain yield of bread wheat.

The data presented in (Table 4) Showed that maximum grain yield (4345.4 kg ha-1) was
obtained at 20 cm row spacing, even though it was statistically at par with 25 cm row spacing.

32
Whereas, the minimum grain yield (3882.6 kg ha-1) was produced at closer row spacing of 15
cm. The result observed by Hozayn et al. (2012) showed that highest grain yield is obtained
from the treatment which included 20 cm row spacing.

Table 4. Above ground biomass yield and grain yield of bread wheat as influenced by the main
effects of seed rate, row spacing and site in 2018/19 cropping season.

Factors Biomass yield (kg ha-1) Grain yield(kg ha-1)

Sites
Bale Robe 10843.8NS 3940.3b
Sinana 11145.0 NS 4324.5a
LSD (5%) 477.18 160.6
Row spacing (cm)
15 10982.9 NS 3882.6b
20 11092.9 NS 4345.4a
25 10907.2 NS 4169.2a
LSD (5%) 584.42 196.7
Seed rates (kgha-1)
100 9139.3d 3337.2d
125 10527.8c 3722.4c
150 11711.9a 5041.0a
175 12598.4a 4429.2b
LSD (5%) 674.8 227.1
CV (%) 9.13 8.18
CV = coefficient of variations, LSD = least significant difference, Means followed by the same letters
within each column and row are not significantly different.

4.2.6. Thousand Kernel Weight

The analysis of variance showed that thousand kernels weight was highly significantly
(p<0.01) affected by the main effect of seed rate, row spacing and site. Similarly, the
interaction effect of seed rate and row spacing also highly significantly (p<0.01) affected
thousand kernel weight. Moreover, interaction effect of seed rate, row spacing and site highly
significantly (p<0.01) affected thousand kernel weight (Appendix Table 3).

The highest thousand kernels weight (44.8 g) was recorded from bread wheat sown at the
seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 with row spacing of 25 cm at Sinana; while, the lowest kernels

33
weight (37.5 g) had been recorded from the combined use of 175 kg ha -1 seed rate and 15 cm
row spacing at Bale Robe (Table 5). This might be due to thickening of population density
which resulted in competition of nearby plants in absorbing nutrients and moisture. This result
was in line with the finding of Ali et al. (2010) who stated that seed rate of 150 kg ha -1,
maximum 1000-grain weight was received in the years 2005-06, 2006-07 and 2007-08, as
against the minimum observed at seed rate of 200 kg ha -1. Highest 1000-grain weight was
recorded at row spacing of 22.5 cm in experimental years as against minimum observed at
row spacing of 11.25 cm in 2005-06, 2006-07 and 2007-08.

Similar results have been reported by Ali et al. (1996), Chaudhary et al. (2000) and Rafique
et al. (1997), who explained that low seed rates significantly increased the 1000-grain weight.
Khan et al. (2002) and Mehrvar and Asadi, 2006 also concluded that by increasing seed rate
the 1000 grains weight is reduced. Another research finding by Hiltbrunner et al. (2005) and
Dubis and Budzynski (2006) also noted that as seeding rate increased, 1000-grain weight
decreased but number of spikes m-2 increased. Similarly, Fani et al. (2014) showed that at
high densities (250 and 300 kg ha-1) thousand seeds weight declined whereas in low densities
of 50 and 100 kg ha-1, seed thousand weights increased.

4.2.7. Harvest Index

The analysis of variance showed that harvest index was highly significantly (p<0.01) affected
by the main effect of seed rate, row spacing and site. Similarly, the interaction effect of seed
rate and row spacing was highly significantly (p<0.01) affected harvest index. Moreover,
interaction effect of seed rate, row spacing and site highly significantly (p<0.01) affected
harvest index (Appendix Table 3).

Consequently, the highest harvest index 46.8% at Sinana was obtained from plots planted
with seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 and row spacing of 20 cm. The lowest harvest index 31.7% at
Bale Robe was recorded from plots treated with the seeding rate of 125 kg ha -1and row
spacing of 15 cm (Table 5). Similarly; Ali et al. (2012) stated that the interaction between

34
seed rate and row spacing was significant in 2005-06 only where highest harvest index was
observed with 150 kg ha-1 seed rate by 22.50 cm row spacing while lowest harvest index was
computed for seed rate of 200 kg with 11.25 cm row spacing of bread wheat.

Table 5. Interaction effect of row spacing, seed rate and site on thousand kernel weight and
harvest index of bread wheat at Bale Robe and Sinana in 2018/19 cropping season.
Row spacing Thousand kernel Harvest index (%)
Seed rate (kgh-1)
(cm) Bale
weightRobe
(g) Sinana Bale Robe Sinana
100 15 42.42d 42.83c 33.68lm 35.76ij
20 43.58b 43.59b 34.83jkl 40.02de
25 44.73a 44.80a 35.64ij 38.74ef
125 15 41.23f 41.69e 31.76n 33.84lm
ef cd ij
20 41.62 42.76 35.74 38.64fg
cd b jkl
25 42.82 43.45 34.91 37.39gh
150 15 40.26h 41.28f 38.63fg 41.29c
g e b
20 40.73 41.76 44.66 46.87a
25 41.71e 42.41d 41.64c 45.21b
175 15 37.51k 38.56j 33.13m 34.09klm
j i jk
20 38.42 39.28 35.17 36.81hi
25 40.71g 40.45gh 34.91jkl 36.84hi
LSD (5%) 1.3 0.39
CV (%) 2.15 0.57
CV = coefficient of variations; LSD = least significant difference; Means followed by the same letters
within each column and row are not significantly different.

4.3. Correlation Analysis on Yield and Yield Components of Bread Wheat

As it is indicated in (Appendix Table 2) the correlation study among bread wheat agronomic
parameters were quantified and strong correlation was observed between some of bread wheat
yield components. Plant height has positive correlation with effective tiller numbers (r=0.08)
since there is competition for sun light under densely populated situation because of increased
effective tiller numbers that may result taller plants. Spike length showed positive and highly
significant correlation with number of kernels per spike (r=0.73) and thousand kernel weight
(r=0.88) (Appendix Table 2). Whereas Biomass yield positively and highly significantly
correlated with plant height (r=0.578).

In this study Grain Yield showed positive and highly significant correlation with its
components such as effective tiller numbers (r=0.09), above ground biomass yield (r=0.81)

35
and plant height (r=0.59). This means with increasing value of these parameters, grain yield
increases as well and vice versa. Besides this, there were negative correlations indicated
among grain yield with spike length of bread wheat (r= -0.45), number of kernels per spike
(r= -0.43) and thousand kernel weight (r= -0.35). Harvest index was positively and highly
significantly correlated with grain yield (r=0.68) and effective tiller numbers (r=0.33). On the
other hand, above ground biomass yield (r= -0.60), plant height (0.82) and grain yield (r=
-0.35) were negatively and significantly correlated with thousand kernel weight.

4.4. Partial Budget Analysis

Economic analysis was performed following the CIMMYT partial budget analysis
methodology (CIMMYT, 1988) to identify the economically profitable seed rates for the
experimental tested row spacing. The mean grain yield data was adjusted down by 10% and
subjected to partial budget analysis. The prices of the inputs that were prevailing at the time of
their use were considered for working out the cost of cultivation (Sale price of wheat grain
ETB 12.95 kg-1; Field price of wheat grain ETB 12 kg -1; Cost of harvesting, threshing,
winnowing ETB 70 per 100 kg for each; Packing and material cost Birr 20 per 100 kg;
Transportation ETB 5 per 100 kg and labor cost ETB 50 per day per man) were considered
and other input costs used as constant for all treatments. Net benefits per hectare were
calculated by subtracting cost of production per hectare (TVC) from gross benefit per hectare.
A treatment which is non-dominated and having the highest net benefit is said to be
economically profitable (CIMMYT, 1988).

In the result of present study, the costs for the different seeding rates, labor cost for row
making, drilling the seed and fertilizer application varied according to their rates and spacing
requirements other costs were constant for each treatment. In order to recommend the present
result for the study area, it is necessary to estimate the minimum rate of return acceptable to
producers in the recommendation domain. Based on partial budget analysis, the highest net
benefit (52,967 Birr ha-1) was obtained from treatment combination of 150 kg ha-1 seeding rate
with 20 cm row spacing while the lowest net benefit (27,545 ETB ha-1) was obtained from the
combination of 100 kg ha-1 seeding rate with 15cm row spacing.

36
The highest 10.6 value cost ratio (VCR) was obtained from the use of 150 kg ha -1 seeding rate
and 20 cm row spacing followed by 9.9 and 9.2 value cost ratio which was recorded from
seeding rate of 150 with 25 and 15 cm row spacing of each, respectively (Table 7). Therefore,
the most attractive rates for small scale farmers of the study area with low cost of production
and higher benefits in this case were 150 kg ha-1 seeding rate and 20 cm row spacing
combination. However, 150 kg ha-1 seeding rate with 25 cm row spacing combination was
also profitable with the highest net benefit and recommended as 2 nd option. And also 150 kg
ha-1 with 15 cm row spacing combination was also profitable with the highest net benefit and
recommended as 3rd option.

Table 6. Partial budget analysis to estimate net benefit influenced by row spacing and seeding
rate of bread wheat at Bale Robe and Sinana in 2018/19 cropping season.
Net Benefit
benefi to Cost
Row
Seed rate
spacing Average Adjusted Gross Total cost t ratio
(kgh-1)
(cm)
yield yield benefit that varied (Birr (B:C)
(kg ha-1) ( kg ha-1) (Birr ha-1) (Birr ha-1) ha-1)
100 15 2944 2649 31790 4245 27545 6.5
20 3571 3214 38569 4195 34374 8.2
25 3497 3147 37765 4145 33620 8.1
125 15 3528 3175 38097 4644 33453 7.2
20 3906 3515 42180 4594 37586 8.2
25 3734 3361 40328 4544 35784 7.9
150 15 4754 4279 51343 5043 46300 9.2
20 5367 4830 57960 4993 52967 10.6
25 5002 4502 54025 4943 49082 9.9
175 15 4305 3875 46498 5442 41056 7.5
20 4538 4084 49013 5392 43621 8.1
25 4444 3999 47994 5342 42652 8.0
37
ETB = Ethiopian Birr; Cost of labor 50 ETB per person ,it takes 53, 52,and 51 person for 15, 20, and 25 cm row
spacing respectively during planting ha-1,Cost of labor 2650, 2600 and 2550 ETB for 15, 20 and 25 cm row
spacing respectively; during planting ha-1; Seed rates of 100,125,150 and 175 kg ha-1 were used; Cost of seeds for
planting 15.95 ETB kg-1; Cost of labor 50 ETB per person; Sale price of bread wheat 12.95 ETB kg -1; Field price
of bread wheat 12.00 ETB kg -1; Cost of harvesting, threshing and winnowing 70 ETB per 100 kg; Packing and
material cost 20 ETB per 100 kg and transportation 5 ETB per, ETB = 0.0349 USD (March 10, 2019).

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Currently, bread wheat production is preferred by farmers due to its high productivity,
mechanization potential, and relatively higher economic returns relative to other food crops
grown in Bale southeast, Ethiopia. However, its productivity is constrained by various
inappropriate agronomic practices like irregular seed rate and row spacing. Moreover, a
number of bread wheat varieties differing in height, maturity, and tillering capacity have been
developed in Ethiopia through research. Regardless of this difference, the recommended seed
rate and row spacing for all the varieties being used across the country is 150 kg ha -1 and 20
cm, respectively. Moreover, in the study area there is a trend by farmers to use higher seed
rates and broadcast sowing method as they have increased the rate of fertilizer use. Therefore,
this study was conducted to identify the effect of seed rates and rows spacing on the crop
phenology, growth parameters, yield and yield components of bread wheat at Madda Walabu
University Research Site (Bale Robe) and Sinana Agricultural Research Center, during
2018/19 main cropping season.

38
Four levels of seeding rate (100, 125, 150, and 175 kg ha -1) and three rows spacing (15, 20,
and 25 cm) were tested under field condition in factorial arrangement in randomized complete
block design (RCBD) with three replications. Highly significant (p<0.01) differences were
observed among row spacing on plant height (cm) and grain yield (kg ha-1). As row spacing
increased from 15 cm to 25 cm plant height decreased from 91.38 cm to 89.37 cm and row
spacing of 20 cm produced maximum grain yield (4345.4 kg ha-1).

Considering the main effect of seed rate, highly significant (P<0.01) effect was recorded on
plant height (cm), number of effective tillers, above ground biomass yield and grain yield.
The highest plant height (96.16 cm) was recorded at the seed rate of 175 kg ha-1.
Correspondingly, the highest number of effective tillers (3.1) was observed at seeding rate of
150 kg ha-1. On the other hand, highest above ground biomass yield (12598.4 kg ha -1) was
obtained from the seeding rate of 175 kg ha -1, and the highest grain yield (5041 kg ha-1) was
obtained from the seeding rate of 150 kg ha-1 and the lowest grain yield (3337 kg ha-1) was
obtained from seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1.

Furthermore, the interaction effect of seed rate, row spacing and site significantly affected
days to 50% heading, days to 90% physiological maturity, spike length, number of kernel per
spike, thousand kernel weight and harvest index (%). Days to 90% physiological maturity
took 138.0 and 136.0 days at Bale Robe and Sinana, respectively, when lower seeding rates of
100 kg ha-1 and wider rows spacing of 25 cm used. On the other hand, earlier days to 90%
physiological maturity (135.0 days at Bale Robe and 133.0 days at Sinana) was recorded from
seeding rates of 175 kg ha-1 and row spacing of 15 cm. Accordingly, the tallest spike length of
10.0 cm at both sites was recorded from those plots planted with seeding rate of 100 kg ha -1
and widest rows spacing of 25 cm. Like that of spike length maximum number of kernels per
spike (54.3) was obtained from the seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 and row spacing of 20 cm at
Sinana. The highest thousand kernels weight (44.8 g) was recorded from the bread wheat
sown at the seeding rate of 100 kg ha-1 with row spacing of 25 cm at Sinana while, the highest
harvest index 46.8% was obtained from plots planted with seeding rate of 150 kg ha -1 and row

39
 spacing of 20 cm at Sinana. The lowest harvest index 31.7% at Bale Robe was recorded from
plots treated with the seeding rate of 125 kg ha-1 and row spacing of 15 cm.

Based on partial budget analysis, the highest net benefit (52,967 Birr ha-1) was obtained from
treatment combination of 150 kg ha-1 seeding rate with 20 cm row spacing while the lowest
net benefit (27,545 ETB ha-1) was obtained from the combination of 100 kg ha -1 seeding rate
with 15 cm row spacing.

Generally, in the present finding significant differences in grain yield and most of agronomic
parameters of bread wheat were observed due to seeding rates, row spacing and site.
Moreover, using of 150 kg ha-1 seeding rate and 20 cm row spacing gave better grain yield
(5041 kg ha-1) of bread wheat and can be recommended tentatively for the study area as the
first option. However, to make reliable and acceptable recommendation it is better to repeat
this experiment across locations and over seasons with consideration of cost of production.

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49
7. APPENDICES

50
 Particle size (%)
Sand Silt Clay
TN OC K P(ppm
Location Ph CEC C/N
(%) (%) (ppm) )
MWUR 492.2
6.28 22 26 52 26.11 11.67 0.15 1.75 14.34
S 0
523.8
SARC 6.12 20 26 54 49.46 13.82 0.17 2.35 12.96
0
Appendix Tables 1. Soil chemical properties of the study areas.

Where: MWURS= Madda Walabu University Research Site; SARC= Sinana Agricultural Research Center; OC
= organic-carbon; TN= Total nitrogen; C/N= carbon to nitrogen ratio; Av. K= Available potassium; Av. P=
Available phosphorus; CEC= cation exchange capacity, textural class was clay. Source (Hotcoop Ethiopia
(Horticulture) PLC).

Appendix Tables 2. Correlation analysis of bread wheat agronomic parameters.

AGB
  DE DH DPM PH ET SL NKS GY HI TKW
Y
1 .707** .592** . . -.060 .037 -.042 -.193 -.292 -.175
DE *
008 170
1 .878** -.4** . .382** .467** -.34** -.39** -.262 .297*
DH *
179
1 -.6** . .615** .602** -.44** -.47** -.247 .526**
DPM *
177

51
 1 . -.83** -.84** .578** .592** .268* -.82**
PH
086
ET 1 -.004 .082 -.146 .093 .333** .068
SL 1 .734** -.60** -.45** -.008 .883**
NKS 1 -.55** -.43** -.02 .806**
AGB 1 .816** .142 -.60**
Y
GY 1 .687** -.35**
HI 1 .171
TKW 1
**= Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level, *= Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level, DE= days to 50%
emergence, DH= days to 50% heading, DPM= days to 90% physiological maturity, PH= plant height, ET=
effective tiller, SL= spike length, NKPS= number of kernels per spike, AGBY= above ground biomass yield,
GY= grain yield, HI= harvest index and TKW= thousand kernel weight.

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 Appendix Tables 3. Mean squares of crop phenology, growth parameters, yield components, yield, thousand kernel weights and
harvest index of bread wheat due to seed rates, row spacing and sites and their interaction at Bale Robe and Sinana in 2019 cropping
season.

Replications Seed rate Site X seed

Error
Parameters within site Site(1) Seed rate (3) Spacing (2) X spacing rates X
(44)
(4) (6) spacing (11)
Days to emergency 1.180** 76.055** 0.055NS 0.0138NS 0.125NS 0.085NS 0.256
Days to heading 0.139 NS 64.222** 7.814** 1.056** 0.87** 0.858** 0.063
Days to physiologi 0.069 NS 70.014** 19.019** 8.1667** 0.667** 0.589** 0.039
maturity
Plant height (cm) 1.085NS 0.067NS 627.59** 24.39** 2.588NS 0.93NS 1.28
Number of Effective tiller 0.08 NS
0.568 *
0.619 *
0.11 NS
0.20 NS
0.104 NS
0.125
Spike length (cm) 0.020NS 0.01 NS 4.251** 3.117 ** 0.040 NS 0.048* 0.024
Number of kernel per
0.268NS 1.869* 142.744** 6.746** 0.894NS 2.156* 0.469
spike
Above ground biomass
1486070.1NS 1632932.NS 40481069.7** 209254.2NS 848242.8NS 1064986.8NS 1009087
yield (kg ha-1)
Grain yield (kg ha-1) 189408.18NS 2656699.5** 10284676.2** 1309618.7** 87753.57NS 123827.7NS 114349.7
Thousand kernel weight 0.089NS 6.576** 64.745** 22.58** 0.517** 0.318** 0.056
Harvest index (%) 1.06 NS
118.57 **
251.26 **
95.17 **
3.962 **
1.738 *
0.652
NS, * and ** are non significant, significantly different at 5% P level and significantly different at 1% P level, respectively; Figures in parentheses are the degree of
freedom.

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