nucleus from the valence electrons).

The higher an atom or substituent's

electronegativity, the more it attracts
electrons towards itself. As it is usually
calculated, electronegativity is not a
property of an atom alone but rather of
an atom within a molecule; it therefore
varies with an element's chemical
environment, though it is generally
considered a transferable property.

electrophile
Any atom or molecule which can accept
an electron pair. Most electrophiles
carry a net positive charge, include an
atom carrying a partial positive charge,
or include a neutral atom that does not
have a complete octet of electrons, and
therefore they attract electron-rich
regions of other species; an electrophile
with vacant orbitals can accept an
electron pair donated by a nucleophile,
creating a chemical bond between the
two species. Because they accept
electrons, electrophiles are Lewis acids
by definition.

electrosynthesis

element
A species of atoms having the same
number of protons in their atomic nuclei
and hence the same atomic number.
Chemical elements constitute all of the
ordinary matter in the universe; 118
elements have been identified and are
organized by their various chemical
properties in the periodic table of the
elements.

elementary reaction
Any chemical reaction in which one or
more chemical species react directly to
form products in a single reaction step
and with a single transition state, i.e.
without any intermediates. Contrast
stepwise reaction.

enantiomer

enantiomorph

endothermic process

energy
A system's ability to do work.

enplethy
See amount of substance.

enthalpy
A measure of the total internal energy of
a thermodynamic system, usually
symbolized by H.
enthalpy of fusion

entropy
The amount of energy not available for
work in a closed thermodynamic
system, usually symbolized by S.

environmental chemistry

enzyme
A biological protein catalyst that speeds
up a chemical reaction.

empirical formula
Gives the simplest whole-number ratio
of the atoms of each element present in
a compound.
equilibrium
Universally, it is the condition of a
system in which all competing
influences are balanced. Chemical
equilibrium is the state in which the
concentrations of the reactants and
products have stopped changing in time.

Eppendorf tube
A generalized and trademarked name
used to refer to a microcentrifuge tube.

Erlenmeyer flask
A 500-milliliter Erlenmeyer flask

ester

ether

exothermic process

extensive property
A physical quantity whose value is
proportional to the size of the system it
 describes or to the quantity of matter in
the system. Examples include mass,
volume, enthalpy, and entropy. Contrast
intensive property.

extraction

extrinsic property

F
f-block

freezing
The phase transition of a substance
from a liquid to a solid.

Faraday constant
A unit of electric charge widely used in
electrochemistry which represents
1 mole of electrons: 6.022 × 1023
electrons. It is equal to
approximately 96,500 coulombs (F =
96 485.339 9(24) C/mol).

Faraday's laws of electrolysis

A set of two laws pertaining to
electrolysis which hold that: a) the mass
of a substance altered at an electrode
during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity
transferred at that electrode; and b) the
mass of an elemental material altered at
an electrode is directly proportional to
the element's equivalent weight.

Fick's laws of diffusion

filtration
Any physical, biological, or chemical
operation that separates large particles
(often solid matter) from smaller
particles (often a fluid) by passing the
mixture through a complex lattice
structure through which only particles of
a sufficiently small size can pass, called
a filter. The fluid and small particles
which successfully pass through the
filter are called the filtrate.
first-order reaction

flask
A vessel or container, most commonly a
type of glassware, widely used in
laboratories for a variety of purposes,
such as preparing, holding, containing,
collecting, or volumetrically measuring
chemicals, samples, or solutions, or as a
chamber in which a chemical reaction
occurs. Flasks come in a number of
shapes and sizes but are typically
characterized by a wider vessel "body"
and one or more narrower tubular
sections with an opening at the top.
formal charge (FC)
The electric charge assigned to an atom
in a molecule, assuming that all
electrons in all bonds are shared equally
between atoms, regardless of each
atom's relative electronegativity. The
formal charge of any atom that is part
of a molecule can be calculated by the

equation , where

is the number of valence electrons of

the neutral atom in its ground state;
is the number of valence electrons of
the atom which are not participating in
bonds in the molecule; and is the
number of electrons shared in bonds
with other atoms in the molecule.

fractional distillation

free radical
See radical.

freezing-point depression

freezing point

The temperature at which a substance

changes state from a liquid to a solid.
Because freezing is the reverse of
melting, the freezing point of a
substance is identical to its melting
point, but by convention only the melting
 point is referred to as a characteristic
property of a substance.

frequency
A measurement of the number of cycles
of a given process per unit of time. The
SI unit for measuring frequency is the
hertz (Hz), with 1 Hz = 1 cycle per
second.

functional group

G
galvanic cell
A type of battery made up of
electrochemicals with two different
metals connected by a salt bridge.

gas
One of the four fundamental states of
matter, characterized by high-energy
particles which fill their container but
have no definite shape or volume.

gas chromatography
A type of chromatography commonly
used in analytical chemistry to isolate
and analyze chemical compounds that
can be vaporized without
decomposition. Gas chromatography is
often used to test the purity of
substances, to identify unknown
substances, and to measure the relative
amounts of the different components of
mixtures.

Gay-Lussac's law
A chemical law used for each of the two
relationships derived by French chemist
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and which
concern the properties of gases, though
the name is more usually applied to his
law of combining volumes.

geochemistry
The study of the chemistry and chemical
composition of the Earth and geological
processes.
Gibbs energy
A value that indicates the spontaneity of
a reaction. Usually symbolized as G.

glass

gram-atom
One gram-atom of an element is defined
as a collection of 6.023X10^23 atoms.

Grignard reaction

ground glass joint

An apparatus designed to quickly and
easily fit two pieces of leak-tight
glassware together, featuring ground
glass surfaces and typically a custom-
made conical taper.

group

A vertical column of the periodic table of

the elements and the elements that
share it. Contrast period.

H
halogen
Any of the five non-metallic elements of
Group 17 of the periodic table: fluorine
(F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I),
and astatine (At).
hadron
A subatomic particle of a type including
the baryons and mesons that can take
part in the strong interaction.

heat
Energy transferred from one system to
another by thermal interaction.

heat of fusion
See enthalpy of fusion.

Henry's law

Hess' law of constant heat summation

A law of physical chemistry which states

that the total enthalpy change during the
course of a chemical reaction is the
same whether the reaction is completed
in one step or in multiple steps.

Hund's rules

hydrate
Any substance that contains water or its
constituent elements, or any compound
formed by the addition of water or its
elements to another molecule.

hydration reaction

hydrogen

hydrogen bond
A form of electrostatic interaction
between an electronegative atom and a
hydrogen atom bound to a second
electronegative atom. Hydrogen bonding
is unique because the small size of the
hydrogen atoms permits proximity of the
interacting electrical charges, and may
occur as an intermolecular or
intramolecular force.

hydrogenation

hydrolysis
The cleavage of a chemical bond by the
addition of water.

hygroscopy
I
ideal gas

ideal gas constant

The proportionality constant in the ideal

gas law, defined as 0.08206
L·atm/(K·mol).

ideal gas law

A chemical law which states that the
volume of a gas is proportional to the
amount of gas and its Kelvin
temperature and inversely proportional
to its pressure.
ideal solution
A solution for which the gas phase
exhibits thermodynamic properties
analogous to those of a mixture of ideal
gases.

independent variable

indicator
A special compound added to a solution
that changes color depending on the
acidity of the solution. Different
indicators have different colors and are
effective within different pH ranges.

induced radioactivity
radioactivity caused by bombarding a
stable isotope with elemental particles,
forming a radioactive isotope

inert

inorganic compound
Any chemical compound that does not
contain carbon, though there are
exceptions. Contrast organic compound.

inorganic chemistry
The branch of chemistry concerning the
chemical properties and reactions of
inorganic compounds. Contrast organic
chemistry.
insulator
Any material that resists the flow of an
electric current. Contrast conductor.

intensive property
A physical quantity whose value does
not depend on the size of the system or
the quantity of matter for which it is
measured. Examples include density,
temperature, and pressure. Contrast
extensive property.

intermolecular force

International System of Units (SI)

International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC)
An international federation of chemists
that is recognized as the world authority
in developing standards for chemical
nomenclature and other methodologies
in chemistry.

intramolecular force

intrinsic property

ion
A molecule that has gained or lost one
or more electrons from its neutral state
and therefore possesses a negative or
positive electric charge.
ionic bond
An electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions.

An ionic bond between a sodium atom (Na) and a

fluorine atom (F). The sodium atom loses its sole
valence electron (leaving the atom with a positive
electrical charge), and the fluorine atom gains this
same electron via an exothermic process (giving
the atom a negative electrical charge). The
oppositely charged ions are then attracted to each
other to form a new compound called sodium
fluoride.

ionization
The breaking up of a chemical
compound into separate ions.

isoelectronicity
The phenomenon of two or more
chemical species (atoms, molecules,
ions, etc.) being composed of different
elements but having the same number of
valence electrons and the same
structural arrangement (i.e. the same
number of atoms with the same
connectivity). Isoelectronic species
typically show useful consistency and
predictability in their chemical
properties.
isomerization

isomers
Ions or molecules with identical
chemical formulas but distinct
structures or spatial arrangements.
Isomers do not necessarily share similar
properties. The two main types of
isomers are structural isomers and
stereoisomers.

isotope
A variant of a particular chemical
element which differs in the number of
neutrons present in the nucleus. All
 isotopes of a given element have the
same number of protons in each atom.

J
joule (J)
The SI unit of energy (symbol: J). One
joule is defined as one Newton-meter.

K
kelvin (K)
The SI base unit of temperature (symbol:
K). The Kelvin scale is an absolute
thermodynamic temperature scale that
uses absolute zero as its null point.
ketone
An organic compound with a carbonyl
group between two carbon atoms.

The skeletal formula for a generic ketone, with R

and R' denoting variable carbon-containing
substituent groups

kinetics
A subfield of chemistry specializing in
reaction rates.
 kinetic energy
The energy of an object due to its
motion.

L
lability

lanthanides

The periodic series of metallic elements

with atomic numbers 57 through 71,
from lanthanum through lutetium.

lattice
The unique arrangement of atoms or
molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid.
lattice energy

law of conservation of energy

law of conservation of mass

law of multiple proportions

laws of thermodynamics

leveling effect
The effect of a solvent on the chemical
properties of acids or bases which are
dissolved in the solvent. The strength of
a strong acid is limited or "leveled" by
the basicity of the solvent, and likewise
the strength of a strong base is limited
by the acidity of the solvent, such that
the effective pH of the solution is higher
or lower than might be suggested by the
acid's or base's dissociation constant.

Lewis acid

Lewis base

Lewis structure

ligand
An ion, functional group, or other
molecule that binds to a central metal
atom to form a coordination complex.
Such bonding can range from covalent
to ionic, but generally involves formal
donation of one or more of the ligand's
electron pairs to the metal.

light

The portion of the electromagnetic

spectrum which is visible to the unaided
human eye.

liquefaction

liquid
One of the four fundamental states of
matter, characterized by nearly
incompressible fluid particles that retain
a definite volume but no fixed shape.

locant
London dispersion forces
A type of weak intermolecular force.

M
magnetic quantum number

malleability
See ductility.

manometer
An instrument used to measure pressure
invented by Evangelista Torricelli in
1643.

mass
A property of physical matter that is a
measure of its resistance to
acceleration when a net force is applied.
The SI base unit for mass is the
kilogram (kg).

mass concentration

mass fraction

mass number (A)

The total number of protons and

neutrons (together known as nucleons)
within the nucleus of an atom. It
determines the atomic mass of the
atom. Mass number varies between
different isotopes of the same chemical
element, and is often included either
after the element's name (as in carbon-
12) or as a superscript to the left of the
element's symbol (as in 12C) to identify a
specific isotope.

mass spectrometry (MS)

An analytical technique that measures
the mass-to-charge ratio of ions in a
chemical sample by bombarding the
sample with electrons to the point of
ionization and then separating the
charged fragments by subjecting them
to an electric or magnetic field, typically
in order to determine the elemental or
isotopic signatures of an unknown
substance, the masses of its constituent
particles, and/or the identities or
structures of the molecules within it. The
results are presented as a mass
spectrum, a plot of the intensity of ion
signals as a function of the mass-to-
charge ratio.

matter
Any substance that has mass and takes
up space by having volume.

metal
Any chemical element which is a good
conductor of both electricity and heat
and which readily forms cations and
ionic bonds with non-metals.

melting
The phase transition of a substance
from a solid to a liquid.

melting point

The temperature at which a substance

changes state from a solid to a liquid. It
depends on pressure and is usually
specified for a given substance under
standard conditions. The melting point
of a substance is identical to its freezing
point.
metalloid
A chemical element or substance
possessing properties of both metals
and non-metals.

methylene blue
A heterocyclic aromatic compound with
the molecular formula C16H18N3SCl.

microcentrifuge tube
A small plastic, sealable container that
is used to store small volumes of liquid,
generally less than 2 milliliters.
A 1.7-milliliter microcentrifuge tube or Eppendorf
tube containing Coomassie Blue solution

mineral

miscibility

mixture
A material made up of two or more
different substances which are mixed
physically but are not combined
chemically (i.e. a chemical reaction has
not taken place which has changed the
molecules of the substances into new
substances).

moiety
Any named characteristic group, branch,
or other part of a large molecule that
may be identified within other kinds of
molecules as well. Functional groups
are typically smaller and more generic
than moieties, whereas substituents and
side chains may often be classified as
moieties and vice versa.

molality
A measure of the concentration of a
solute in a solution in terms of the
amount of the solute per unit mass of
the solvent. Molality is typically
expressed in units of moles per kilogram
(mol/kg); a solution with a concentration
of exactly 1 mol/kg is sometimes said
to be 1 molal. Contrast molarity.

molar attenuation coefficient

molar concentration

A measure of the concentration of a

chemical species, especially of a solute
in a solution, in terms of the amount of
the species per unit volume of solution.
Molarity is typically expressed in units of
moles per litre (mol/L); a solution with a
concentration of exactly 1 mol/L is
commonly said to be 1 molar,
symbolized as 1 M. Contrast molality.

molar fraction

molar mass

mole (mol)
A unit (symbol: mol) that measures the
amount of a substance in terms of the
absolute number of particles or entities
composing the substance. A single mole
contains approximately 6.022×1023
particles or entities.

molecular formula

molecular orbital (MO)

Any region in which one or more
electrons may be found in a molecule
(as opposed to that within an individual
atom).

molecular orbital diagram

molecule
A number of atoms that are chemically
bonded together and collectively
electrically neutral.
monatomic
Having only one atom, as opposed to a
molecule composed of more than one.
Virtually all elements are monatomic in
the gas phase at sufficiently high
temperatures. Contrast diatomic and
polyatomic.

N
natural abundance

neat
Conditions with a liquid reagent or gas
performed with no added solvent or
cosolvent.
neutron
A type of subatomic particle that is
electrically neutral, having no net charge.

nitrogen

nucleon
Either a proton or a neutron, considered
in its role as a component of an atomic
nucleus.

nucleophile
Any atom or molecule which can donate
an electron pair to another atom or
molecule. All molecules or ions with a
free pair of electrons or at least one pi
bond can act as nucleophiles, by which
they are attracted to electron-deficient
regions of other species; a chemical
reaction involving a nucleophile donating
an electron pair to an electrophile may
be referred to as nucleophilic attack.
Because they donate electrons,
nucleophiles are Lewis bases by
definition.

nucleus
The centre of an atom, made up of
neutrons and protons and possessing a
net positive electric charge.

noble gas
Any of the six non-metallic elements of
Group 18 of the periodic table: helium
(He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn). All of the
noble gases have outer electron shells
that are completely filled in their
naturally occurring states, giving them
very low chemical reactivity.

non-metal
Any chemical element which is not a
metal.

normality

nuclear
Of or pertaining to the atomic nucleus.
nuclear chemistry
The branch of chemistry that studies the
various processes and properties
relevant to atomic nuclei, including
radioactivity.

nuclear magnetic resonance

spectroscopy
A technique that exploits the magnetic
properties of certain nuclei, useful for
identifying unknown compounds.
Nuclear magnetic resonance is often
abbreviated NMR.

nuclear transmutation

nuclide
 A species of atom characterized by its
mass number, atomic number, and
nuclear energy state, provided that the
mean life in that state is long enough to
be observable.

number density
A measure of the concentration of
countable objects (atoms, molecules,
etc.) in space, expressed as the number
per unit volume.

O
octet rule
A classical rule for describing the
electron configuration of atoms in
certain molecules: the maximum number
of electron pairs that can be
accommodated in the valence shell of
an element in the first row of the
periodic table is four (or eight total
electrons). For elements in the second
and subsequent rows, there are many
exceptions to this rule.

olefin
A trivial (non-IUPAC) name for any
alkene.

optical activity
orbital
Any region of an atom or molecule in
which one or more electrons can be
found. The term may refer to either an
atomic orbital or a molecular orbital.

orbital hybridisation

order of reaction

organic acid
Any organic compound with acidic
properties. Contrast organic base.

organic base
Any organic compound with basic
properties. Contrast organic acid.
organic compound
Any chemical compound that contains
one or more carbon atoms. Contrast
inorganic compound.

organic chemistry
The branch of chemistry concerned with
the chemical properties and reactions of
organic compounds. Contrast inorganic
chemistry.

organic redox reaction

osmotic pressure

other metal
Any of the metallic elements in the p-
block, which are characterized by having
a combination of relatively low melting
points (all less than 950 K) and relatively
high electronegativity values (all more
than 1.6, revised Pauling).

oxidation

oxidation state

1.  The degree of oxidation of an

individual atom in a chemical compound,
measured as the decrease in the number
of electrons relative to the atom's
naturally occurring elemental state.
2.  The hypothetical electric charge
(positive, negative, or zero) that an atom
would have if all bonds to atoms of
different elements were 100% ionic, with
no covalent component.

oxidizing agent

oxoacid

1.  Any acid having oxygen in the acidic

group.
2.  Any compound which contains
oxygen, at least one other element, and
at least one hydrogen atom bound to
oxygen, and which produces a conjugate
 base by the loss of positive hydrogen
ions.

oxygen

P
p-block

paraffin
1.  A trivial (non-IUPAC) name for any
alkane.
2.  Another name for kerosene.

partial pressure

pascal (Pa)

passivation
pH
A logarithmic scale used to specify the
acidity or basicity of an aqueous
solution. The pH scale approximates the
negative of the base-10 logarithm of the
molar concentration of hydrogen ions in
a solution. At room temperature, pure
water is neutral (pH = 7); solutions with
a pH less than 7 are acidic and those
with a pH greater than 7 are basic.

phase
A region of space throughout which all
physical properties of a substance are
essentially uniform, or a region of
material that is chemically uniform,
physically distinct, and often
mechanically separable. The term phase
may have several different uses in
chemistry contexts; colloquially, it is
often used interchangeably with state of
matter, but many distinct phases may
exist within a single state of matter.

phase transition
1.  A transformation of a chemical
substance between solid, liquid, and
gaseous states of matter and, in rare
cases, plasma.