Phy109: Engineering Physics Unit V: Waves

PHY109: ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Unit V: Waves
Deepak Kaushik
Department of Physics
School of Chemical Engineering and Physical Sciences
Lovely Professional University, Punjab.
deepak.23309@lpu.co.in
April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves
2
Waves
Transverse: Longitudinal:
Light Sound

Outline 3
• Introduction to Ultrasonics waves

Properties of waves
• Properties of Ultrasonic waves
• Ultrasonic Production
Magnetostriction Method
Piezoelectric Method
• Applications of Ultrasonics
• Worked Problems

4
Wave
➢ A wave is the propagation of disturbance in a medium which carries the energy along
with its motion.
➢ Wave can be mainly of three types

▪ Mechanical
▪ Electromagnetic
▪ Matter wave
➢ The shape of the wave can vary widely depending on the situation. A short and sharp
jerk to the free end of a string anchored to the wall at the other end, creates a hump
to propagate through the string. Such a wave is called a pulse.

5
Characteristics parameters of a wave
➢ The equation governing the propagation of disturbance in a classical wave is
𝜕2𝑓 1 𝜕2𝑓
2
= 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜐 𝜕𝑡 2
the solution of the wave equation has form: 𝑓 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝜐𝑡
Characteristics parameters of a wave:

• Amplitude: the maximum size of the disturbance is known as amplitude (A).
• Phase (𝜙): is the argument of the function. It determine the initial position and
velocity of the wave. 𝜙 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡

6
Characteristics parameters of a wave
• Wavelength (𝜆): is the distance traversed by wave to complete one cycle (change the phase by
2𝜋).
• Time Period (𝑇): is the time required for the wave to travel a distance of one wavelength or
time required to complete one oscillation; 𝜆 = 𝜐𝑇
1
• Frequency (𝜈): is the number of cycles (vibrations) completed per second => 𝜈 =
𝑇
𝜕𝜙
• Angular Frequency (𝜔): represents the rate of change of phase with time =>𝜔 = = 2𝜋𝜈
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜙 2𝜋
• Wavevector (𝑘): is the rate of change of phase with distance => 𝑘 = =
𝜕𝑥 𝜆
• Velocity (phase velocity): of a wave is the velocity of its wave fronts:

Δ𝑥 𝜔
𝜐= = = 𝜈𝜆
Δ𝑡 𝑘
7
Types of a wave
Transverse wave: Propagation of a wave is perpendicular to the vibration of particles or
field components.
• Light waves
• Waves on a string
• Television waves
• Microwaves
Longitudinal wave: Propagation of the wave along the direction particles vibration or
disturbance.
• Sound wave
• Vertical spring under tension

8
Superposition of sound waves

First, consider case for sound waves, emitted by 2 loudspeakers:
Path difference =nλ

Constructive Interference
Path difference =(n+1/2)λ

Destructive Interference
(n = any integer, m = odd integer)

9
Interference

10
Interference: Superposition of waves
• Principle of superposition: The net displacement of the medium at any point in space or time,
is simply the sum of the individual wave displacements i.e., y = y1 + y2
• Standing waves: is formed as result of superposition of two waves having same wavelength,
frequency and amplitude, and travelling in opposite directions.
𝑦1 = asin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 (travelling in +x direction); 𝑦2 = asin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 (travelling in -x direction)
The resultant wave (interference of waves travelling in opposite direction) is standing waves:
𝑦 = 2asin 𝑘𝑥)cos(𝜔𝑡
𝜋
The resultant is maximum; 𝑦 = 2acos(𝜔𝑡) for 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑛 where 𝑛 = 1,3 …
2
2𝜋
On substituting 𝑘 = ; we get,
𝜆
𝜆
𝑥=𝑛
4
𝜆
Thus, the difference between the position of two consecutive maxima of standing wave is .
2

11
The resultant is minimum; 𝑦 = 0 for 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 where 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
2𝜋
On substituting 𝑘 = ; we get,
𝜆
𝜆
𝑥=𝑛
2
Thus, the difference between the position of two consecutive minima of standing wave
𝜆
is .
2
In standing waves, over a period of time no net energy is carried in any direction.

12
• Beats: is the phenomenon of periodic variation of intensity of waves (say, sound waves) when
two waves of slightly different frequency, travelling in same direction interfere.
𝑦1 = asin 𝑘𝑥 − 2𝜋𝜈1 𝑡 ; 𝑦2 = asin 𝑘𝑥 − 2𝜋𝜈2 𝑡
The resultant wave (interference of the waves) is:
𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜈1 + 𝜈2
𝑦 = 2acos 2𝜋 𝑡 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 2𝜋 𝑡
2 2
Frequency of amplitude envelope Frequency of resultant note
As, the intensity of the wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude, thus
𝜈1 − 𝜈2 2
I ∝ 2 acos 2𝜋 𝑡 = 2𝑎2 1 + cos 2𝜋 𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝑡
2
1
The beat frequency is 𝜈1 − 𝜈2 and time period of beat is .
𝜈1 −𝜈2
Beats 13
y1
f=11 Hz
Nellaiappar temple y2
f=9 Hz
f1=1 Hz
f2=10 Hz
Vittala temple

14
Introduction to Ultrasonics
• Ultrasonic combines the Latin roots ultra, meaning ‘beyond’ and sonic, or sound.
• The sound waves having frequencies above the audible range i.e. above 20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic
waves.
• Generally these waves are called as high frequency waves.
• The field of ultrasonics have applications for imaging, detection and navigation, medical, industry and
military.

15
Sound waves
• Sound waves can be generated in all three forms of matter, viz., solid, liquid and gas. On the basis of
their frequencies they can be divided into three classes:
1) Subsonic or Infrasonic waves: Frequency less than the lower limit (20 Hz) of audible range of humans.
Produced during Earthquakes.
2) Sonic or Audible waves: The human ear can perceive the sound waves of frequency ranging from 20
Hz to 20 KHz are known as audible waves. Produced by music instruments such as violin and guitar.
3) Ultrasonic waves: The sound waves having frequencies greater than the upper limit of the audible
range (i.e., above 20 KHz ) are known as supersonic or ultrasonic waves. Dogs can hear up to 50 kHz
whereas bats can sense up to 100 kHz.

16
Properties of ultrasonic waves
• They have a high energy content.
• Just like ordinary sound waves, ultrasonic waves get reflected, refracted and absorbed
but not polarized.
• They can be transmitted over large distances with no appreciable loss of energy.
• If an arrangement is made to form stationary waves of ultrasonics in a liquid, it serves

as a diffraction grating. It is called an acoustic grating.
• They produce intense heating effect when passed through a substance.

17
Ultrasonics Production
Ultrasonic waves are produced by the following methods:
(1) Magneto-striction generator or oscillator
(2) Piezo-electric generator or oscillator

18
Resonance
Natural frequency: the frequency at which a system
tends to vibrate in the absence of any driving or Frequency obtained from external force: example LC circuit.
damping force.
Frequency of an LC circuit is given by:
The frequency of vibration of the rod is given by 1
𝜈=
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
1 𝑌 Resonance frequency: If the oscillating system is driven by
𝜈=
2𝑙 𝜌 an external force at the frequency at which the amplitude
of its motion is maximum (close to a natural frequency of
where, l = length of a rod (in m), Y = Young’s modulus the system).
of the rod (N/m2) and  = density of rod (kg/m3)
Consider an iron rod:
l = 4 cm, Y = 1.15×1011 N/m2 and  = 7250 kg/m3
𝜈 = 49,780 𝐻𝑧
Consider an quartz crystal:
l = 1 mm, Y = 7.9×1010 N/m2 and  = 2650 kg/m3
𝜈 = 2.73×106𝐻𝑧

19
Magnetostriction Generator
Principle: Magnetostriction effect
When a ferromagnetic rod like iron or nickel is placed in a magnetic field parallel to its
length, the rod experiences a small change in its length. This is called magnetostriction
effect.
The change in length of rod depends on:

strength of the magnetic field
nature of the materials
It is independent of the direction of the magnetic field applied.
20
Magnetostriction oscillator
• XY is a rod of ferromagnetic materials like iron
or nickel. The rod is clamped in the middle.
• The alternating magnetic field is generated by

electronic oscillator.
• The coil L1 wound on the right hand portion of

the rod along with a variable capacitor C.
• This forms the resonant circuit of the collector Design of Magnetostriction oscillator
tuned oscillator. The frequency of oscillator is
controlled by the variable capacitor.
• The coil L2 wound on the left hand portion of

the rod is connected to the base circuit. The
coil L2 acts as feed –back loop.
21
Magnetostriction Generator
• When High Tension (H.T) battery is switched on, the collector circuit oscillates with a
frequency,
1
𝜈=
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶
• This alternating current flowing through the coil L1 produces an alternating magnetic
field along the length of the rod. The result is that the rod starts vibrating due to
magnetostriction effect.

22
Magnetostriction oscillator
The frequency of vibration of the rod is given by
1 𝑌
𝜈=
2𝑙 𝜌
Where, l = length of the rod, Y = Young’s modulus of the rod and  = density of rod
• The capacitor C is adjusted so that the frequency of the oscillatory circuit is equal to
natural frequency of the rod and thus resonance takes plate.
• Now the rod vibrates longitudinally with maximum amplitude and generates ultrasonic
waves of high frequency from its ends.

23
• Advantages
1.The design of this oscillator is very simple and its production cost is low.
2. Magnetostrictive or ferromagnetic materials are easily available and inexpensive.
3.At low ultrasonic frequencies, the large power output can be produced without
the risk of damage of the oscillatory circuit.
• Disadvantages
1.It has low upper frequency limit and cannot generate ultrasonic frequency above 3
MHz (i.e. 3000 kHz).
2.It is not possible to get a constant single frequency, because rod depends on
temperature and the degree of magnetization.
3.There will be losses of energy due to hysteresis and eddy current.
4.In order to produce high frequency ultrasonic waves, length of the rod should be
reduced in resonance condition which is not practically feasible.

24
Piezoelectric Generator or Oscillator
• Piezoelectric effect: If mechanical pressure is applied to one pair
of opposite faces of certain crystals like quartz, equal and
opposite electrical charges appear across its other faces. This is
called as piezoelectric effect.
Examples of piezoelectric materials: quartz, Rochelle salt,
tourmaline etc.
• The converse of piezoelectric effect is also true.

If an electric field is applied to one pair of faces, the
corresponding changes in the dimensions of the other pair of
faces of the crystal are produced. This is known as inverse
piezoelectric effect or electrostriction.
• Working principle of piezoelectric gernerator: is based on

inverse piezoelectric effect

Construction 25
• The quartz crystal is placed between two metal plates A

and B.
• The plates are connected to the primary (L3) of a
transformer which is inductively coupled to the
electronics oscillator.
• The electronic oscillator circuit is a base tuned oscillator
circuit.
• The coils L1 and L2 of oscillator circuit are taken from the
secondary of a transformer T.
• The collector coil L2 is inductively coupled to base coil L1.
• The coil L1 and variable capacitor C1 form the tank circuit
of the oscillator.

26
Working
• When H.T. battery is switched on, the oscillator produces high frequency alternating voltages with a
frequency.
1
𝜈=
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝐶1
• Due to the transformer action, an oscillatory e.m.f. is induced in the coil L3. This high frequency
alternating voltages are fed on the plates A and B.
• Inverse piezoelectric effect takes place and the crystal contracts and expands alternatively. The
crystal is set into mechanical vibrations.
• The frequency of the vibration is given by
𝑃 𝑌
𝜈=
2𝑙 𝜌
where P = 1, 2, 3,.… etc. for fundamental, first over tone, second over tone etc.,
Y = Young’s modulus of the crystal and ρ = density of the crystal.
• The variable condenser C1 is adjusted such that the frequency of the applied AC voltage is equal to
the natural frequency of the quartz crystal, and thus resonance takes place.
• The vibrating crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic waves of large amplitude.
27
Advantages
Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 5×108 Hz (500 MHz) can be obtained with this
arrangement.
The output of this oscillator is very high.
It is not affected by temperature and humidity.
Disadvantages
The cost of piezoelectric quartz is very high

The cutting and shaping of quartz crystal are very complex.

28
Ultrasonic transducer
Transducer: is any device which is used to convert one form of energy to another.
Ultrasonic transducer: is a an acoustic sensor which converts electrical signal into
ultrasound or vice-versa. It is divided into mainly three categories: transmitters,
receivers and transceivers.
Transmitters convert electrical signals into ultrasound.
Receivers convert ultrasound into electrical signals.
Transceivers can both transmit and receive ultrasound.
The ultrasonic transducers can be magnetostrictive, piezoelectric or capacitive

transducers.
The magnetostrictive transducers can be used to produce high intensity ultrasonic

sound in the 20-40 kHz range for ultrasonic cleaning.
29
Detection of ultrasonic waves
1. Piezoelectric Detector: The piezoelectric method can also be used for the
detection of the ultrasonic waves based on piezoelectric principle.
2. Sensitive flame method: the intensity of flame is sensitive to the pressure

variation. As a narrow sensitive flame is moved along the medium wherein
ultrasonic wave propagates and a change in intensity of the flame is observed. Piezoelectric Detector
At the position of antinodes the flame is found to be steady and , while the
flame is found to flicker at the positions of nodes due to a change taken place
in the pressure.
The positions of the nodes and antinodes are found out in the medium and the
average distance between the two adjacent nodes gives rise to the value of half
wavelength.
Sensitive flame method

30
3. Kundt’s tube: The tube is a long glass tube supported horizontally with an air column in it. A
horizontal rod is clamped at the centre of the tube. The tube contains lycopodium powder
scattered in it. When the ultrasonic waves are passed through the tube, the lycopodium powder
collects in the form of heaps which are found to be situated at the nodal points whereas the
powder is found to be blown off at the antinodal points. The average distance between two
adjacent heaps gives rise to the value of half wavelength from which the wavelength of the
waves can be calculated. The method cannot be applied if the wavelength of the ultrasonic wave
is very small i.e. less than a few millimeters.
If the average distance between the adjacent heaps is d and the frequency of the ultrasonic
waves is f, then the velocity of the wave is given by
𝜐 = 2𝑓𝑑
This is because 𝜐 = 𝑓𝜆 and 𝜆 = 2𝑑 Heaps of Powder
Kundt’s tube
31
Attenuation of Ultrasonic waves
• As the ultrasonic wave propagates through the medium the a part of its energy is converted
into heat due to the alternative compression and rarefaction taken place in the wave and
hence the intensity goes down.
• Compression produce heat that increases the temperature of the medium whereas
rarefaction decrease the temperature, leading to the absorption of the waves and the wave is
said to be attenuated.
• Two mechanisms are responsible for the attenuation:
• Absorption
The mechanisms responsible for the absorption are thermal conductance effect, chemical effect,
viscous effect and nonlinearity.
In liquid, viscous forces between the neighboring particles moving with a different velocities are
responsible for the absorption.
In homogeneous solids, viscoelastic forces are the main cause of wave absorption.

32
Dispersion of Ultrasonic waves
The attenuation of the ultrasonic waves is characterized by decrease of the pressure amplitude
or intensity amplitude while travelled to a distance 𝑧 which is expressed as:
𝑝 = 𝑝0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑧
𝑝0 and 𝐼0 are the pressure and intensity amplitude, 𝛼 is attenuation coefficient which depends
on frequency. The unit of 𝛼 is cm-1.
• Dispersion is referred to as change in the velocity of ultrasonic waves with frequency.

33
Applications of ultrasonic waves
• Industrial Applications:
• Machining/Drilling –
• Ultrasonics are used for making holes in very hard
materials like glass, diamond etc.
• For this purpose, a suitable drilling tool bit is fixed at
the end of a powerful ultrasonic generator.
• Some slurry (a thin paste of carborundum powder and
water) is made to flow between the bit and the plate in
which the hole is to be made
• Ultrasonic generator causes the tool bit to move up
and down very quickly and the slurry particles below
the bit just remove some material from the plate.
• This process continues and a hole is drilled in the
plate.

34
• Welding
• The properties of some metals change on heating and therefore,
such metals cannot be welded by electric or gas welding.
• In such cases, the metallic sheets are welded together at room
temperature by using ultrasonic waves.
• For this purpose, a hammer H is attached to a powerful ultrasonic
generator.
• The metallic sheets to be welded are put together under the
tip of hammer H.
• The hammer is made to vibrate ultrasonically. As a result, it
presses the two metal sheets very rapidly and the molecules
of one metal diffuse into the molecules of the other.
• Thus, the two sheets get welded without heating. This
process is known as cold welding.
35
• Soldering
• Metals like aluminium cannot be directly soldered. However, it is possible to solder
such metals by ultrasonic waves.
• An ultrasonic soldering iron consists of an ultrasonic generator having a tip fixed at its
end which can be heated by an electrical heating element.
• The tip of the soldering iron melts solder on the aluminum and the ultrasonic vibrator
removes the aluminum oxide layer.
• The solder thus gets fastened to clear metal without any difficulty.

36
• Cleaning –
It is the most cheap technique employed for cleaning various parts of the machine,
electronic assembles, armatures, watches etc., which cannot be easily cleaned by other
methods.
• Ultrasonic cutting and machining
• Detection of flaws in metals (Non Destructive Testing –NDT)
• Ultrasonic waves are used to detect the presence of flaws or defects in the form of cracks,
blowholes porosity etc., in the internal structure of a material
• By sending out ultrasonic beam and by measuring the time interval of the reflected beam,
flaws in the metal block can be determined.

37
• SONAR
• SONAR is a technique which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging.
• It uses ultrasonics for the detection and identification of under water objects.
• The method consists of sending a powerful beam of ultrasonics in the suspected
direction in water.
• By noting the time interval between the emission and receipt of beam after reflection,
the distance of the object can be easily calculated.
• The change in frequency of the echo signal due to the Doppler effect helps to
determine the velocity of the body and its direction.
• Measuring the time interval (t) between the transmitted pulses and the received
pulse, the distance 𝑑 = v𝑡/2 between the transmitter and the remote object is
determined using the formula., where v is the velocity of sound in sea water.
• The same principle is used to find the depth of the sea.

38
• Medical Applications:
• Diagnosis
• Medical sonography (ultrasonography) is an ultrasound-based diagnostic medical imaging
technique used to visualize muscles, tendons, and many internal organs, their size, structure
and any pathological lesions.
• They are also used to visualize the foetus during routine and emergency prenatal care.
Ultrasound scans are performed by medical health care professionals called sonographers.
Obstetric sonography is commonly used during pregnancy.
Obstetric ultrasound is primarily used to:

• Date the pregnancy
• Check the location or position of the placenta
• Check for the number of fetuses
• Check for physical health or abnormities
• Check the sex of the baby
• Check for fetal movement, breathing, and heartbeat.

39
• Surgery - Ultrasonic surgical instruments convert an ultrasonic signal into a mechanical

vibration by use of a transducer. A waveguide is then used to amplify and propagate
the vibration to a desired position. These cut bone and other tissue. They reduce
bleeding by coagulating tissue. It gives rise to the concept of knifeless surgery.
• Non invasive therapeutic applications – By using ultrasonic energy to heat and
destroy diseased tissues, these methods can be used to remove body tissue while
treating the cancers and other conditions. Ultrasound imaging technique can locate
and target liver, kidney or gallbladder stones. These are smashed into pieces by
ultrasound pulses.
• Dental Care – High frequency ultrasonic waves can be used as descalers to remove
plaque (A film of mucus and bacteria deposited on the teeth that encourages the
development of dental caries or cavities).
• Hygiene safety – Ultrasonic cleaning uses a special wash solution to reach and
effectively remove organic waste from difficult-to-clean areas, such as equipment or
devices with joints and crevices.
40
Ultrasonic guidance for the blind

• walking stick containing an ultrasonic transmitter and receiver.
• ultrasonic signals reflected from any obstacles are fed to the head phones through a
suitable electronic circuit which enables the blind person to detect and estimate the
distance of the obstacle.
Ultrasound in research
• to break up high molecular weight polymers, thus creating new plastic materials.
• to determine the molecular weight of liquid polymers, and to conduct other forms of
investigation on the physical properties of materials.
• to speed up certain chemical reactions. Hence it has gained application in agriculture,
that seeds subjected to ultrasound may germinate more rapidly and produce higher
yields.

41
References
Text Books:
❑ENGINEERING PHYSICS, Hitendra K Malik and A K Singh, Mcgraw Hill
Education, 1st Edition, (2009).
❑ENGINEERING PHYSICS, B K Pandey and S Chaturvedi, Cengage Learning, 1st
Edition, (2009).
❑ENGINEERING PHYSICS, D K Bhattacharya and Poonam Tondon, Oxford
University Press.

Phy109: Engineering Physics Unit V: Waves

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Phy109: Engineering Physics Unit V: Waves

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Phy109: Engineering Physics Unit V: Waves

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHY109: ENGINEERING PHYSICS

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

• Introduction to Ultrasonics waves

• Properties of Ultrasonic waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

➢ Wave can be mainly of three types

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

Characteristics parameters of a wave:

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

• Velocity (phase velocity): of a wave is the velocity of its wave fronts:

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

Superposition of sound waves

Path difference =nλ

Path difference =(n+1/2)λ

(n = any integer, m = odd integer)

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

Frequency of amplitude envelope Frequency of resultant note

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

• Generally these waves are called as high frequency waves.

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

• If an arrangement is made to form stationary waves of ultrasonics in a liquid, it serves

• They produce intense heating effect when passed through a substance.

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

(1) Magneto-striction generator or oscillator

(2) Piezo-electric generator or oscillator

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

The change in length of rod depends on:

• The alternating magnetic field is generated by

• The coil L1 wound on the right hand portion of

• The coil L2 wound on the left hand portion of

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

• The converse of piezoelectric effect is also true.

• Working principle of piezoelectric gernerator: is based on

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

• The quartz crystal is placed between two metal plates A

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

The cost of piezoelectric quartz is very high

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

The ultrasonic transducers can be magnetostrictive, piezoelectric or capacitive

The magnetostrictive transducers can be used to produce high intensity ultrasonic

2. Sensitive flame method: the intensity of flame is sensitive to the pressure

Sensitive flame method

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

• Dispersion is referred to as change in the velocity of ultrasonic waves with frequency.

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves

April 9, 2021 PHY109 (ENGINEERING PHYSICS) Waves