WEEK 7

THE NATURE OF CRITICAL WRITING

Transitioning from Critical Reading to Critical Writing

Reading and writing are the two of the macro skills essential for learning. Critical
reading is not a process of passive consumption, but one of interaction and
engagement between the reader and the text. Therefore, when reading critically and
actively, it is important not only to take in the words on the page, but also to interpret
and to reflect upon what is read through writing and discussing it with others.

Reacting to a text is often done on an emotional and largely subjective, rather than on
an intellectual and objective level. It is quick but shallow.

For example, if we encounter a text that advances arguments with which we strongly
disagree, it is natural to dismiss those ideas offhand as not wrong and not worthy of our
attention. Doing so would be reacting to the text based only on emotions and on our
pre-set opinions about its arguments. It is easy to see that reacting in this way does not
take the reader any closer to understanding the text. A wall of disagreement that existed
between the reader and the text before the reading continues to exist after the reading.

Hence, learning is limited and the reader may not be able to get any useful insight from
the author because of reluctance and doubt arising from questions on the author’s
credibility. This is regardless of the subjectivity and possible invalidity of the argument.

Responding to a text, on the other hand, requires a careful study of the ideas
presented and arguments advanced in it. It is analytical and evaluative. Critical readers
who possess this skill are not willing to simply reject or accept the arguments presented
in the text after the first reading right away. They are open-minded and willing to learn in
spite of differences in beliefs and principles.

Hence, responding to a text is much more productive and progressive

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The Nature of Critical Writing
 Reading to Texts
• Works on an emotional level rather than an
intellectual level
• Prevents readers from studying purposes, intended
audiences, and contexts of texts they are working
with
• Fails to establish dialog between the reader and the
text by locking the reader in his or her pre-existing
opinion about the argument
Binary Reading
• Provides only "agree or disagree" answers
• Does not allow for an understanding of complex
arguments
• Prevents the reader from a true rhetorical
engagement with the text
CRITICAL WRITING VS DESCRIPTIVE WRITING
It is important that you understand the difference between descriptive writing and
adopting a critical stance, and are able to show clear evidence of your
understanding in your writing.
Descriptive writing
 States what happened
 States what something is like
 Gives the story so far
 States the order in which things happened
 Says how to do something
 Explains what a theory says
 Explains how something works
 Notes the method used
 Says when something occurred
 States the different components
 States options
 Lists details
 Lists in any order
 States links between items
 Gives information
Remember that critical writing is no longer about observation and
imagination. Rather, it strongly calls for observation and logic to raise solid
arguments, supported by evidences that you will carefully elaborate in your text.
Critical Writing in the Academe
Responding to Texts
• Works on an intellectual and emotional level by
asking the readers to use all three rhetorical appeals
in reading and writing about the text
• Allows for careful study of the text's rhetorical
aspects
• Establishes dialogue among the reader, text, and
other readers by allowing all sides to reconsider
existing positions and opinions
Nuanced Reading
• Allows for a deep and detailed understanding of
complex texts
• Takes into account "gray areas" of complex
arguments
• Establishes rhetorical engagement between the
reader and the text
Critical/analytical writing
 Identifies the significance
 Evaluates (judges the value of) strengths
and weaknesses
 Weighs one piece of information against
another
 Makes reasoned judgements
 Argues a case according to evidence
 Shows why something is relevant or
suitable
 Indicates why something will work (best)
 Indicates whether something is
appropriate or suitable
 Identifies why the timing is important
 Weighs up the importance of component
parts
 Gives reason for the selection of each
option
 Evaluates the relative significance of
details
 Structures information in order (e.g. of
importance)
 Shows the relevance of links between
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 WEEK 8
CRITICAL WRITING IN THE
ACADEME

Academic writing is far from a one-size-fits-all genre. Applicable to the broad variety of
academic disciplines and their unique approaches to conducting and documenting
research efforts in the field, one might find it challenging to identify clearly what
constitutes academic writing.

Defining Critical Academic Writing

According to the University of Birmingham publication, “A short guide to critical writing

for Postgraduate Taught students,”

“Critical writing is an involvement in an academic debate. It requires „a

refusal to accept the conclusions of other writers without evaluating the
arguments and evidence they provide.‟”

A Lancaster University publication adds that “The aim of academic writing is not to
present „the right answer,‟ but to discuss the controversies in an intelligent way.”

Here are tips to help you reflect critical thinking in critical academic writing.
 Be sure to answer the right and relevant questions.
 Give enough contexts so that the reader can follow your ideas and understand
your principles.
 Include references to the material you have read.
 Try to group different studies thematically or categorically and make links
between ones that are related.
 Explain source material to your readers to show why it is valuable and relevant.
 Discuss the ideas that come from these source texts in your writing.
 Justify your judgments. Say why you think an idea is relevant, valid or interesting.
 Acknowledge the drawbacks or limitations of ideas, even the ones you disagree
with.
 Avoid absolute statements. Use hedging language to make your statements
more convincing.

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Critical Writing in the Academe
  Do not be afraid to make intelligent suggestions, educational guesses or
hypotheses.
 You are supposed to make judgments based on evidence, so your conclusions
must be meaningful and completely objective.
 Note that conclusions are usually plural. A single conclusion—rare but possible—
is usually straightforward and is worth discussing.
 Do not ignore arguments just because you disagree with them.
 Avoid praising authors just because they are famous in the field. Praise them for
the substance of their work assessed with objectivity, not with subjectivity.
 Check that your argument flows logically.

Constructing a Good Academic Argument

A good academic argument makes an evidence-based claim designed to advance a

specific field of study. It also demonstrates an understanding of the foundational
research for the claim and the implications of the results on the field. Points of view can
strengthen your argument, either by providing evidence to support your argument or by
providing food for thought when constructing your argument to effectively debate
counterclaims.

A Belmont University resource titled, “Writing an Argument,” states:

“The purpose of argument writing is to present a position and to have an

audience adopt or at least seriously consider your argument.” Further, it notes
that “Good argument writing is critical, assertion-with proof-writing. It should
reflect a serious attempt on the writer‟s part to have considered the issue from all
angles.”

The Simon Fraser University “Resources on argumentation in academic writing” claims

that:

“Argumentation is less about trying to change „what readers believe, think, or

do,‟ and more about convincing „yourself or others that specific facts are reliable
or that certain views should be considered or at least tolerated‟”.
In another resource titled, “Building Good Arguments”, they describe six elements of a
well-reasoned argument: claim, reason, qualifier, warrant, backing, and conditions of
rebuttal.

The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill offers that:

“…by considering what someone who disagrees with your position might have to
say…, you show that you have thought things through, and you dispose of some
of the reasons your audience might have for not accepting your argument.”

Critically Evaluating Source Materials

According to the Cleveland State University Writing Center, “Critical reading means that
a reader applies certain processes, models, questions, and theories that result in
enhanced clarity and comprehension.”

Critical evaluation of source materials allows you “to evaluate the strength of the
argument being made by the work”. The University of Toronto resource, “Critical
Reading Towards Critical Writing” echoes this mindset, stating:

“To read critically is to make judgments about how a text is argued. This is a
highly reflective skill requiring you to “stand back” and gain some distance from
the text you are reading.”

For those new to critical evaluation of a source, however, you should ask “What aspects
are important to consider when critically evaluating a source?”

According to Sheldon Smith, founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com in an article on

Critical Reading, “In addition to what a text says, the reader needs to consider how it
says it, who is saying it, when it was said, where it was said (i.e. published), and why it
was said (i.e. the writer‟s purpose).”

Why is it important to be able to critically evaluate source materials?

The University of Minnesota Center for Writing says, “When you understand how what
you read is written, you can work to incorporate those techniques into your own writing ”,
while the Walden University Academic Skills Center offers that “You are not simply

absorbing the information; instead, you are interpreting, categorizing, questioning, and
weighing the value of that information” in support of critical reading processes.
Receiving Criticisms

Many times, critically evaluating the work of others is much easier than receiving critical
feedback on your own writing efforts. It is just harder to be at the receiving end.

According to Eric Schmieder, “I think you have to face criticism with an open mind and a
willingness to learn. Sometimes the comments are harsh, but mostly they are well-
intentioned efforts to help you improve. Consider the source and select ones whose
feedback you value when possible.”

To better respond to critical feedback on your writing, TurnItIn offers seven ways to
improve writing by receiving feedback.

1. Feedback Connects to Your Goals

Feedback lets you know how much development you have made towards your writing
goals and what else you need to do to meet them. It also gives you a clearer picture of
where you are in your timeline of progress.

2. Feedback Can Be More Important Than Your Score

Scores and grades only measure performance -- they do not tell you how to get better.
Read all the comments and use them to revise your work. A good score without
feedback leaves you at a plateau while a bad score with feedback leaves you an
opportunity to progress and improve without limits.

3. Feedback Helps You Ask the Right Questions

You might not always understand the comments you get. You may even disagree with
them, and sometimes you may have trouble understanding how to apply them. Ask your
instructor for more clarification and advice. Teachers prefer assertive students that
show interest for learning.
4. Feedback Lets You Determine What Is Most Important
Focus on the comments that will make your ideas clearer and help readers understand,
then work your way down.

5. Feedback Aids in Revision and Practice

Use your comments to revise and practice your writing. You may also use your current
feedback to reflect on the mistakes that you have committed in the past.

6. Feedback Helps You Take Ownership of Your Writing

Find your voice as a writer, and establish your own style and principles.

7. Feedback Gets You on the Same Page as Your Teacher

Your teacher’s comments are there to help you, not criticize you. Your feedback is part
of a conversation through which your teacher is trying to support you and your writing
development.

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Critical Writing in the Workplace
 WEEK 9
CRITICAL WRITING IN THE
WORKPLACE

Critical writing, in this sense, largely refers to critical business writing.

1. Plan

Always start by thinking about the purpose of the communication. The information and
points that you want to present in your writing should target the specific audience that
you try to inform or convince.

2. Design an Outline

You need to outline your goals and the points that you want to write about to achieve
those goals. List down everything that you deem relevant and along the way, you might
have to add or delete some points.

3. Research and Fact-Check to Ensure Depth of Information

The depth and amount of detail you include are also important. Sometimes, lots of detail
is necessary, while in other cases the focus should be on getting to the point quickly;
this decision depends on your reader.

4. Pique the Readers’ Interest

One way to do this is to show readers how the information will impact them: “Let them
know up front why the topic you are addressing is of interest to them.”

5. Reach Your Audience

To effectively reach your audience, consider the terminology you use and the
information you include. Using known terms and clearly explaining information allows
the reader to better understand the document.

6. Always Proofread

Finishing the last sentence is not the end of the writing process because professional
writing is reader-, not writer-, centered. Be certain that your audience understands the
topic.
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Critical Writing in the Workplace
REASONS WHY BUSINESS WRITING SKILLS ARE IMPORTANT

There are three main ways of communication in business: verbal, non-verbal and
written. Written communication, although generally categorized under non-verbal
communication, is separated as a different category for the sake of discussion as it is
the most widely applied form of business communication.

Written business communication includes emails, letters, technical reports and plain
reports, company brochures, press releases, manuals, presentation slides, case
studies, sales materials, white papers, visual aids, social media updates, and other
business documents. Whether you are connecting internally with colleagues and
executives or externally to current and potential clients and customers, the way you
write can either give your career a boost or hamper your progression within the
organization.

Why is business writing important?

1. Writing skills ensure effective business communication

Business correspondence helps a company connect with partners and stakeholders. If a

text is poorly written and structured, the message may be misinterpreted and may lead
to loss of business transaction or even to permanent loss of partnership.

2. Writing skills make the difference between "good" and "bad" employees

Crafting your own resume and cover letter may pose a real challenge, especially when
you have to tailor fit them to the position and industry that you are trying to apply for.
Furthermore, a document filled with grammatical errors will not impress anyone in the
business organization, which you need to secure the job.

Professionals are good at composing clear messages. Employers value such workers.
That is the reason why companies invest so much in their recruitment and training
processes.

Practice writing as often as you can in order to stand out among your co-workers.
Senior management is generally more favorable towards an employee who can create
excellent documentation.
3. You demonstrate your intelligence with quality writing

A few grammatical or punctuation errors may seem minor, but people do notice them
even when they do not show any reaction and give you feedback. They tend to think
that those who do not write well are less intelligent than those who do.

Do not let anyone dismiss you because of your poor writing skills. A few minutes of
proofreading can improve the way you are perceived, prompting everyone to take you
more seriously.

4. Good writers are credible

People with advanced writing skills are perceived as more reliable and trustworthy.
Producing flawless documents will also make you look more credible than those who
produce subpar quality.
People, especially those from outside the business organization, will judge you the first
time they see you. Unfortunately, in most occasions, customers and clients first see you
through your writing, whether it is via an email, a sales letter or a phone call. Hence, it is
crucial to establish a great first impression that might last a long time.

5. You can be more influential

Good persuasion skills help you to influence others to achieve your goals. This is
especially true for those who will delve deeper into the fields of marketing, sales,
communications, public relations and law.

Professors assign their students to write persuasive essays in order to prepare them for
the job market by developing these significant skills.

If you are creating taglines and calls-to-action for your organization, you need to know
how to develop a copy that will encourage the reader to take action. If you are
describing an innovative idea that can improve a process to your manager, you should
sound convincing.

6. Business writing conveys courtesy

Professionals take into consideration formatting and etiquette. They also pay attention
to their personal tone, clarity, and logic. They avoid poor word choice and grammar.
These things can come across as lazy or even rude.
7. Writing skills help to keep good records

Information that is communicated orally is not kept for long. That is the reason why
students take notes of lectures. As scholars use their notes to write essays, you can
apply your records in your work.

Keeping a record of your writing, especially when you belong to industries related to
creativity and concepts, can also help you build a reliable portfolio that may be used for
career advancement.

8. You boost your professional confidence

When written communication leads a business to another successfully completed

project, you become more confident and inspired, not to mention more eligible for
promotion. Who does not like to advance in the career ladder?

9. You promote yourself and your career

The better your writing skills are, the more responsibility you will be given. That is great
for you and your future career success.

10. Business writing builds a solid web presence

Business is all about presentation. Owners aim to set up an effective online presence,
especially nowadays that the marketing game has turned digital. It helps potential
customers discover the company and its products.

Quality content is a decisive factor here. A person who can present business in the best
light and convince people to buy products or services is an irreplaceable employee. You
can even establish a lucrative career in marketing communications and digital marketing
with this.
 WEEK 10

STRATEGIES IN CRITICAL WRITING

Experienced writers showcase flexibility in achieving their objectives by constantly
exploring and discovering styles, procedures, and ideas. They are not afraid to ask
questions and question their own writing for a more balanced output. After all, writing is
all about thinking.

Only after the writer thoroughly examines the subject through writing and is satisfied
with the ideas discovered, does he or she polish the writing for the reader. This is where
the writer starts deciding on the style and organization to be used depending on the
target readers and the nature of the text. This is where the writer also decides which
critical strategies to use for writing the final draft.

Critical thinking yields several strategies that you are likely to use in academic writing.
Many of your writing assignments may reflect just one of the strategies or a combination
of them.

For the sake of clarity, these strategies have been arranged in the order of complexity of
the critical thinking that they require. Keep in mind that these strategies often overlap
with each other. You may use comparison and contrast when you are synthesizing
information, but you may also synthesize the results of a causal analysis. You may also
use several of these analytical strategies when you write an evaluation.

ANALYSIS
Analysis, the basis of many other strategies, is the process of breaking something into
its parts and putting the parts back together so that you can better understand the
whole.

When you seek to explain the causes and effects of a situation, event or action, you are
trying to identify their origins and understand their results. You may discover a chain of
events that explain the causes and effects. How you decide where the boundaries of
causal analysis are depends on your thesis and your purpose for writing.

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Strategies in Critical Writing
Synthesis

Synthesis is a tad more complex than the analytical strategies that have just been
discussed. In synthesizing information, you must bring together all your opinions and
researched evidences in support of your thesis. You integrate the relevant facts,
statistics, expert opinions, and whatever can directly be observed with your own opinion
and conclusions to persuade your audience that your thesis is correct. Indeed, you use
synthesis in supporting a thesis and assembling a paper.

The example below shows the writer synthesizing his ideas about how prejudices and
cultural orientation transform voice as a writer at different stages of the writing process.

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Strategies in Critical Writing
EVALUATION

Evaluation is the most complex of all analytical strategies and uses many of the other
analytical techniques. In applying this strategy, you first establish the criteria you will use
to evaluate your subject, apply them to the specific parts of the subject you are judging,
and draw conclusions about whether your subject meets those criteria. In the process of
evaluating a subject, you will usually be called upon to render some analysis and
synthesis and even use persuasive or argumentative techniques.

 establish the evaluation criteria

 select the characteristics you will apply those criteria to
 evaluate how well the selected characteristics meet the criteria
 present your results, along with examples, to support your premise

Persuasion

Persuasion is aimed at changing the beliefs or opinions of the readers or at encouraging

them to accept the credibility or possibility of your opinion or belief. You do not have to
convince them to embrace and adapt to your own opinions and beliefs offhand,
although that is more preferential. Rather, you have to convince them to consider you
by keeping an open mind.

At some level, all writing has a persuasive element. You may simply be persuading your
reader to continue reading your writing or even to accept your credibility—that you know
your subject area. In fiction writing, you persuade your readers to believe your plot and
dialogues, enough for them to finish the story down to the last chapter.

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Arguments in Critical Writing
You can make your writing persuasive by responding to the needs and demands of your
readers. When you keep them in mind, you can identify with their points of view and
attitudes. Use your style and tone to show respect for your reader. Offer your reader
arguments and evidences to support your opinion or belief.

WEEK 11
ARGUMENTS IN CRITICAL WRITING

Building Good Arguments

In building good arguments, students and professionals usually follow two established
methods that are effective both in academic and professional settings. You may choose
whatever you deem is more effective depending on the type of issue that you raise.

Toulmin Method

Philosopher Stephen Toulmin offers six elements of a well-reasoned argument and

explains how they all work together.

The basic format of the Toulmin Method is as follows:

1. Claim

A claim is a debatable statement that requires proof.

 Fact
Example: Today is Sunday.

 Judgment or Evaluation
Example: Brand X is more effective in removing stains than Brand Y.

 Policy
Example: All students, both senior high school and college, should wear their IDs
at all times inside school premises.

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Arguments in Critical Writing
Keep in mind that a claim is only the starting-point for a fully developed argument.

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Arguments in Critical Writing
2. Reason

A reason is a statement justifying the claim (e.g. a “because”-clause). A reason then

invites evidence (sometimes called data) to support a claim and show its validity.

For example:

"You do not have to study for the exam [CLAIM] because classes are suspended
today” [REASON].

How do you know that?

“The University has already made an announcement through their social media
accounts and official website” [EVIDENCE].

However, will your audience believe the evidence? That might depend on the
credibility of University’s social media pages and website, or whether whomever
you are trying to convince is willing to accept that the social media accounts and
the website you stated are authentic and verified. If your audience accepts the
evidence, they will see your claim as valid.

3. Qualifier

A qualifier is a word or phrase (adjective or adverb) that limits the scope or

“generalizability” of your claim. Without a qualifier, your claim may seem too broad or
unrealistic for your readers.

For example, if you say "The citizens dislike the current government" you would be
making an overstatement or overgeneralization. It is simply not true that "all" citizens
dislike the current government. Hence, a more reasonable claim, a claim for which you
are likely to find supporting evidence, would be "Many citizens dislike the current
government."

Using qualifiers appropriately also helps you to avoid binary or “either/or” thinking, which
can invalidate an argument.

Instead of using the following qualifiers:

  always
 never
 all
 none, no
 totally, completely, absolutely

Try using the following qualifiers:

 sometimes, at times, occasionally, usually, frequently
 many, many a, some, more (or if applicable, a precise number or amount)
 a small number, a few, most (or if applicable, a precise number or amount)
 likely, possibly, probably

4. Warrant

A warrant is an assumption or point of agreement shared by the arguer and the

audience. In argument, we rely frequently on these fundamental shared assumptions.
Warrants may remain unspoken (but understood) when a writer and reader can be
expected to know or agree on them. This is normally the case for general knowledge
and widely accepted facts.

If readers do not share the same assumptions about the validity of the writer’s evidence,
or if they do not recognize the assumption, they might not accept the evidence or claim.

5. Backing

Backing is additional information that justifies or enhances the credibility of your

evidence. You need this to ensure that you audience will accept your evidences or
claims.

For exampe, if you give evidence like "Our Lady of Fatima University is one of the top-
quality educational institutions in the Philippines," you may need to add, "They have
produced hundreds of board exam top-notchers in the past with a 100% passing rate for
many college programs across its six campuses."
For this backing to work, you and your audience must share an understanding about
what having numerous board exam top-notchers and a perfect passing rate implies.
This understanding would be a warrant.

6. Conditions of Rebuttal

Conditions of rebuttal are the potential objections to an argument. To deal with possible
objections, imagine a skeptical yet reasonable reader poking holes in your claim and
reasons or coming up with opposite, equally valid reasons.

Finally, this diagram shown below may help you visualize how all the elements in
Toulmin's model work together:

Rogerian Method

The Rogerian Method (named for, but not developed by, influential American
psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers) is a popular method for controversial issues. This
strategy seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the audience
understand perspectives that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s
position. It places an emphasis on reiterating an opponent's argument to his or her
satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian Method lies in its ability to define the
terms of the argument in such a way that:
 your position seems like a reasonable compromise
 you seem compassionate and empathetic
The Rogerian Method features the following elements:

1. Introduction

Introduce the issue to the audience while sticking with objectivity as much as possible.

“The issue of whether nursing students should apply for internship in hospitals
with COVID-19 cases or not is still subject to extensive discussion.”

2. Opposing View

Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way.

“Some parents believe that internship in hospitals, in spite of the current

pandemic, is essential for learning and for boosting the students’ professional
and technical competence.”

3. Statement of Validity (Understanding)

This section discusses how you acknowledge how the other side’s points of view can be
valid under certain circumstances. You identify how and why their perspective makes
sense while you still present your own argument.

“Those parents who agree with the internship argue that working in hospitals
amidst the surge in COVID-19 cases opens up more opportunities for the
students to learn and accept the reality of their future profession.”

4. Statement of Your Position

In this section, you explain your own stance.

“Students should not be forced to pursue internship in hospitals with active cases
of COVID-19 because the risks and disadvantages outweigh the projected
benefits.”

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Strategies in Critical Writing
5. Statement of Contexts

Explore scenarios in which your position has merit.

“However, although the lack of professional merit and insufficiency in technical

knowledge among students increase their chance of contracting the infection,
internship should still be offered as an option, provided that all safety standards
and protocols are strictly observed.”

6. Statement of Benefits

You should conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from
accepting your position.

“Although both sides offer their own advantages and disadvantages, the safety of
the students should still be prioritized above everything else as learning does not
mean anything if something bad happens to the students in the process.”

You have to be objective as much as possible without sacrificing your own stance. You
should end your argument with clarity about what you are arguing for.

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Strategies in Critical Writing