New TE Lecture Notes-2

English For Special Purposes AUT – Chemical Engineering Dep.
‫ﺻ ْﺪ ِري‬
َ ‫ب ا ْﺷَﺮ ْح ِﱄ‬ ‫ َر ﱢ‬My Lord, relieve my mind.
‫ َوﻳَ ﱢﺴ ْﺮ ِﱄ أ َْﻣ ِﺮي‬And ease my task for me.
‫اﺣﻠُ ْﻞ ﻋُ ْﻘ َﺪ ًة ﱢﻣﻦ ﻟﱢ َﺴ ِﺎﱐ‬
ْ ‫ َو‬And loose a knot from my tongue.
‫ ﻳَـ ْﻔ َﻘ ُﻬﻮا ﻗَـ ْﻮِﱄ‬So they can understand my speech.
English For Special Purposes AUT – Chemical Engineering Dep. 1
Sentence Combining
Why learn about sentence combining? For starters, it’s a great way to make your writing
more varied and interesting. It’s easy, when you’re writing, to fall back on short, choppy 1,
declarative sentences. That’s fine sometimes, but when it’s the only kind of sentence you know
how to use, your writing definitely isn’t as engaging as it could be.
What makes up good writing? A variety of different kinds of sentences -- short, medium,
and long ones -- definitely helps. It’s important to remember that variety is key; we’ll be working
on a particular kind of sentence combining in this lesson, but that doesn’t mean you can’t continue
to use simple sentences, or sentences combined in other ways.
During this activity:
• You will learn how to combine sentences using subordinate and

independent clauses.
• You will use the information you gather and your knowledge of sentence
combining to write a paragraph.
• You will use the steps of the writing process.
1. After a short lesson on combining sentences, we’ll look at a sample paragraph, and
you’ll practice making new sentences by combining the paragraph’s short, choppy
ones. You’ll use the connecting words we learn about to combine sentences. Don’t
worry: there isn’t one right way to do this! But you should try not to use any of the
connecting words more than once.
2. As a class, we’ll discuss some of your rewritten paragraphs. Then you’ll begin
working on your own writing.
3. Before you begin, take a couple of minutes to quietly brainstorm a list of things you
love to do -- for example, play soccer, skateboard, horseback ride, knit, etc. After
you have listed several activities, circle the one you would most like to research and
write about.
A series of short, simple sentences without variation in word order or sentence length can
result in a choppy read (as in the last few sentences of this paragraph). Readers quickly tire of
short sentences. They break up the reading with periods. They separate ideas. They sound choppy.
Example:
The sun rose. Its rays dispersed. The city
awoke to startling light. No one persisted in sleep.
Day had begun. The people rose.
Improved Ex:
The sun rose. Its rays dispersed so the city
awoke to startling light. No one persisted in
sleep because the day had begun. The people
rose.
1
Choppy is a group of sentences that may be grammatically correct but that seem to have no relationship to each other. Each
sentence does not relate closely to the previous sentence, and the effect is that of a paragraph that seems to stop and start
with each sentence. Choppy sentences can be combined to vary the sentence pattern. Also, transitions can help to make
choppy sentences flow more smoothly in the paragraph.
To make your writing more interesting, you should try to vary your sentences in terms of
length and structure. You can make some of your sentences long and others short.
Read the paragraphs below. Choose the paragraph that is more effective:
Many products are made from

petrochemicals. We are all familiar with them.
They include several different kinds of
synthetic plastics. These synthetic plastics
seem to be everywhere today. They are in our
homes, our cars, and our clothes. Nylon and
Dacron are Synthetic fabrics. They are made
from petrochemicals. Many products made
from petrochemicals. They are substitutes for
such natural substances as cotton, wood,
rubber, and so on.
Many products which we are all familiar

with are made from petrochemicals. They
include several different kinds of synthetic
plastics which seem to be everywhere today, in
our homes, our cars, and our clothes. Synthetic
fabrics such as Nylon and Dacron are made
from petrochemicals. Many of the products
made from petrochemicals are substitutes for
such natural substances as cotton, wood,
rubber, and so on.
Also read the paragraphs below. Choose the paragraph that is more effective:
I live in San Francisco. I love living in the

city. I have a wonderful view of the entire city. I
have an apartment. I can see the Golden Gate
Bridge. I can see many cargo ships pass under
the bridge each day. I like the restaurants in
San Francisco. I can find wonderful food from
just about every country. I don’t like the traffic
in the city.
I love living in the city of San Francisco. I

have a wonderful view of the entire city from
my apartment window. In addition, I can see
the Golden Gate Bridge under which many
cargo ships pass each day. I also like San
Francisco because I can find wonderful
restaurants with food from just about every
country; however, I don’t like the traffic in the
city.
To have more interesting writing, one may have to combine short sentences to average
words per sentence of 14 to 22, or at least 11 to 13, preferred number for collage students. First
of all, it must be mentioned that written English consists of clauses. A clause is a group of words
with a subject and a verb (and perhaps a complement: that is, a group of words that follow the
verb).
In written English there are three kinds of clauses:
• Independent Clauses (IC)

• Dependent Clauses (DC)
• Relative Clauses (RC)
Independent Clauses
An independent clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb (and perhaps a
complement) that can stand by itself. It is complete. It is a strong clause.
Dependent Clauses
In written English, a dependent clause (DC) is a group of words with a subject and a verb
that can not stand by itself. It is a weak clause. In other words, a DC is not a complete sentence.
EXERCISE
Prepare a short report about relative clauses.
Clauses make sentences. We can categorize sentences into four main types, depending on
the number and type of clauses they contain:
1. Simple (one independent clause):

We drove from Tehran to Shiraz in one day.
2. Compound (more than one independent clause):
We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's birthday
party.
3. Complex (one independent clause and at least one dependent clause):
Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be 65.
4. Compound-complex (more than one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause):
After it was all over, my dad claimed he knew we were planning
something, but we think he was really surprised.
REMEMBER THIS:
To have a strong sentence, presence of at

least one independent clause is needed. In other
words, any combination without independent
clause is weak, and can not stand by itself.
Sentences are combined not only to meet 11 to 13 words per sentence ratio, but also to be
read smoothly. There are two ways to combine (join) independent clauses (IC) in written
English. The first way is to join the clauses with a comma and a short word:
• IC, and IC
• IC, but IC
• IC, so IC
These “short words" (called coordinate conjunctions 2) are signs to your reader; they signal
the relationship between the independent clauses:
• If the second IC gives the reader additional information, use a comma plus
and.
• If the second IC gives the reader contrasting information, use a comma plus
but.
• If the first IC is a cause, and the second IC gives the reader an effect, use a
comma plus so.
Another way to combine ICs is to use a semi-colon. If the ideas in two ICs are related,
they may joined by a semi-colon.
• IC ; IC
If you use a semi-colon to join two ICs, you may also use a “long word”:
• IC; moreover, IC
• IC; furthermore, IC
• IC; however, IC
• IC; therefore, IC
• IC; consequently, IC
The use of these “long words” (called conjunctive adverbs) is optional; use them if you
think they make the sentences clearer. Notice that the log words come after the semi-colon, and
they are followed by a comma. These long words signal the relationship between the ICs.
• If the second IC gives additional information to the reader, you may use
moreover or furthermore
• If the second IC gives contrasting information to the reader, you may use
however.
• If the first IC is a cause, and the second IC gives information about the effect
to the reader, you may therefore or consequently.
Certain words in English can change an IC to DC. These words are called subordinating
words because they make a strong clause weak. Some examples are:
when until
while although
before even though
after because
if since
2
Other coordinate conjunctions used less frequently in English are or, nor, for, and yet.
A dependent clause must be combined with an independent clause in order to make

complete sentence. Notice that a DC can be either the first or the second clause:
• DC , IC
• IC DC
REMEMBER THIS:
If the DC is the first clause, separate the

clauses with a comma; if the DC is the second
clause, no punctuation between the clauses is
needed.
When you combine a DC and an IC, the subordinating words identify a relationship
between the DC and the IC:
• If the DC gives additional information to the reader, use time words like when, while,
before, or until. Or, if you are qualifying the information, use if.
• If the DC gives contrasting information to the reader, use although or even though.
• If the DC gives a cause, and the IC gives an effect to the reader, use because or since.
Another way to make a dependent clause and to combine sentence is to use relative
pronounce:
• Who (for people)
• That (for people and things)
• Which (for things)
He drove the car. The car crashed into the bridge.

He drove the car that crashed into the bridge.
Pele was great soccer player. He scored hundreds of goals.
Pele was great soccer who scored hundreds of goals.
Notice that:
1. The clauses formed by using who, that, and which are dependent clauses (that is, they
are not complete sentences)
2. The relative pronoun replaces a noun as the subject of the clause:
S V
(that) crashed into the bridge
S V
(who) scored hundreds of goals
REMEMBER THIS:
There are many ways to combine
sentences in written English. You have
practiced some of the techniques in this
section. Other techniques involve eliminating
repeated words as you join sentences, that
is, shortening sentences as you combine
them by removing repeated words.
Of course, not all sentences need to be

combined. Some sentences in a paragraph
will be short; they emphasize the point are
making. Other sentences will vary will in
length. The result is a paragraph that is
clear and interesting for your reader.
REMEMBER THIS:
Wordy sentences are those that use
more words than they need in order to
get their point across. Some wordy
sentences use nouns made from verbs
(nominalizations): He made a declaration
instead of He declared. Others use
excess clauses or phrases: The book
that was blue instead of The blue book.
Still other wordy sentences may use
certain phrases: Due to the fact that
instead of Since or Because.
EXERCISE
The paragraph below is short and choppy. Rewrite it using sentence combining
techniques so it read better.
Aluminum is a metal. It is abundant. It has many

uses. It comes from bauxite. Bauxite is an ore. Bauxite
looks like clay. Bauxite contains aluminum. It contains
several other substances. Workers extract these other
substances from the bauxite. They grind the bauxite.
They put it in tanks. Pressure is in the tanks. The other
substances form a mass. They remove the mass. They
use filters. A liquid remains. They put it through several
processes. It finally yields a chemical. The chemical is
powdery. It is white. The chemical is alumina. It is a
mixture. It contains aluminum. It contains oxygen.
Workers separate the aluminum from the oxygen. They
use electricity. They finally produce a metal. The metal
is light. It has a luster. The luster is bright. The luster is
silver.
THE PARAGRAPH
In written form, English is divided into paragraphs to distinguish one main idea from other
main ideas. The paragraph is the basic unit of composition.
REMEMBER THIS :
1. A paragraph is a group of sentences which

develop one central idea.
2. The central idea is usually stated in a topic
sentence.
3. Every sentence in the paragraph must help the
development of the topic sentence.
INDENTATION
The first sentence of a paragraph is always indented so that the reader will know that a new
subject, or a different aspect of the same subject, is being dealt with. The writer does this by
leaving a blank space at the beginning of the paragraph. The student should think of indentation
as simply another kind of punctuation. Just as a sentence ends with a period (.), so each new
paragraph begins with an indentation.
LENGTH
A paragraph may vary in length. Some paragraphs are quite short; others are extremely
long. Most paragraphs have more than three sentences in them and usually have between one
hundred and two hundred words.
NOW ASK YOURSELF
1. What is a paragraph?
2. What is the proper “punctuation” for a paragraph? Where is it located in
the paragraph?
3. How long should a paragraph be?
TOPIC VS. TOPIC SENTENCE
The first sentence of a paragraph is usually called the topic sentence. You have no doubt
noticed in your reading of certain English texts that it is possible to place the topic sentence at the
end of the paragraph (as a kind of conclusion), or even in the middle (as a kind of link between the
two parts). It is even possible not to have a topic sentence at all; in this case, we say that the topic
sentence is implied or suggested. You should be aware of these possibilities when you read;
otherwise, you might miss the point which the author is trying to make. When you write, however,
remember that a topic sentence placed at the beginning of a paragraph is the clearest kind of
paragraph organization, simple, effective, easy for you to manage, and easy for your reader to
understand.
What makes a good topic sentence? The most important thing to remember at this point is
the following: in a topic sentence, always try to make a statement about your topic which limits it
to a certain extent:
Topic Sentence = TOPIC + LIMITING STATEMENT

Take, for example, the general topic of cracking. There are too many things to say about
cracking to put into a single paragraph. Therefore, your problem as a writer consists in deciding
how you want to write about cracking. In other words, you need to limit your discussion.
One good way to limit your topic is to place key words or phrases in the topic sentence. These
words or phrases will let the reader know how you are going to discuss the topic. These words or
phrases are sometimes called “controlling words or phrases,” since they control the organization
of the paragraph. In a paragraph on cracking, for example, they will immediately indicate to the
reader that you plan to do one of several things:
Discuss the history of cracking

Compare it with other processes
Describe its importance
Explain the methods of cracking
REMEMBER THIS :
The topic sentence is not simply a statement

of fact. A fact does not contain any controlling
ideas, and so it cannot be easily explained,
described, and/or illustrated. Furthermore, a
simple statement of fact does not allow the
audience to know what the paragraph will be about.
The following are examples of statements of fact:
1. Christmas is celebrated on December 25.

2. Air consists of two important gases and traces of others.
3. Water boils at 100 oC.
A topic sentence can be either:
• A statement of opinion
• A statement of intent
A statement of opinion makes a judgment. Words like interesting, bad, exciting, best,
terrifying, difficult, etc., give the writer’s subjective opinion (that is, a personal feeling or belief of
the writer), and the paragraph that follows will support the opinion in the topic sentence. The
following are examples of statements of opinion:
1. Computers make some jobs easier.

2. The most exciting pastime I have is climbing mountains.
3. I am a happy person because I have a good education and have a good job.
A statement of intent is an objective sentence that tells the reader what will be objectively
explained in the paragraph that follows. The following are examples of statements of intent:
1. The pesticide DBCP has several side effects.

2. There are three steps in processing fruit.
3. Before 1923, Venezuela was primarily an agricultural country, today, how ever;
the Venezuelan economy is dependent on oil.
REMEMBER THIS:
Sometimes a topic sentence can be both a

statement of opinion and a statement of intent.
How do you limit a topic in a topic sentence? There are many ways, but below you will find a
list of the most common. Once you understand these examples, you will find it much easier to
write a carefully controlled topic sentence:
Topic Statement Which Limits the Topic

1.Footsall is now played in Iran.
(geographical location)
2. Footstall has become more popular within the last ten years.
(time or period of time)
3. Footstall is a physically demanding sport.
(a certain aspect)
4. Footstall and football have a great deal in common.
(showing similarities)
5. Footstall is more dangerous than tennis.
(showing differences)
6. A footstall player can receive various kinds of penalties during a game.
(a number of things; a list)
7. The World Cup footstall
championship games create interest from footstall fans all over the world.
(effect)
8. footstall
is dangerous for several reasons.
(cause; reason)
NOW ASK YOURSELF
1. Where does a topic sentence usually come in a paragraph?

2. Where else can it come?
3. What should a writer always try to do to his topic in a topic sentence?
4. What are eight kinds of statements which a writer can use to limit his topic?
a. _________________________ e. _________________________
b. _________________________ f. _________________________
c. _________________________ g. _________________________
d. _________________________ h. _________________________
Tells what the paragraph will be about
The topic sentence: States the main idea of the paragraph
Introduces the reader to the main idea in the paragraph
Focuses and directs the paragraph
The topic sentence Is the most general sentence in the paragraph
Is the most important sentence in the paragraph

A topic sentence defines the scope and purpose of the paragraph. It needs to meet three
criteria:
• It must be arguable rather than a statement of fact.

• It must be limited enough so that the paragraph develops in some depth.
• It must be unified so that the paragraph does not stray from the topic.
Statements such as "In this essay I will discuss " or "I will compare two stories" are
unnecessary, since mentioning the stories in the introduction already tells the reader this.
EXERCISE
Identifying Categories Which Limit Topic Sentences:
Directions: Notice the controlling words and phrases which have been underlined in the
example sentence. They have also been identified as to type. Notice also that it is possible to have
more than one category in a single topic sentence. After you have studied the example, do the same
for the remaining sentences. Choose from the eight categories on this page:
1. Place
2. Time
3. Aspect
4. Similarities
5. Differences
6. Number
7. Effect
8. Cause
1. Volleyball has become increasingly popular in Iran in the last ten years.
(aspect) (place) (time)
2. Team sports develop an athlete’s sense of fair play.
( )
3. Libraries have three basic kinds of materials.
( )
4. Women are paid less for equal work than men in certain companies.
( ) ( )
PARAGRAPH UNITY
Remember that besides the

topic sentence, a paragraph
includes several other sentences
which in some way contribute to
or support the idea in the topic
sentence. In other words, all these
sentences must be related to the
topic and must therefore refer
back to the topic sentence. Notice
the arrows in the following
diagram:
It is possible, of course, that some

sentences may be directly related to the
preceding supporting sentences (i.e., they
provide examples, details, or further
explanation):
NOW ASK YOURSELF
1. What must all supporting sentences do?

2. What is illustrated by the arrows in the two previous diagrams? (the first diagram, and
the second diagram)
If a paragraph does all this, that is, i) if it announces its main idea in the topic sentence, and
ii) if all the supporting sentences contribute to the reader’s understanding of the main idea, we say
that a paragraph is unified, or that it has unity. If the paragraph fails to do this, we say that it
lacks unity.
Study the following paragraph. It lacks unity. Before reading the explanation which follows,
can you figure out why it is not unified? (The sentences have been numbered only to make the
discussion easier. Do not number sentences like this when you write a paragraph!)
1
There are two main reasons why I have
decided to attend Bingston University next year.
2
Applying to a college is a terribly complicated
process. 3 Some of my friends chose colleges for
very bad reasons. 4 John has never been to
college. 5 I’ve met his grand father, and he still
has an incredibly sharp mind for a man of his age.
6
Susan chose a university because the food in the
region was said to be quite good. 7 Susan is really
not too clever, I suppose, so I shouldn’t criticize
her. 8 Actually, I think it was her father who
made the choice for her.
Did you notice that none of the above sentences actually discusses the topic which was
announced in the topic sentence? The paragraph was supposed to be about the writer’s two main
reasons for choosing Bingston University. However, he never actually tells us. He writes about
many unrelated things, his friend John, John’s grandfather, his friend Susan, Susan’s stupidity,
etc., but not his two reasons for choosing Bingston University! If we wanted to show this by means
of a diagram of the paragraph, we might do it this way:
If we wanted to keep the same topic sentence and rewrite the paragraph in a more unified
fashion, we might end up with something like this:
1
There are two main reasons why I have
decided to attend Bingston University next year.
2
First of all, there is the question of money:
Bingston’s tuition is reasonable, and I don’t even
have to pay it all at once. 3 This is very important,
since my father is not a rich man. 4 With Bingston’s
“deferred payment plan,” my father will be able to
pay my tuition without too much difficulty. 5 The
second reason is the fine education which I feel I
will receive there in agriculture, my chosen field.
6
It is a well-known fact that Bingston hires only
the finest professors in its Agriculture department.
7
Moreover the university requires all agricultural
students to gain practical experience by working on
farms in the area while they are still going to
school.
This is what a diagram of the above paragraph would look like:

Notice that in the rewritten paragraph, the writer gives us both his reasons and comments
on both of them. Nothing is extra. Nothing is irrelevant to the topic announced in the topic
sentence. The paragraph is unified. This means that the reader will have no trouble quickly
understanding what the writer is trying to say.
NOW ASK YOURSELF
1. How are sentences 2 and 5 related to the topic sentence?

2. How are sentences 3 and 4 related to sentence 2?
3. How are sentences 6 and 7 related to sentence 5?
4. How are all these relationships indicated in the diagram?
5. Why is the rewritten paragraph better than the original one?
Possible reasons which identify topic sentences to be not appropriate are as follows:
• It may be too general;
• It may be too specific;

• It may be not a complete grammatical sentence;
• It may not relate to the supporting sentences.

EXERCISE
Choosing proper topic sentence:
I. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling. Where
Britons end certain words with -se, Americans usually end the same words with -ce (British
practise vs. American practice); the reverse is sometimes true, too (British defence vs.
American defense). Notice also the British preference for final -re over the American -er
(metre vs. meter). Finally, most Americans consider neighbor a correct spelling, but a Briton
characteristically adds a u and spells the word neighbour.
Choose a topic sentence & Defend Your Choice:
A. British and American English are not the same.

B. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling.
C. The endings of British and American words are not the same.
1. I did not choose letter A because it is too general (some aspects are not the same; others are)
2. I did not choose letter C because it is too general (some endings are not the same)
II.____________________________________________. The operation of both can be thought

of as being divided into three phases: input, processing, and output. In the case of the computer, the
information which is fed into the machine—the data—is the input; the internal operations of the
machine constitute the processing; and the result—usually a printout—is called the output. The
telephone, too, acts on information presented to it and produces a result. The input is the actual
dialing of the number. The switching system which locates the number can be considered the
processing phase. Finally, the telephone rings on the other end of the line, indicating that the call has
been completed; this constitutes the output. 3
Choose a Topic Sentence
A. Both the computer and the telephone are helpful inventions.

B. Computer terminology, such as input and output, is frequently used in other
contexts.
C. Despite apparent differences, the operation of the computer and the
telephone have much in common.
Defend Your Choice
1. I did not choose letter _ because _________________________

2. I did not choose letter _ because _________________________
Ill. _______________________________________________________________________. The

jack is a portable device for raising the car. It operates by means of force being applied to a level on
which the car is balanced. The lug wrench is a tool with a fixed “jaw” for gripping the lug (the type of
screw used to hold a tire in place). It has a long handle so that it is effective in turning the lug, either
to tighten or to loosen it. These are the only two tools necessary to change a tire. They are usually
found in the trunk of the car and are kept there at all times so that the motorist can use them,
should he have a flat tire.
3
Adapted from John C. Keegel, The Language of Computer Programming in English (New York: Regents Publishing
Co., Inc., 1976), p. 4.
Choose a Topic Sentence
A. Flat tires constitute a serious problem for the motorist.

B. How to change a flat tire.
C. Only two tools are considered standard equipment on new U.S. auto mobiles.
Defend Your Choice
1. I did not choose letter _ because _____________________

2. I did not choose letter _ because _____________________
SUPPORTING TOPIC SENTENCES

Enumeration
You have learned how to limit your subject in a clear, concise topic sentence and then to
support it. The next step is to arrange your supporting sentences in a logical and cohesive
manner.
There are several ways in which this can be done. In this section we will deal with what is
probably the most common method of paragraph development in English: enumeration.
ENUMERATION
What is enumeration?
In this type of paragraph development, a writer starts with a general class, then proceeds
to break it down by listing some or all of its members or parts. If we wanted to show a diagram of
the enumerative process, our diagram might look something like this:
General Class
Member Member Member Member Member

Or Or Or Or Or
Part Part Part Part Part
Model paragraph
1
There are three basic kinds of materials that
can be found in any good library. 2First, there are
books on all subjects, both in English and in many
other languages. 3These books are organized
according to subject, title, and author in a central
file called the card catalog. 4Books can generally
be checked out of the library and taken home for
a period of two to four weeks. 5Second, there are
reference works, which include encyclopedias,
dictionaries, bibliographies, atlases, etc., and
which generally must be used in the library itself.
6
Third, there are periodicals -magazines,
newspapers, pamphlets - which are filed
alphabetically in racks, or which have been
microfilmed to conserve space. 7Like reference
works, periodicals cannot usually be removed from
the library.
Exercise: Guided Analysis of Enumeration
Directions: Analyze the model paragraph by filling in the empty parts of the chart below.
Model Paragraph
Topic Sentence: There are three basic kinds of materials

that can be found in any good library.
KINDS OR TYPES DESCRIPTION/EXAMPLES/ETC.
1.Books On all subjects, in many languages; organized

in the card catalog; can usually be checked out
2.Reference
works
3.
NOW ASK YOURSELF
1. What are the key words in the topic sentence of the model paragraph?
2. What types of supportive information does the author use (examples, details,
anecdotes, facts and statistics)?
3. How many kinds or types of library materials are talked about?
4. What is meant by enumeration?
ENUMERATORS
Notice the use of the word kinds in the preceding model paragraph. We will call this word
an enumerator since it helps us show the reader exactly what we are listing or enumerating. In the
model paragraph, it is kinds of materials. Remember that enumerators are valuable key words.
You should try to put them in topic sentences of enumerative paragraphs. This will help you to
organize your paragraphs more clearly; it will also help the reader to follow your train of thought
more easily.
Writers frequently wish to make a list of other things besides kinds or types. They may, for
example, want to talk about:
• Classes
• Parts
• Elements
• Factors
• Characteristics
• Aspects
• Divisions
LISTING SIGNALS
When making a list, people often use numerals (e.g., 1, 2, 3, etc.) to indicate the various
items in the list. A simple list of this kind could be made for the model paragraph on library
materials:
Kinds of library materials found in most

good libraries:
1. Books
2. Reference works
3. Periodicals
In most formal writing, however, a list is usually not made with numerals 4. The items are
indicated by what we call listing signals. The author of the model paragraph has used three of
these listing signals: First, ... ; Second, … ; Third, … . There are two main groups of listing signals
in English. You should become very familiar with the words in these two groups:
GROUP 1
First,
Second,
(or Next,)
Third, there are
(or Next,) we have __________ .
(or Then,) we should consider
Last, etc.
(or Finally,)
LISTING
SIGNALS
GROUP 2
The first
( or One )
The second
(or Another )
The third kind
(or Still another ) type
(or The next ) etc. is __________ .
The last,
(or The final )
LISTING ENUMERATOR
SIGNAL
4
A major exception to this is scientific and technical English, where it is common to find lists with a numeral
before each item on the list.
NOW ASK YOURSELF

1. What is the difference between an enumerator and a listing signal?
__________________________________________________________
2. What is another way to say each of the following?
(Last,) _____________________________________________________
(The final kind) ______________________________________________
(Another kind) ______________________________________________
(Next,) ____________________________________________________
3. What element does a Group 2 sentence have that a Group 1 sentence does not?
__________________________________________________________
GROUP 1 VS. GROUP 2: SENTENCE STRUCTURE
There is one thing that you must remember. The words in Group 1 take a different sentence
structure from the words in Group 2. Let’s take a sentence from the model paragraph on library
materials and illustrate this difference, which is really a very simple one:
Group 1 : First, there are books.
Group 2: The first kind is consist of books.
Note that a full sentence follows the listing signals from Group 1. Notice also that in Group
2, the listing signal and enumerator are the subject of the sentence. These differences, although
simple, are very important!
EXERCISE
Paraphrasing Listing Signals
Directions: Rewrite each of the following sentences in three (3) ways, choosing words from
both groups of listing signals. Circle the enumerator if you have used one.
1. Still another kind is periodicals.

a. The next kind is periodicals.
b. ______________________
c. ______________________
2. Last, there are reference works.

a. ______________________
b. ______________________
c. ______________________
EXERCISE
Use given information, prepare a paragraph about heat transfer:
Topic sentence: There are three methods to transfer heat: radiation;

conduction; and convection.
Kinds/Types Description / Examples / Etc.

1.Radiation Not fully understood, thought to be with invisible electro-
magnetic waves, pass through a vacuum, making warm objects
when touching them, …..
2.Conduction Transfer of heat from one molecule to the next, metals are
good conductors, poor conductors are used as insulators, …..
3.Convection Transfer of heat by means of movements, it is found in fluids
only, .......
There are three methods to transfer heat: radiation; conduction; and

convection. The first method is radiation. Heat is transferred in a way
which is not fully understood, but it is thought to be with invisible
electro-magnetic waves, which are able to pass through a vacuum.
Although they themselves are not hot, when the rays of the radiation
touch an object, they make it warm. This is known because space
between earth and sun, where rays of sun are traveling through,
remains cold. Second, we have conduction. In this method …………………………
………………………………................................................................
............................................................................…………
…………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………….………………………….……….……………………………………
……………………..……………………………………………… .
EXERCISE
Optional writing assignments (Enumeration)
1. The types of accountable errors. (Instrument error, interference error, calibration

error, human error, ….)
2. The types of lenses/mirrors.
3. The reasons why you had decided to continue your studies at Amirkabir University of
Technology.
4. The things (at least three) that I have learned about ……………. since I …………. .
5. Any engineering subject that interests you.
Paraphrasing
One of the techniques to help readers to read efficiently is to outline a passage. Through
outlining, one can recognize and remember the main points of the passage more easily. Of course,
outlining is not the only technique facilitating the reading process. There are some other helpful
techniques in reading as well. Some of these techniques are paraphrasing, summarizing, and note-
taking.
One way to make sure that one has understood a passage is to have him explain the content
of the passage in his own words. Of course, explaining a passage is different from memorizing it.
To memorize a passage, one has to repeat the exact words of a passage by heart. To paraphrase,
however, the reader explains the passage not by using the exact words and sentences of the
passage, but he explains the passage in his own words. In other words, a paraphrase is a
restatement of a passage in another form. Hence, the purpose of paraphrasing is to express the
idea of a writer in one’s own words. In order to paraphrase easily and efficiently, a few steps
should he taken.
The first step in paraphrasing is to make sure to understand the exact meaning of the key
words in a passage. In other words, the reader should clearly understand the passage. Otherwise,
he will not be able to paraphrase a passage appropriately.
The second step in paraphrasing is to make sure not to interpret the writer’s ideas
incorrectly. In order to accurately explain what the writer says, one should read the passage
carefully. Otherwise, there is a possibility that the reader would misinterpret the ideas presented.
The third step in paraphrasing is to put the sentences and words together in an organized
way. To put the ideas in an organized way, one should use the outlining technique.
It should be mentioned that paraphrasing is an interesting activity as well. A paraphrase
will help the reader not only to understand the passage but also to explain it to others. However, it
is important for a person w does the paraphrasing to make clearer the ideas expressed in the
passage.
EXERCISE
A. Read each statement carefully and decide whether it is true or false:
1. To paraphrase a passage means to rewrite it.

2. Paraphrasing is the same as memorizing.
3. The exact words of a passage are not used in paraphrasing.
4. If one can paraphrase a passage, he has surely understood it.
5. In order to paraphrase a passage, one should know the exact meaning of the
key words.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

It is sometimes said that there is no such thing as the so-called ‘scientific method’; there are
only the methods used in science. Nevertheless, it seems clear that there is often a special sequence
of procedures which is involved in the establishment of the working principles of science. This
sequence is as follows: (i) a problem is recognized, and as much information as appears to be
relevant is collected; (ii) a solution (i.e. a hypothesis) is proposed and the consequences arising out
of this solution are deduced; (iii) these deductions are tested by experiment, and as a result the
hypothesis is accepted, modified or discarded.
As an illustration of this we can consider the discovery of air-pressure. Over two thousand
years ago, men discovered a method of raising water from one level to another by means of the
vacuum pump. When, however, this machine passed into general use in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, it was discovered that, no matter how perfect the pump was, it was not possible to raise
water vertically more than about 35 feet. Why? Galileo, amongst others, recognized the problem,
but failed to solve it.
The problem was then attacked by Torricelli. Analogizing from the recently-discovered
phenomenon of water-pressure (hydrostatic pressure), he postulated that a deep ‘sea of air’
surrounded the earth; it was, he thought, the pressure of this sea of air which pushed on the
surface of the water and caused it to rise in the vacuum tube of a pump. A hypothesis, then, was
formed. The next step was to deduce the consequences of the hypothesis. Torricelli reasoned that
this ‘air pressure’ would be unable to push a liquid heavier than water as high as 35 feet, and that
a column of mercury, for example, which weighed about 14 times more than water, would rise to
only a fourteenth of the height of water, i.e. approximately 2.5 feet. He then tested this deduction
by means of the experiment we all know, and found that the mercury column measured the height
predicted. The experiment therefore supported the hypothesis. A further inference was drawn by
Pascal, who reasoned that if this ‘sea of air’ existed, its pressure at the bottom (i.e. sea-level) would
be greater than its pressure further up, and that therefore the height of the mercury column
would decrease in proportion to the height above sea-level. He then carried the mercury tube to
the top of a mountain and observed that the column fell steadily as the height increased, while
another mercury column at the bottom of the mountain remained steady (an example of another
of the methods of science, the controlled experiment). This further proof not only established
Torricelli’s hypothesis more securely, but also demonstrated that, in some aspects, air behaved
like water; this, of course, stimulated further enquiry.
NOW ASK YOURSELF
1. What does the establishment of the working laws of science often involve?
2. What does a scientist collect when he tries to establish a scientific law?
3. What is the next step in the process described above?
4. What does the scientist then deduce?
5. How does he proceed to verify these deductions?
6. What does he finally do with his original hypothesis?
7. Give an approximate date for the invention of the vacuum pump.
8. Is it possible to raise water from the bottom floor of a building to the roof o feet
above, using a vacuum pump? Why?
9. What was Torricelli’s theory about the height of the water in a vacuum tube?
10. What were his deductions concerning the effect of air pressure on a column of
mercury?
11. What further inference was made by Pascal?
12. Why did he use two mercury tubes?
13. What were the three results of Pascal’s experiment?
14. What do you think happened to the mercury column when it was carried down the
mountain?
EXERCISE
Unscrambling a Process Paragraph
Directions: The sentences below constitute a paragraph on the scientific method.

However, the sentences have been given a disordered sequence, that is, they have been
scrambled. You should place them in their correct order and, if your teacher wishes, copy the
reconstructed paragraph. When you have finished, answer the questions which follow.
1. Following this method, the researcher first

observes some aspects of nature and then poses
a specific question about what he has observed.
2. Experiments based on this hypothesis are
designed and conducted to test each
contingency.
3. In order to answer this question, pertinent data
are collected.
4. After thorough experimentation, the researcher
validates, modifies, or rejects his original
hypothesis.
5. Originating from the branch of philosophy called
epistemology, what we now know as the
scientific method provides guide lines for the
systematic acquisition of knowledge.
6. On the basis of these data, a hypothesis is
proposed to explain them.
NOW ASK YOURSELF
1. Which words are repeated in the paragraph?
2. Are process enumerators used (steps, stages, etc.)?
3. Are any listing signals used (First, Second, Next, Then, etc.)?
4. Are there any time clauses (when, while, after, before, until)?
5. Are there any participial time phrases (-ing form)?
6. Are there any sentence connectors of time (after that, afterwards, meanwhile)?
7. What does each of the five pronouns in the passage refer to :
this method : _________________________

this question : _________________________
these data : _________________________
them : _________________________
this hypothesis : _________________________
The point paragraph outline

Most academic writing you will do will be objective; you will be explaining academic material
to your audience and/or persuading your audience that your opinions are valid.
In order to communicate effectively, you will follow the organizational form which the
academic audience expects. Basically, the paragraph form for academic written English has two
characteristics:
1. It is linear, that is, straightforward and direct.

2. It moves from a general statement (the topic sentence) to specific data that
explains,
describes, or (that is. proves or supports) the general statement.
Illustrates
This chapter will teach you to arrange material that you have generated into a paragraph
form that your academic audience will expect. That is, you will learn how to organize your ideas
into acceptable paragraph form.
REMEMBER THIS :
you must have material available before you
begin to arrange a In other words, the paragraph
outlining you will study in this chapter is a process
that / or, sometimes, occurs at the same time as
the idea generation processes you have studied in
the previous chapters.
WHAT IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE WAY TO ARRANGE THE AVAILABLE

MATERIAL?
The basic form of a paragraph may he outlined in this way:
Topic sentence: ( general )
A. Point # 1 about the topic sentence ( more specific )

1. specific detail that explains.
( most specific )
2. describes, and/or illustrates Point #1
B. Point #2 about the topic sentence

1.
specific detail about Point #2
2.
C. Point #3 about the topic sentence

1.
specific detail about Point #3
2.
Concluding sentence: (general)
REMEMBER THIS :
The basic rules for outlining apply to the

point outline :
1. Never an A without a B.
2. Never a 1 without a 2.
The reason for this rule is balance. If you
have only an A, for example, you can include that
point in the previous line.
Planning the Point Paragraph Outline

The process for planning a point paragraph outline has several steps. Just as pre-writing
strategies may differ from writer to writer (and, for some writers, from paragraph to paragraph),
planning the detail in a point paragraph out line may occur in different ways. For example, you
may begin to construct the paragraph outline in the middle, supplying the details, then identifying
the points, and finally forming a topic sentence and a concluding sentence. Or you might begin
with a point or two, write a topic sentence, work with details, and then modify the topic sentence.
Whatever approach you choose and you should experiment, the general process given below lists
some of the steps you might take. Of course, the order you use may be different, and some of the
steps may occur simultaneously.
Following is a general process for planning a point paragraph:
1. Choose a topic.
2. Use pre-writing techniques to generate ideas about the topic.
3. Construct a tentative topic sentence with controlling ideas.
4. Think of three points you want to make about the topic sentence.
5. For each of these points, use two or more specific details (that you have
generated) that explain, describe, and or illustrate that point.
6. Modify or change the topic sentence (if necessary) to fit the specific detail.
7. Write a concluding sentence that summarizes, offers a solution, or comes to a
conclusion, based on the information in the paragraph.
Exercises
Read the basic outlines and paragraphs, then do the exercises that follow each paragraph.
Topic Sentence: Students attend the Intensive English Program for

many reasons.
A. Graduate student.
1. To pass the TOEFL

2. To gain admission to a graduate department
B. Undergraduates
1. To pass the TOEFL

2. To learn academic skills
C. Others
1. To better communicate with Americans

2. To return immediately to their countries with better
English
Concluding Sentence: Individual goals differ, but the main goal is the
same: to learn English.
Students attend the Intensive English Program (IEP) for many

reasons. Many of the men and women come to the U.S. for
graduate studies in their major fields; they go to IEP classes in
order to learn English well enough to pass the TOEFL examination
and so be admitted for graduate study. Next are the students
who are often somewhat younger, and who have left their native
countries to attend a U S. college or university as
undergraduates, They too need to learn English in order to pass
the TOEFL, and they too need academic English skills to succeed
in their university work. Finally, there are a few students who
attend the IEP to learn English for a variety of non-academic
reasons. Some wish to be better able to communicate with
Americans during their stay in the U.S., and others intend to
learn as much English as possible and then return immediately to
their countries. For each of these students, individual goals
differ, but the main goal is the same: to learn English.
1. Circle the controlling ideas in the topic sentence of the paragraph.

2. Underline the information in the paragraph that is repeated from the point outline.
3. Put a star (*) in the margin where specific details have been combined into one
sentence.
4. What techniques of support are used in this paragraph?
Prepare a paragraph about catalyst. Outline the basic form of your paragraph, and attempt to
complete it. (Point paragraph outline)
Topic sentence: Catalysts have wide range of use in chemical plants.
1-………………………….
1-1…………..
1-2…………..
2-………………………….
2-1 …………….
2-2 …………….
3-………………………….
3-1 …………….
3-2 …………….
Concluding sentence: Individual reasons differ, but the main reason is the
same: to lower the cost.
Cause and Effect
You learned how to divide a topic into its various types, characteristics, elements, parts, etc.
Now we will concentrate on a type of paragraph development which is frequently very similar to
enumeration: cause and effect. In other words, when you use a cause-effect method of
development, this will often mean that you are supporting your topic sentence by listing or
enumerating.
What you should remember, however, is that in a cause-effect development, there is always
a causal relationship between the topic sentence and the supporting sentences, or even between
major supporting sentences and minor ones. This means that your supporting sentences become a
list of either effects (what a certain situation has lead to or has resulted in), or causes (reasons or
explanations why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did):
FOCUS ON CAUSE FOCUS ON EFFECT
Cause #1 Effect #1
Cause #2 SITUATION SITUATION Effect #2
Cause #3 Effect #3
• The cause is why something happens.

• The effect is what happens; it's the result.
CAUSE-EFFECT DEVELOPMENT:
Cause/effect paragraphs generally follow basic paragraph format. That is, they begin with a
topic sentence and this sentence is followed by specific supporting details. For example, if the topic
sentence introduces an effect, the supporting sentences all describe causes. Here is an example:
In recent decades, cities have grown so large

that now about 50% of the Earth's population lives
in urban areas. There are several reasons for this
occurrence. First, the increasing industrialization of
the nineteenth century resulted in the creation of
many factory jobs, which tended to be located in
cities. These jobs, with their promise of a better
material life, attracted many people from rural
areas. Second, there were many schools established
to educate the children of the new factory laborers.
The promise of a better education persuaded many
families to leave farming communities and move to
the cities. Finally, as the cities grew, people
established places of leisure, entertainment, and
culture, such as sports stadiums, theaters, and
museums. For many people, these facilities made city
life appear more interesting than life on the farm,
and therefore drew them away from rural
communities.
Notice how each supporting sentence is a cause that explains the effect mentioned in the
topic sentence. In the chart below are the main ideas of the above paragraph, to help you
understand the relationships better:
EFFECT CAUSES
(Topic Sentence) (Supporting Sentences)
Cities have grown very large.

[There are several reasons for Factory jobs attracted people.
this.]
Better schools attracted families to

(Cities have grown very large.)
move to the city.
Places of leisure, entertainment, and

(Cities have grown very large.) culture made city life appear more
interesting.
CHAIN REACTION
Frequently, in developing a causal relationship you will find that the effect of one situation
becomes the cause of the next. When this relationship exists, we have what is called a chain
reaction. In other words, the first event leads to or influences the second, the second leads to or
influences the third, and so on.
Model Paragraph
For some time now, medical scientists have noted

an alarming increase in diseases he heart and
circulation among people who smoke cigarettes. It has
been found that the presence of tobacco in the
bloodstream causes blood vessels to contract, thus
slowing circulation, which eventually leads to
hardening of the arteries. As the arteries stiffen,
less blood reaches the brain, and the end result of
this slowdown is a cerebral hemorrhage, commonly
referred to as a “stroke.” In addition, tobacco in the
bloodstream reduces the ability of the hemoglobin to
release oxygen, resulting in shortness of breath. The
tack of oxygen forces the heart to beat faster—that
is, the pulse rate increases—and in turn accelerates
the risk of heart attack.
NOW ASK YOURSELF
1. What is the first cause in the chain?

2. What are the two final effects? (Notice that there are two chain reactions,
both caused by tobacco as it reaches the bloodstream.)
3. What time words, sentence connectors, or listing signals are used?
4. What kinds of supportive material are used?
EXERCISE
Analyzing a Chain-Reaction Paragraph

Topic Sentence: For some time now, medical scientists have noted an alarming increase in
diseases of the heart and circulation among those people who smoke cigarettes.
EXERCISE:
Unscrambling a chain-Reaction Paragraph
Directions: The following is a random list of causes and effects. Arrange them in a chart of your
own (space has been provided following the list). Then write a paragraph based on the information.
Your topic sentence will be the following: For some time now, medical scientists have noted an
alarming increase in diseases of the lungs and respiratory tract in people who smoke.
1. Impurities can now collect in the windpipe,

larynx, and lungs.
2. In addition to cancer, the lungs may lose their

elasticity and cease to function efficiently.
3. The smoke slows the action of the tiny hair-like

projections (cilia) which cleanse the air in the
windpipe.
4. Precancerous and cancerous cells form in the

various parts of the respiratory tract.
5. Smoke is inhaled.
6. With this loss of elasticity, emphysema may

develop.
7. Moreover, since gas, tar, and smoke are no

longer removed, they are now allowed to pass
through the respiratory tract.
(Hint: The organization of this particular paragraph will resemble that of the previous model
paragraph. There are two different chain reactions, each of which finally leads to a different
disease.)
Topic Sentence: From some time now, medical scientists have noted an alarming
increase in diseases of the lungs and respiratory tract in people who smoke.
Examples, Statistics, Statements by Authorities
EXAMPLES
“The secret of good writing – the real secret,” many professional writers would tell you, “is
using examples.”
“The biggest problem with undergraduate writing – the one that almost all students have,”
many teachers would tell you, “is that they don’t know how to use examples.”
Therefore, here you go: a chance to solve a problem by learning a secret. Let’s begin with
two different kinds of examples: quick examples and narrative examples.
Quick Examples
You already know from your everyday experience what a quick example is: a quick example
is one instance, one occurrence of whatever you’re talking about. If you’re discussing the meals
available at fast-food restaurants, a hamburger is one example - one of several possibilities. You
could have named fried chicken, tacos; roast beef sandwiches, or (at water front of San Francisco)
even sourdough bread and crabs.
For a quick example to be effective, it must be very specific. If you want to show that
Constance Dilettante can’t stick with anything, don’t say, “She changes her mind a lot.” Don’t
even just say, “She changed her major frequently in college." Be still more specific: "She changed
her major from philosophy to computer science to animal husbandry—all in one semester.”
Do quick examples really make any difference? We think so. Consider the following:
Without Quick Examples:
• There were many expensive cars in the schools parking lot during the football game.
• You could tell spring was here because of all the flowers in bloom.
• Why do lawyers use words that mean one thing to them and something else entirely in
ordinary English?
With Quick Examples:
• There were many expensive cars in the school's parking lot during the football game,
Mercedes convertibles, low-slung Porsches, red Ferraris.
• You could tell spring was here because of all the lowers in bloom: tulips of all colors,
yellow daffodils, and (if you want to call them flowers) even a few early dandelions.
• Why do layers use words that mean one thing to them and something else entirely in
ordinary English (words like "party" and "action" and "motion")?
See the difference that quick examples make? They take something rather abstract - cars,
flowers, legal words - and make them much more concrete. It's almost as if the abstract words
don't really communicate, don't really find a place to lodge in the brain cells. But the more
concrete words - Mercedes, tulip, party - do.
When should you use quick examples? Well . . . how often do you like to have such examples
when you're a reader? Pretty often, right? And that's how often you should use them when you're
a writer.
Quick examples, of course, don’t have to come at ends of sentences. You could have a
paragraph – probably a very short one – that depended entirely on quick examples:
MODEL PARAGRAPG:
Chairs come in many different
designs. Easy chairs—designed for
people who like to lounge back—usually
have lots of padding, perhaps a curved
back, and comfortable armrests.
Straight chairs usually have minimal
padding, a vertical back, and sometimes
no armrests. Some contemporary
chairs—kneelers—have padding for the
knees and seat, but no back at all and
no armrests. So, depending on their
purposes, chairs differ quite a bit.
The topic of that paragraph may not be exciting, but the quick examples - easy chair, straight chair,
kneeler - certainly communicate much more than the abstract beginning: "Chairs come in many different
designs."
A quick example is just one instance, one occurrence, but a narrative example is a brief story. A narrative
example can be terrific support, so we really emphasize it in this booklet.
Sometimes you want to emphasize an idea, to really help your readers understand what you
mean. So you decide to run a little "motion picture"; that is, you decide to tell a story that will
help your readers almost see what you are saying - as though they are watching a short motion
picture rather than simply reading words.
For example, if you want to show that shark hunting is dangerous, you could give a quick
example by saying "a friend of mine was once maimed while hunting sharks." Or you could really
make your point by telling the story:
I still have nightmares about the

time last June when Rocky and I were
scuba diving off the coast of Baja
California. Rocky spotted a great white
shark and tried to shoot it with his spear
gun. As he fired, the shark spun
suddenly toward him. Before I knew what
happened ….[Then—poor Rocky—finish the story.]
Can you see how a narrative example really drives the point home?
A narrative example, then, is a specific incident (usually with names, dates, other details). It is not the
kind of thing that happens (not “sometimes people get hurt when try to shoot shark whit spear guns").
It is the story of something that did happen (June, Rocky, Baja California, great white shark).
Let’s take another narrative example. You might find a paragraph like this in Time or Newsweek:
Alison Marks, a twenty-three-year-old

graduate student in architecture at the
University of Colorado, had a blood pressure
of 180/120 in February 1 988. Her doctor
prescribed Elavil, which Alison took for three

months until she became so busy with exams
that she found taking medicine too much
trouble. After exams, she still neglected her
medicine. As a result her blood pressure rose
so sharply that in September she was rushed
to the hospital with a stroke.
Do we care that this patient was an architecture student, or that she was twenty-three, or that she
was named Alison Marks? Yes, somehow we do. Alison becomes more real to us, someone we can sympathize
with, and because Alison's case becomes believable and typical, we begin to be convinced that people with high
blood pressure should take their medicine. The narrative example has helped convince us.
Now let's apply what we've learned about narrative examples to the one-paragraph essay. Suppose
you are sitting in your room trying to write your first college English paper - the one for this course. You
remember your instructor's words: "I want to see examples - specific examples - whatever else you do on this
paper!" She's told you to write about something that distracts you. You look aimlessly around the room, your
eyes suddenly brighten, and you slap down this sentence:
My roommate distracts me when I try to study.
Now you need some examples. Let's see: she has that record player going again, she's smacking her
gum again, and you remember all those dumb questions she asks every few minutes. Here goes:
Although my roommate is a helpful

companion at times, she is a distracting
nuisance whenever I try to study.
Throughout the evening, her stereo blares in
my ears. Even worse, she insists on smacking
her gum. She also interrupts me with
questions that have nothing to do with
homework. At any other time my roommate
is a friend, but while I'm studying, she's my
greatest enemy.
"Pretty good," you say. "I think I'll show it to my roommate to see what she - on second
thought. . . ."
Now suppose you're sitting in your room a couple of days later, ego deflated by a bad grade,
trying to rewrite that paper. Your examples seemed specific enough to you - stereo, gum,
questions- but they obviously weren't. You used quick examples when a narrative example might
have been more effective.
Instead of presenting the kinds of things your roommate does to distract you, you could have
used a narrative example - a story of something that actually did happen, at a particular time and
a particular place. In other words, you could have talked about one specific study period. Then you
could have told us not just that her stereo was going; you could have told us what record she was
playing. You could have told us what kind of gum she was chewing. You could even have told us
what specific "dumb" questions she asked you. In other words, you could have written this
paragraph:
Although my roommate is a helpful

companion at times, she is a distracting
nuisance whenever I try to study. Just
last Wednesday night, Anna decided to
spend the evening playing her "classic"
Bob Dylan records. While I was trying
desperately to integrate a math function,
all I could hear was that the answer was
somewhere "blow in the wind." Even
worse, the entire time Dylan was rasping
away, Anna accompanied him by smacking
and popping her Bazooka bubble gum. I'd
finally given up on math and started my
struggle with chemistry when she
abruptly asked (loudly, of course, so I
could hear her over the music) "Do you
think any Cokes are left in the Coke
machine?" My rumbling and my throat
suddenly felt dry—even drier than the
chemistry text I was trying to read. As
I dropped the change into the Coke
machine, I realized that although Anna is
usually a friend, while I’m studying she is
my greatest enemy.
We can now picture you, Anna, and all those distractions. You've told us the "story" (a narrative
example) of your evening trying to study, helping us to see you and feel your frustration. That's
communication.
So remember the "secret" that all professional writers know: examples!
STATESTICS
Examples are an important from support. They help convince your readers and make the essay more
interesting. Examples alone, though, may not be enough. We need some numbers. Who doesn’t love
numbers, trust them, believe in them? Give us a statistic we don't suspect is phony, and we are probably
convinced right there. Alison Marks and her trouble with high blood pressure may move us emotionally, but
we will more likely be persuaded by a medical report like this:
Recent statistics show convincingly that

jogging is saving the lives of many Americans.
Of the 12.5 million who jog at least 10 miles a
week, 78 percent have a pulse rate and blood
pressure lower than non-joggers the same age
have. Estimates indicate that these joggers
can expect to live to an average age of 77,
more than three years longer than the
average age of their contemporaries. The

lesson seems clear, doesn't it?
To be convincing, statistics must be unambiguous. We are not necessarily alarmed, for example, to hear
that 47 of 54 football players were injured in a practice session because we have no way of knowing
how serious the injuries were. Perhaps 46 of the players were treated with Band-Aids. We would
become alarmed, however, to hear that 47 of 54 football players were hospitalized for at least one
night following a practice session. The second statistic defines injury more clearly, so it is more
convincing than the first.
STATEMENTS BY AUTHORITIES
The last kind of support we will consider in this chapter is the statement by an authority, a person
who is in a position to know about something. If someone we trust tells us something, we just might believe
him. But we do so because we trust him: his character, his judgment, and his knowledge of the subject. We
would never believe Alison Marks, the architecture student who forgot to take her pills, if she tells us that
shark hunting is one of the safest sports, but we might listen to her if she tells us that patients with high
blood pressure should take their medicine. We might also believe the president of the American Medical
Association or a research specialist in high blood pressure or our family doctor - people who know
what they're talking about.
Who are some people whose unsupported opinions about high blood pressure would not be
convincing? We would not trust someone whose character, judgment, or knowledge of the subject is
questionable. We would not trust the unsupported opinion of the druggist convicted of selling
overpriced drugs to people who did not need them anyway; we would not trust the doctor being
investigated for gross incompetence by the American Medical Association; and we would not trust
our roommate, who thinks blood pressure is measured by a thermometer. The first has doubtful
character; the second, doubtful judgment; and the third, doubtful knowledge.
By the way, the use of authority is particularly important when you are presenting statistics.
Remember all those impressive figures about people who jog? Guess where the numbers came
from. For all you know (and, in fact, for all those statistics are worth), they came from Miss
Fisher's sixth-grade creative writing class. The point, of course, is that unless the writer tells you
the source of the statistics, you don't know whether or not you should trust them.
Here's a revision of that paragraph showing the use of authorities, both with and without
statistics:
Recent statistics show convincingly that

jogging is saving the lives of many
Americans. According to the Congressional
Subcommittee on Physical Fitness, 78
percent of 12.5 million people who jog at
least 10 miles per week have a pulse rate
and blood pressure lower than non-
joggers the same age have. This
committee estimates that these joggers
can expect to live to an average age of
77, more than three years longer than
the average age of their contemporaries.
Dr. Hans Corpuscle, chief adviser to the
committee, says that "joggers are the
healthiest single group of people in
America today." The lesson seems clear,
doesn't it?
COMBINED TYPES OF SUPPORT
A paragraph that uses one type of support – examples, maybe- is often convincing, but
many good paragraphs contain several types: a couple of examples and some statistics, and some
statistics, or a statement by authority and an example, and so on.
The following paragraph attempts to show that people attend yard sales for entertainment. Can you
identify the types of support?
Although you might think that most

people attend yard sales for the bargains,
the main reason they attend is for the
entertainment they find there. For
example, consider what happened to my
family last summer when we held a yard
sale to get rid of some old things before
moving to a new place. Many people came,
but few bought. Each new carload of
people disgorged a new group that would
while away an hour or so on a Saturday by
caressing the sun-faded curtains, thumbing
through ancient National Geographic
magazines, and carefully considering
sweaters eight sizes too small for them or
anyone else in their group. Then the group
would gather around a folded section of
the classified ads and pick the next sale
they'd visit. My suspicions about why
those people came to our sale were
confirmed a few months later by a survey
I read in Psychology Monthly. The survey
showed that seven of ten people who
attended yard sales admitted they did so
"just for the fun of it." The psychologist
who conducted the survey then reached a
conclusion I could have told him last
summer: "The real bargain that people
seek at yard sales, if only subconsciously,
is not another frying pan or partially
burned plastic spatula, but just a little
weekend entertainment."
Notice that the statement by the authority is an effective rewording of the topic sentence, so
no separate concluding sentence is necessary for this paragraph.
The above paragraph uses all three kinds of support - all of it invented by the writer. When
you are inventing support for exercises or when you find it in books or magazines, statistics and
statements by authorities are no problem. If, however, you are writing paragraphs based on
personal experiences (much like many samples in Section One), you will naturally rely heavily on
examples. Fortunately, the example is one of the most colorful and convincing kinds of support.
INVENTED SUPPORT
Before you begin the exercises, let's have a word about invented support. It greatly
simplifies the learning process. You don't have to struggle to find real support at the same time
you're trying to figure out just what good support is. You don't have to search any further than
your own mind, and you can be as specific as you like.
But please remember, inventing evidence is just an exercise, a convenience for you and your
instructor. So you must follow these rules:
• Never write invented support unless your readers know that is what they are reading.
• And never write invented support unless your instructor approves.
Within these two guidelines, you can have fun with your writing. All the examples we've
used in this chapter were "invented" - you could easily tell that. So try to be imaginative.
At the same time, though, try to be realistic. Don't, for instance, try to convince us that the
Grand Junction School of Cosmetology is noted for its scholarly excellence because it had thirteen
Rhodes scholars last year. The school may be good, but such an exaggerated figure is bound to
raise eyebrows.
EXERCISE:
A. Keep in mind that a topic sentence for a paragraph states the idea you want your readers to
accept, and the rest of the paragraph supports and reinforces that idea. For each of the topic
sentences below, invent (in other words, simply make up) a quick example (1 sentence), a
narrative example (3-5 sentences), a statistic (1-2 sentences), and a statement by an authority (1-2
sentences), as required. Use the sample paragraph on yard sales, which has invented support, as a
model.
1. Sometimes women are discriminated against in the workplace.

a. Statistic
b. Narrative Example
c. Statement by an Authority.
2. Computers save people’s time.
a. Statistic
d. Narrative Example
e. Statement by an Authority.
3. Too often, computers waste people’s time.
a. Statistic
c. Statement by an Authority
4. Twentieth century medicine sometimes causes problems.
a. Statistic
c. Statement by an Authority
Summarizing
Another technique to achieve a full understanding of a passage is summarizing. The steps in
summarizing are similar to those in paraphrasing. The only difference is, however that in
summarizing one uses the exact words of the passage. This does not mean that summarizing is the
same as memorizing. In memorizing, every word in the passage is repeated by heart, whereas in
summarizing only important points are listed and explained.
When one tries to summarize the points made in a passage, one does not read to express
them in one’s own words. One simply identifies the important points and lists them using the
techniques of outlining. Main headings and subheadings are classified in order to present the
passage in an organized Way. In fact, in summarizing, the ideas are presented in compact form.
All unimportant points should be ignored. For example, a paragraph of 100-150 words should be
summarized in one or two sentences. These sentences would include the most important pieces of
information in the passage.
A. Read each statement carefully and decide whether it is true or false. Write ' T ' for true
statements and ' F ' for false statements In the Spaces provided.
1. Summarizing is the same as paraphrasing.

2. Memorizing a text is the same as summarizing it.
3. In summarizing a text, the writer uses the exact words in the passage.
4. To summarize a passage, one should use the techniques of outlining.
5. A summary should present the ideas in the original passage in an organized way.
B. Circle a, b, c, or d which completes each of the following items.
1. In order to summarize a passage, the ideas are introduced

a. exactly as they are in the passage.
b. through the use of the writers own words.
c. in compact and simple forms.
d. in lengthy but clear forms.
2. The difference between summarizing and paraphrasing is that in the former

a. the exact words in the passage are used.
b. the writer’s own words are used.
c. comprehension of the passage is not essential.
d. length of the passage is not important.
3. The main idea of this passage is that

a. there is a difference between summarizing and paraphrasing.
b. summarizing and paraphrasing are techniques for efficient reading.
c. the main headings and subheadings are classified.
d. the ideas are presented in compact form in summarizing.
C. Match the items in column I with their appropriate equivalents in column II. Insert 1, 2, 3, …
in the parentheses provided. There are more options in Column I than required.
Column I Column II
1. accurate a. exact ( )
2. remember b. understand ( )
3. ignore c. make easy ( )
4. include d. overlook ( )
5. facilitate e. keep in mind ( )
6. comprehend
7. summarize
D. Answer the following questions orally.
1. What is the difference between summarizing and paraphrasing?

2. What arc the steps in summarizing?
3. What qualities do summarizing and paraphrasing have in common?
II. Reading Skills Exercises
A. Read the following passages. Each passage is followed by two summaries. Decide which
summary is more acceptable. Be papered to argue for your choice. For the criteria of
acceptability refer to the principles mentioned in the text.
1. Many schools are trying to find promising solutions to

the problems caused by mass education. Some, in order to
solve the teacher shortage problem, are using more and more
self-instructional facilities For example, programmed
textbooks which the student can work through without the
help of a teacher, are one such facility. Other schools are
solving the same problem by using mass -instructional facilities
of different kinds. For in stance, they may use such a device as
closed-circuit television, by which large group of students at
different times of the day can hear the same lecture. Many
schools are attempting to solve the problems of their "Special
Student" by having activities of one kind or other especially
designed for them. For example, at some schools, the gifted
students are sent to a special class once or twice a week where
they are given special projects to do out side the classroom.
Summary #1
Many schools are trying to find solutions to their
problems. Some are using self-instructional
materials. Others are using mass -instructional
facilities. The rest are trying to solve special
educational problems by using different kinds of
activities.
Summary#2
Many schools are finding promising solutions to
the problems caused by mass education. For
example, in order to solve the teacher shortage
problem, they are using self-instructional facilities.
Other schools are solving the same problem by using
mass-instructional facilities of different kinds. In
addition, many schools are attempting to solve the
problems of their "Special Students" by providing
activities of one kind or another for them.
Summary # —-- is better than summary # ---- because
A.
B.
C.
2. Another common type of student is the unmotivated

one, who is not at all interested in school. This type of student
is usually in school only be cause of his parents, that is, only
because it is very important to his parents that he "get an
education." To them, getting an education means "getting
ahead" or gaining social status; therefore, they urge him to
stay in school when he would rather be working.
Understandably, he doesn’t do very well in school because he
has no interest in the courses he must take - that is, no interest
either in the subject itself or in the learning process in general.
Obviously, such a student can gain very little from being in
school.
Summary#1
Another common type of student is the
unmotivated on; who is not at all interested in
school. This type of student, who is usually in school
only because of his parents, doesn’t do well in his
courses because he has no interest either in the
courses he must take or in the learning process
itself.
Summary#2
There are many students who are not motivated.
This type of student goes to school because his
family wants him to do so. Therefore, he doesn’t do
well at school since he is not interested in studying.
Summary # —-- is better than summary # ---- because
A.
B.
C.
B. Read the following passages and summarize them as few words as possible.
1. Programmed textbooks are self instructional deuces

designed for individual students to use on their own. This
helps to ease the teacher shortage problem. Closed-circuit
television, in contrast to such textbooks, is a mass-
instructional device designed for large groups of students.
This device, too, helps lessen the teacher shortage problem.
Summary
……………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………
……………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………
2. Higher education means personal economic

advancement to some. They see this advancement as being
largely economic in nature. On the other band, higher
education means societal advancement to others. But, they
also see this advancement as being of an economic nature.
Summary
……………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………
Summary - Synopsis or Abstract of Reports

The abstract is designed to provide the reader with essential information about the report.
There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. The descriptive abstract merely
discusses the report not the subject. In contrast, the informative abstract is more detailed and
presents some of the salient facts, major data and generalizations in the report coupled with the
conclusions and the recommendations. Unlike the descriptive abstract, the informative one can
serve as a substitute for the entire report.
EXAMPLE OF SYNOPSIS of Report
SYNOPSIS The first paragraph of this

synopsis is a brief abstract.
It indicates in short what the
There has never been a systematized program of
report is about.
ball bearing needs analysis at Irannational Assembly
Unit since the inception of the company. As a result,
the use of ball bearing in car production has been
The second and third
haphazard, inefficient and costly in terms of both time
paragraphs of this abstract
and money.
constitute the detailed
abstract portion of the
The writer surveyed ball bearing usage at this synopsis. It indicates,
unit to come up with over thirty-five different generally, what the writer
systems of placement and bearing housing has found in his survey and
procedures, most of which were redundant. what recommendations he
has made as a result of that
The writer found that five different types of survey.
bearings and their housings could be substituted for The abstract does not list all
the aforementioned thirty-five types. He thirty-five ball bearings and
recommended the implementation of a bearing their housings, for that is not

necessary to do in this
reduction program immediately.
abstract. It was enough to
give the number of different
bearing types.
Writing an Abstract
Abstracts are more important than ever. We have an ever-increasing need for quick access
to information. Think of those search engines results that you find on Internet sites. If the first
few lines were an abstract, you'd know whether you should go and read it. Instead, you often
have to wade through link after link until you find what you were after.
So how do you write an abstract?
Once you've finished writing, stop and think about the document.
1. What is the main subject?

2. What is the main conclusion?
3. What is its primary purpose?
4. What would you expect the reader to do with this document?
Collect this together and write a sentence - this is your topic sentence.
You need to write one topic sentence that covers the entire document, regardless of whether
the document is a one-page letter or a thousand-page manual.
The purpose of an abstract is to give a reader a brief summary of a report. Based on the
abstract, the reader will often decide if he or she wants to read the whole report.
An abstract is written after the report is finished and usually contains five elements in the
following order: background, purpose, methodology, results, and a conclusion or
recommendation. Table below (Weissberg and Buker, 1990, p. 186) explains the five elements.
Abstract elements
Order Of Typical Elements included In an

ABSTRACT
B = some background information
P = the principal activity (or purpose) of the study and its
scope
M = some information about the methodology used in the study
R = the most important results of the study
C = a statement of conclusion or recommendation
The verb tenses in an abstract correspond to the tenses used in the report. Next table (Weissberg and
Buker, 1990, p. 192) shows examples of the elements and their verb tenses.
Abstract Elements
B Background information (present tense)

Example: In order to reduce costs, Thompson Consulting
needs to find an alternative material for a top-secret
military jet engine.
P Purpose (past tense/present perfect tense)
Example: Researchers tested aluminum alloy 6061, which
is less expensive than the original zirconia alloy, to
determine if it would be an acceptable replacement
material.
Example: Because of its lower cost, aluminum alloy 6061
has been tested to determine if it would be an acceptable
replacement material.
M Methodology (past tense)
Example: Researchers conducted hardness and tensile
strength tests on aluminum alloy 6061 samples that were
heated and air-cooled, heated and water-cooled, and
untreated.
R Results (past tense)
Example: The alloy met the requirements of minimum
hardness (21,000 psi) and tensile strength (65 K) when
subjected to temperature changes from 25ºC to 625ºC.
C Conclusions (present tense)
Example: These results suggest that aluminum alloy 6061
can replace the zirconia alloy in the jet engines.
Taking Notes: Ray Kroc - the "Big Mac" Man

When you do research for a piece of writing, it is tempting to copy. After all, you have just
found the perfect webpage with all the information you need. What's more, the author writes far
better than you can, so why spoil it? Oh, and you've only got 10 minutes so it would be so easy to
just copy the whole thing and paste it into a Word document ...
No, no, no! Don't even think about it! It's wrong to steal someone else's work; you'll probably
get caught; and you'll learn nothing. So if you're a lazy, unprincipled cheat with no wish to get
better at writing, go ahead - be a loser. But if you respect yourself and want to improve your
writing skills, then take the time to read the webpage and understand it. Make notes. You can use
the notes to write your own text later.
Imagine that you have been asked to write a biography of Ray Kroc, the man who made
MacDonalds so successful. Your biography is to be published in a magazine for 11-13 year olds.
There's already a good biography at www.biography.com but it's too long and the language is
probably too difficult for your readers. I have taken notes from the original biography. Study how
I've done this below.
Notice how I have not just copied the original biography. Instead, I have made notes. My
notes include only the main details of Ray Kroc’s life; they are much shorter than the original
sentences; and they often use simpler language than the original biography. When you do
research, you should try to make notes in a similar way. Do not just copy and paste!
EXERCISE:
Use the notes below to write a shorter biography of Ray Kroc, aimed at an audience of 11-13
year olds. You will need at least three paragraphs, so think carefully about how to separate your
information into chunks.
Ray Kroc (owner of the McDonald’s fast food restaurant chain)
• b. 1902, Oak Park, Illinois

• ambulance driver in WW1 at 15 yrs old
• after war, sold paper cups
• worked for a while as a jazz pianist and in real estate in Florida
• in 1937, met the inventor of a food-mixer, bought the marketing rights and spent 17 years
selling it all over USA
• in 1954, heard of two brothers, Mac and Dick McDonald, who ran a v. successful burger
restaurant in San Bernadino, California - cheap burgers, french fries, and milkshakes
produced in fast, assembly-line style
• did a franchise deal with the brothers and opened a branch in Des Plaines, Illinois in April
1955
• in 1961 there were over 130 McDonald’s restaurants and Kroc bought the chain from the
McDonalds for $2.7 million
• Kroc emphasized cleanliness, quality, speed and low prices
• introduced a number of gimmicks – e.g. Ronald McDonald, the happy-go-lucky clown
• at the time of his death in 1984, the McDonald’s chain had over 7,500 international outlets
with annual sales exceeding $8 billion
• Kroc gave a lot to charities, esp. ones supporting research into multiple sclerosis, arthritis,
and diabetes (he himself suffered from diabetes and it killed his daughter)
• Kroc was married three times – his third wife, Joan, has continued his spirit of helping the
less fortunate – e.g. over $100 million to the Ronald McDonald House Charities, which
provides temporary housing to the families of children undergoing cancer treatment
How people read papers

Very few papers are read from the beginning to the end. Most people read journals sitting
in a library. They pick up the journal, look at the contents list, see a title that Is Interesting, turn
to that page and read the abstract, then they may look at the figures, then the tables, then the rest
of the paper. There are two types of reader for your paper. One is the expert in your field who will
want to get all the Information out of the paper. But most are casual readers who will only be
interested In your results as a background to their own work.
Today a lot of information is passed around the world in the form of titles and abstracts.
There are many organizations publishing abstracts of articles relating to a specific subject, for
example the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux in the UK, which publishes a series of abstract
journals with very extensive indexes to guide people to the papers. Another sort of journal is
Current Contents which prints the complete contents pages of the journals it receives, with a
number of indexes with keywords, place names, etc.
There are also many electronic databases available today with the same sort of information
in them. From all this, it is obvious that it will be the title and then the abstract of your paper that
will attract readers first.
Your paper will also have to compete with the thousands of other papers published on the
same topic. So, this is how you should look at your own paper, and write it with the following
points in mind:
TITLE attracts the expert and interests the casual reader
ABSTRACT stimulates the expert to read the paper and supplies the casual reader with
definite Information
FIGURES
& TABLES summarize your results to the person scanning the article
RESULTS give more detail
Rest of Paper read for information
Reading this list will make you realize just how important the title of your paper is, and also
the abstract. The only way readers will be attracted to your article as they scan a contents list will
be by the title you have written. This is also true in computerized databases. Remember that in
many cases it will be the title of your paper that will first attract the reader to your paper.
Physically the title

and abstract are
quite small (left), but
they are extremely
important in terms of
getting the paper
noticed in contents
lists and abstract
Journals (right).
English For Special Purposes AUT – Chemical Engineering Dep.
How you must write papers
Look at the way that the articles in the journal you have chosen are subdivided. This layout
will give you a valuable clue about how to start planning your article. Most types of research
article follow the classic pattern of:
Answering the questions:
Introduction:
“Why did I do the work and what were the objectives — what did I
want to find out?”
Materials:
“What did I use and how did you use it?”
Methods:
“What did I do and how did I do it?”
Results:
“What happened?”
Discussion:
“What does it all mean?”
Conclusions:
“What are the Implications?”
“Who helped me?”
References:
“Who have I cited in the text?”
The questions you answer when planning a paper help you break the paper down
into its elements, which can be explained as follows:
1. The reason for doing the work
2. What was known and what was not known before the investigation was started
and the logic leading to the experiments
3. What the work was expected to show, or the objectives, and the hypothesis under
test
4. The setting and the conditions of the experiment that eliminate variation
5. The experimental plan
6. The methods used
7. How the data were collected
8. The methods of analyzing the data and the statistical techniques
9. The results obtained
10. The validity and meaning of the results and the conclusions to be drawn from them
11. Implications of the results in relation to other work
12. Directions for future work
13. References to other work in the field
Understanding and Discussing Data in Graphs
Read the following text and use the information in it to complete the bar chart
below. The first set of "bars" has been done for you as an example. Please use the same
shading for the other bars.
Air pollution rates in the USA increased significantly during

the second half of the 20th century. Three gases dominated this
trend. Sulfur dioxide emissions during World War 2 totaled roughly
17.6 million metric tons (MT) per year but rose to nearly 20 million
MT in 1950. As manufacturing industries expanded, the level of
emissions remained high and by 1970 had increased to 28.3 MT per
year. Over the next decade, however, air quality improved as a
result of stricter laws and cleaner technology so that emissions fell
to 23.5 million MT in 1980 and just about 22 million in 1990.
Meanwhile, emissions of Nitrogen Oxide – another "greenhouse

gas" – rose steadily. Between 1940 and 1950 they climbed from 6.8
million to 9.3 million MT. In the following decade they increased by
a further 3.5 million MT and soared to 18.3 million MT in 1970.
Throughout the following 20 years the annual level was around 23
million MT.
Another dangerous gas, Carbon Monoxide, is emitted by motor

vehicles and domestic heating appliances. In 1940 81.5 million MT
were emitted, rising to 86.1 million MT in 1950. An additional 2
million tons were emitted in 1960 and the figure increased to
slightly over 100 million MT in 1970. With rising car ownership
during the next two decades, carbon monoxide levels soared,
reaching 114 million tons in 1980, but fell to 98 million MT in 1990
(probably due to improved car exhaust filters).
Source: US Bureau of the Census, Table No. 374. "National Air Pollutant Emissions 1940-1994"
Study the following notes in order to learn some of the language you may need when writing
(or talking) about changes in graphs that cover different points in time (e.g. months, years,
seasons).
     
Noun an increase a decrease
a rise a fall
a growth a decline
an upward trend a downward trend
a drop
Verb increased decreased
rose fell
grew declined
doubled (x2) dropped
shot up   plunged  
soared   slumped  
QUICK SLOW
Adjective rapid slight
sharp gradual
steep steady
dramatic
marked
significant
Adverb rapidly slightly
sharply gradually
steeply steadily
dramatically by ___%
markedly
significantly
by ___%
fivefold / tenfold (etc)

in 1998
March 2004
the 19th century
during the summer months
World War 1
the last century
over the next decade
between 1960 and 1990
1. Use the information in the following line graph to complete the text below it. (You can refer to
the language notes above if necessary.)
Source: Energy Information Administration
Oil consumption ___________ ___________ly between 1950 and 1980. Then

it ___________ ___________ly until the mid-eighties but since then has
___________ ___________ly. Natural gas consumption has followed a very similar
pattern. Coal consumption , on the other hand, ___________ ___________ly in the
mid-fifties but over the past forty years has ___________ ___________ly.
Nuclear technology was only developed in the late sixties and production of nuclear
electricity has ___________ ___________ly since then.
2. Use the information in the following bar chart to complete the text below it.
Source: UK Commission for Integrated Transport (http://www.cfit.gov.uk)
The general trend in the last 30 years of the 20th century was that British
people walked less. Between 1970 and 1980 the average number of kilometres
___________ from 470 to 458 per person per year. Over the next decade there
was a very ___________ ___________ as car ownership increased. The annual
distance walked ___________ to 408 kms in 1985 and ___________ as far as 397
kms at the end of the decade. Since then there has been a ___________
___________, possibly due to increased public awareness. However, we still walk
far too little and health experts have warned that obesity and related diseases are
on the increase.
Punctuation
Ap. Apostrophe use. Use apostrophes to indicate possessive forms. For example, the coat
belonging to Bob would be "Bob's coat," not "Bobs coat." A toy belonging to two sisters would be
"the sisters' toy" and not "the sister's toy"; the latter form would apply if you were discussing
only one sister.
• Apostrophes are used only rarely to form plurals. NOT "The company's held a joint
picnic" but "The companies held a joint picnic."
• Although decades used to be written using the apostrophe (the 1920's), currently the
correct practice is to omit the apostrophe: the 1920s.
• The same holds true for most plurals of abbreviations that used to have apostrophes: CDs,
DVDs, TVs, URLs.
• According to the Chicago Manual of Style (15th ed.), "To avoid confusion, lowercase letters
and abbreviations with two or more interior periods or with both capital and lowercase
letters form the plural with an apostrophe and an s" (7.16). Example: M.A.'s and Ph.D.'s or
MAs and PhD's (both are correct); x's and y's, p's and q's.
Agr. Agreement. This notation may refer to subject-verb agreement or noun-pronoun

agreement.
As/like: "Like" is a preposition; it can be used only with nouns. My love is like a red, red
rose. "As" is a conjunction; it is used with clauses (containing a subject and a verb). The readers
felt as if they were watching a play.
Block quotation. Quotations comprising more than 4 lines of text are usually set off as block
quotations. Here are a few hints for using block quotations:
• Indent the text 10 spaces from the left margin (in Word, hit the Increase Indent button
twice).
• Do not single-space the quotation.
• Block quotations are usually introduced with a full sentence with a colon before the
quotation.
• Do not use quotation marks around the quotation. The fact that it is set apart from the text
shows that it is a quotation.
• In MLA format, put the citation information (Smith 123) after the period at the end of the
quotation.
• Block quotations are usually used within paragraphs; it is not necessary to start a new
paragraph after using a block quotation.
• Most important: use only as much of the quotation as you need. The reader will expect to
see an analysis of the passage that is about the same length as the passage itself.
Colon. Colons are used to introduce lists, quotations, and final appositives. They typically
are used like this: general statement or idea: more specific statement, idea, or example.
• Example: She liked three things: bats, snakes, and toads. In this sentence, the phrase "three
things" is the general part of the equation; the phrase "bats, snakes, and toads" constitutes
the specific part.
• Example: John F. Kennedy inspired a generation with these words: "Ask not what your
country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." In this example, "these
words" is the general part of the equation, which is followed (after the colon) by the
specific quotation that relates to it.
• A good test for a colon is to see whether you can substitute a period for a colon; if not--that
is, if the colon does not occur after a full sentence--then the colon should not be used either.
NOT Three things he liked are: bats, snakes, and toads but Three things he liked are bats,
snakes, and toads.
• Colons are used after "as follows" but never after "such as."
Commas between two parts of a compound sentence. A compound sentence contains two
independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, so, yet), and it
requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction.
• Example: She thought that The DaVinci Code was nonsense, but he believed its claims.
Note that two items in other kinds of compounds do not require commas.
• Example: NOT She walked into the water, and waded across the creek BUT She walked into
the water and waded across the creek OR She walked into the water, and she waded across the
creek.
• Example: NOT Students wanted to do their research, and to increase their understanding
BUT Students wanted to do their research and to increase their understanding.
Commas after introductory clauses and phrases. Use commas after introductory clauses and
phrases to prevent confusion. Example: NOT After eating the girl went to her room but After
eating, the girl went to her room.
Commas after items in a series. A comma should be used after each of the items in a series of
three or more. Example: He liked bats, snakes, and toads. Don't use a comma if there are only two
items.
CS. Comma Splice.
A comma splice occurs when two sentences are joined only with a comma: We went to the
movies, however, they stayed home. Comma splices can be corrected in four ways:
• By breaking the sentences into two using a period ("We went to the movies. They stayed
home);
• By using a coordinating conjunction ( and, or, but, for, so, yet )
• By using a subordinating conjunction such as "because";
• Or by using a semicolon to separate the parts ("We went to the movies; however, they
stayed home").
Cosmic opening. The term "cosmic opening" refers to an introductory sentence that is far
too general for the content of the paper. The "cosmic opening" begins somewhere in the dawn of
time before moving on to the real subject of the paper: "Throughout history, many people have
experienced problems in their lives" or "As long as human civilizations have existed, scapegoats
have existed in human society." Although the opening sentence of a paper may be somewhat more
general than what follows, it should not be as general as these statements.
DM. Dangling modifier. Dangling modifiers occur when subjects are left out of sentences.
For example, in "Driving through the woods, a bear stopped our car" the "we" that should be the
subject has been left out. What remains suggests that the bear is driving the car. A better sentence
would be as follows: "While we were driving through the woods, a bear stopped our car."
Dropped Quotation. A dropped quotation is a quotation inserted into the text without a
signal phrase, as in the following example: The Swede feared for his life. "You are all out to get
me." Note how the quotation in this example is "dropped" into the paragraph so that the reader is
unsure who is speaking. Instead, dropped quotations must be integrated grammatically into the
text through the use of a signal phrase. Example: The Swede showed that he feared for his life when
he cried, "You are all out to get me." OR The Swede feared for his life: "You are all out to get me."
Ellipsis. An ellipsis, which is indicated by three spaced dots (. . . ), shows that something has
been omitted from the middle of a quotation. According to the Chicago Manual of Style, ellipses are
typically not used at the beginning or end of a quotation (see 11.57 ff) unless the quotation begins
"with a capitalized word (such as a proper name) that did not appear at the beginning of a
sentence in the original" (11.65).
Fact, Opinion, Belief, Theory. People are often confused about the differences among these
concepts, and the words are often misused.
• A fact is an idea generally acknowledged to be true by rational people. It is based on

evidence and logic.
• A belief is an idea widely held by a group of people; its truth is evident to them but not to
others outside the group. A particular group may call its belief a "fact," but that does not
make it so. A belief may be treated as a fact by those within the group, but those outside the
group may not agree.
• An opinion is an idea held by an individual. People often use the term "theory" to describe
their opinions, but individual theories are not subject to the same rigorous testing as
scientific theory; "theory" in this individual sense has a very different meaning from
"scientific theory."
• An assertion, which is often used in writing, is an arguable idea similar to an opinion, but it
must be supported by evidence.
• A generalization is a statement of a conclusion that seems to be based on certain evidence,
but generalizations, like assertions, must be supported with evidence.
• A scientific theory is an idea generally acknowledged by rational people to be the best
explanation of a natural phenomenon. It is based on physical evidence, the accumulated
results of scientific research, and the known laws of science (e.g., the law of conservation of
matter). A scientific theory is testable and based on evidence; it is not merely an opinion.
Fragment. A fragment is an incomplete sentence: "We went to the beach. A nice place to be
on a hot day." The second part of the quotation is a fragment. Fragments need to be corrected by
adding a subject or verb where needed, or by joining the fragment to the preceding sentence.
Fused/Run-on. A fused sentence occurs when two separate sentences are punctuated as a
single sentence: We went to the movies they stayed home. Fused sentences are like comma splices
except that they do not have a comma where the two sentences are joined. They can be corrected
in the same four ways:
1. With a coordinating conjunction (We went to the movies, and they stayed home)
2. With a semicolon (We went to the movies; they stayed home)
3. With a period (We went to the movies. They stayed home)
4. With a subordinating conjunction (When we went to the movies, they stayed home).
Hyphen. Hyphens should be used in the following ways:
• In certain nouns with prefixes: self-esteem, all-American, ex-husband, and so forth.

• In compound adjectives used before nouns. Example: rain-soaked roof; rose-colored
glasses.
• In numbers: twenty-five, forty-seven.
Indefinite use of "you" and "it." Avoid sentences that use an indefinite "you."
• Example: "In the fourteenth century, you had to struggle to survive." Revision: "In the
fourteenth century, a person had to struggle simply to survive" or "In the fourteenth century,
people struggled to survive."
• Example: "In the book, it says that half of all children died before the age of five."
• Revision: "Jones's book The Middle Ages states that half of all children died before the age of
five."
Intensifiers. The overuse of intensifiers such as "so" or "very" (and, in punctuation, the
exclamation point), may be a signal that the paper is relying on emphatic statements ("It was very
cold!") rather than providing evidence of the assertion. If you find a pattern of these in your
paper, reread the paper and ask yourself whether the case you're making could be supported
more effectively.
Diction. Informal level of diction. Weblog posts, personal literature journals, and other
informal venues are places to try out your ideas and opinions using informal language; reaction
papers might be another place for informal language. Formal papers use assertions and evidence
to prove their points. Simply stating something like "I think Emily Dickinson was crazy" does not
constitute evidence; it is an opinion (see Fact, Opinion, Belief, Theory above).
I think/I feel/I believe. These can almost always be omitted. It's your paper; of course you
think/believe/feel the statement that follows these words.
Italics/underlining. Use italics or underlining to indicate the titles of books, movies,

newspapers, magazines, and other materials that are a volume in themselves. Use quotation marks
to indicate titles of works that are enclosed in a volume: short stories, essays, articles, poems. Do
not underline, italicize, or put quotation marks around your own title.
Mixed sentences. A mixed sentence occurs when the subject and predicate of a sentence
don't match.
• For example, " When I bake cookies relaxes me " could really be two different sentences:
"Baking cookies relaxes me" or "When I bake cookies, I relax" .
• A second kind of mixed sentence is more subtle: "The change in population grew slowly."
Here, the change doesn't grow slowly; the population does.
• A third kind of mixed sentence uses the linking verb is : An example of this is when the
Swede laughs . This could be reworded as A good example occurs when the Swede laughs or
A good example of this is the Swede's laughter at Johnnie's fate.
• A fourth kind is as follows: The reason he was late is because he overslept. Since "because"
isn't a noun, it can't be placed after the linking verb "is." The sentence could be rephrased
in two ways:
o The reason he was late is that he overslept.
o He was late because he overslept.
MLA. MLA format requires the author's name and page number for parenthetical
references. For first citations, the title is also incorporated into the signal phrase, or phrase
introducing the quotation. Example: In William Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily," the townspeople
view Miss Emily as "a tradition, a duty, and a care, a sort of hereditary obligation on the town" (267).
If the author's name does not occur in the signal phrase, it should appear in the parenthetical
reference: The townspeople viewed Miss Emily as "a tradition, a duty, and a care" (Faulkner 267).
Note that there is no comma between the author's name and the page number. Also note that the
period follows the closing parenthesis rather than being placed inside the quotation marks.
NC. No comma is needed between two parts of a compound construction. For example, no
comma is needed between the two verbs in this sentence: In "Young Goodman Brown," Hawthorne
depicts the stranger as representing the devil, and portrays him as being a part of us.
NCSV. No comma is necessary between subject and verb. NOT The house in the middle of
the block, was painted purple. BUT The house in the middle of the block was painted purple.
Noun-pronoun agreement. Although "they" and "their" are often used informally in speech
to refer to singular nouns, using "they" or "their" to refer to a singular noun is incorrect, since
these are plural forms. Pronouns should agree in number with the noun to which they refer.
• NOT "A student knows that they should study to get good grades" but "A student knows that
he or she should study to get good grades" or, even better, "Students know that they should
study hard to get good grades."
• NOT "A student works hard to earn their grades" but "A student works hard to earn his
or her grades" or "Students work hard to earn their grades."
• Generally, use a singular pronoun when the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun ( someone,
each, everyone, anyone ). Example: NOT " Each student got their books" BUT "Each
student got his or her books" OR (better) "All the students got their books."
Pronoun Reference. Vague pronoun reference occurs when the antecedent of the pronoun isn't
clear.
• Example: "Caitlin told Julie that she was a terrible soccer player." Who's the bad player,
Caitlin or Julie?
• Example: Jason had not drawn a map for the forty-mile hike, which disturbed us. What's
disturbing here--the hike, or the lack of a route? Revised: Jason had not drawn a map for
the forty-mile hike, a lack of planning that disturbed us.
Restrictive and nonrestrictive elements . (See also this link.)Nonrestrictive clauses and
phrases are "extra information"; if they are removed, the meaning of the sentence remains the
same.
• Nonrestrictive elements should be set off with commas. Example: There are, however, some
differences between the two men. In this example, the word however, a conjunctive adverb,
is "extra information" for the sentence, although it implies a contradiction or qualification
of what has gone before.
• Transitional expressions such as however , in fact , and similar phrases should be set off
with commas. Example: The Magna Carta, which was signed in 1215, is a distant ancestor of
our Bill of Rights. The phrase "which was signed in 1215" could be omitted without
changing the basic meaning of the sentence.
• On the other hand, restrictive clauses and phrases would change the meaning of the
sentence if removed. Example: The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world. or The car
which I purchased last summer has a flat tire. Restrictive elements are not set off with
commas.
• The pronoun "that" always signals a restrictive element.
• One common misuse of nonrestrictive commas involves the titles of literary works. For
example, the commas around the title here suggest that it is extra information and that
James Joyce only wrote one story: "In his story, "Araby," James Joyce writes of a young
boy's initiation." The correct sentence should read as follows: "In his story "Araby,"
James Joyce tells the story of a young boy's initiation."
Quotation Marks. Quotation marks are used when another person's words are used, and
their placement varies according to the sentence.
• With periods and commas. With the exception of MLA citation format, quotation marks are
placed OUTSIDE periods and commas. Example: James said, "We must grant the artist his
donnée."
• With semicolons and colons. Quotation marks go INSIDE semicolons and colons. Example:
Howells promoted the "smiling aspects of life"; he also encouraged writers to look at the "real
grasshopper."
• With exclamation points and question marks. Quotation marks may go INSIDE or OUTSIDE
exclamation points and question marks.
o Example: Did Sherman once say, "War is all hell"?
o Example: Hitler once asked, "Is Paris burning?"
• Quotations within an already existing quotation are marked with single quotation marks.
Semi. Semicolons separate sentence parts of equal grammatical rank, such as independent
clauses or phrases in a series in which the individual items contain commas..
o Example: We wanted to leave; however, they wanted to stay.

o Example: He had collected the following: thirty-two fountain pens, each with its own case;
forty bottles of ink; a shaker of sand, which he did not need to use since the ink was of the
quick-drying kind; and a green paper desk blotter.
• Semicolons should not be used to separate main clauses from dependent clauses or phrases.
NOT We went to the beach; a nice place to be on a hot day, since the part after the semicolon
would be considered a fragment, but We went to the beach, a nice place to be on a hot day.
S/V AGR (subject-verb agreement) indicates a singular verb with a plural subject or vice
versa. Be sure to use the appropriate verb with singular and plural subjects. NOT Source
information from the library provide additional information. BUT Source information from the
library provides additional information.
Title. Titles should be marked with italics (underlining) or quotation marks, depending on
the work being discussed.
• Titles of works that appear within a volume, such as short stories, poems, and essays,
should be placed in quotation marks: "Araby," "The Prophecy," "Dulce et Decorum Est."
• Titles of works that are a volume in themselves, such as books, magazines, newspapers,
plays, and movies, should be set off with underlining or italics: Hamlet, Death of a
Salesman .
• Your own title should neither be underlined nor placed in quotation marks.
Who, whom. "Who" is the subject case form, like "I" or "he," which are also in the subject
case. "Whom" is the object case, like "me" or "him." Use "who" if you can rephrase your
sentence or clause using "I" or "he" and "whom" if you would use "him" or "me." For example,
in the question "Who/whom wore my WSU sweatshirt?" you'd answer the question with "He (not
"him") wore it." You'd therefore use "Who," as in "Who wore my WSU sweatshirt?" In the
sentence "The person (who, whom) accompanied us to the beach," which would you say: "He" or
"him" accompanied us to the beach? Since you'd say "he," use the subject case, "who": "The
person who accompanied us to the beach."
WW=Wrong word. The "WW" symbol indicates a word that may be correctly spelled but is
incorrectly used. It may mean that a preposition is being used in nonstandard ways ("we rode on
the car" instead of "we rode in the car") or it may mean that the word used does not fit the
meaning or context of the sentence.
Writing Effective Comparison or Contrast Essays
A Comparison or Contrast essay is an essay in which you either compare something or contrast
something. A comparison essay is an essay in which you emphasize the similarities, and a contrast essay
is an essay in which you emphasize the differences. We use comparison and contrast thinking when
deciding which university to attend, which car to buy, or whether to drive a car or take a bus or an airplane
to a vacation site.
In this section, two classic organizational patterns of a comparison or contrast essay will be
discussed. One is called block arrangement of ideas; the other is called point-by-point or alternating
arrangement of ideas. Suppose you are interested in showing the differences between vacationing in the
mountains and vacationing at the beach. You will then write a contrast composition. One way to arrange
your material is to use the block arrangement which is to write about vacationing in the mountains in one
paragraph and vacationing at the beach in the next. If you mention a particular point in the mountains
paragraph, you must mention the same point in the beach paragraph, and in the same order. Study the
following outline, which shows this kind of organization. The introductory paragraph is followed by the
mountains paragraph, the beach paragraph, then the conclusion; the fully developed essay is just four
paragraphs.
Block Arrangement (four paragraphs)

Introduction in which you state your purpose which is to discuss the
differences between vacationing in the mountains or at the beach.
Mountain
A. Climate
B. Types of Activities
C. Location
Beach
A. Climate
B. Types of Activities
C. Location
Conclusion
A second way to organize this material is to discuss a particular point about vacationing in the
mountains and then immediately to discuss the same point about vacationing at the beach. This is called
point-by-point or alternating arrangement. An outline of this organization follows.
Point-by-Point or Alternating Arrangement (five paragraphs)

I. Introduction in which you state your purpose which is to discuss
differences between vacationing in the mountains or at the beach.
II. First difference between mountains and beaches is climate
A. Mountains
B. Beach
III. Second difference between mountains and beaches are types of
activities
A. Mountains
B. Beach
IV. Third difference between mountains and beaches is the location
A. Mountains
B. Beach
V. Conclusion
Application: Block or Point-by-Point
Examine the comparison or contrast essays that follow, and decide whether the authors used block
arrangement or point-by-point (or alternating) arrangement. Notice how other authors structure their
essays. Five paragraphs or four? Block arrangement or point-by-point arrangement? Noticing these
things will help you become a better, more conscious reader and writer.
Vacationing at the Beach or in the Mountains
People are always looking forward to their vacation period. There are many options
where to choose. I think that the two most common places people choose for taking a
vacation are the beaches and the mountains. Both places offer a variety of fun activities.
The beach offers activities that the mountain cannot offer and vice versa. The mountain
and the beach are totally different. The purpose of this essay is to contrast the climate,
types of activities and locations of beaches and mountains.
I’m going to discuss mountains first. The three aspects I’m going to discuss are
climate, types of activities and location. Climate is always important in order to enjoy
vacations. If a person dislikes cold weather, he or she might have a hard time in the
mountains. The cold climate in the mountains is the first barrier to enjoying them, but the
climate and the temperature of these zones also determine the types of activities they
offer. Snowboarding, mountain climbing, mountain biking, hiking, and skiing are some
activities people can enjoy when going to the mountains. There are many regions that
have mountains where people can go and have a great vacation. Canada is a country
located in North America and contains many mountain vacation sites where people can
go and have fun.
I’m going to discuss the beach second. The three aspects I’m going to discuss are
climate, types of activities and location. Warm climate is one of the most important
features that the beach has. Sun and fun are two words that describe the beach. The
temperature in those places is always hot. The sea and the warm climate determine the
activities that are available at the beach. People can swim, play volleyball, play soccer,
and ride water bikes. In most coastal sites, there are discos and restaurants where people
can dance or party throughout the night. Mexico offers many amazing coastal sites to
visit. Acapulco and Cancun are two of the most beautiful and famous beaches in the
word.
It doesn’t matter what place a person decides to choose. The fun is 100% guaranteed.
People often choose one of these two options to spend their vacations. Depending on what
the person likes is what he or she will choose. I like the beach better than the mountains,
but sometimes it is better to take a risk and try a different place to enjoy. (399 words)
Is the essay above organized using block or point-by-point arrangement of details? Note first the
essay is four paragraphs, (1) an introduction, (2) a paragraph about vacationing in the mountains, (3) a
paragraph about vacationing at the beach, and (4) a conclusion. This is the block arrangement, the first
block containing information about mountains and the second block containing information about the
beach.
The following essay contrasts eating fresh foods and canned foods. Is its organization block or
point-by-point? How many paragraphs does it contain? How many "differences" between fresh foods and
canned foods does the author discuss?
Consuming Fresh Foods Instead of Canned Foods

Eating is an activity that we as humans do at least two times a day. We live in a world where the
variety of food is immense, and we are responsible for what we eat. We decide what we are about to eat
and how it will affect our bodies. The purpose of this essay is to compare and contrast the differences
between eating fresh foods instead of canned foods. The three main differences are flavor, health benefits,
and cost.
The most notable difference between these two kinds of foods is their flavor. Fresh foods have
great flavor and taste because they keep all their natural conditions. Canned foods however, lack a lot of
its flavor characteristics because there are some other chemical products added to the natural foods. It is
logical that the fresh foods will have a greater taste and flavor when consumed just because of the time in
which they have been prepared.
Comparing both types of foods we notice another difference. There is a health factor that affects
both of them. Canned foods lose some of the original fresh food nutrients when stored, and also it has to
be tinned with many conservatives and chemical factors that prolong the shelf life and apparent freshness
of the food but could also become toxic if consumed too often.
Yet another difference between these two types of foods is the cost. Canned foods are much more
expensive than fresh foods. Here the benefit of buying tinned foods is that they are easier to find, for
example, in a supermarket instead of the market like the fresh foods, and they require less work to prepare
than fresh foods, just open and serve.
Here are the main three differences between buying fresh foods and buying canned foods. As we
can see it comes down to a personal choice, based on the time each person has, the money and the
importance he/she gives to his/her nutrition and health. Therefore it is important that you consider your
possibilities and choose the best type of foods for your convenience and lifestyle. (347 words)
The essay above is the "classic" five paragraph essay that all non-native speakers of English should learn
to write. This essay also contains the "classic" point-by-point organization, each point stated and developed in a
single paragraph. The essay contains five paragraphs that contrast three differences between fresh and canned
foods. The essay includes (1) an introduction, (2) the development of the first difference (flavor), (3) the
development of the second difference (health benefits), (4) the development of the third difference (cost), and
(5) a conclusion. In the true classic tradition, the three main differences in this contrast essay—flavor, health
benefits, and cost—are stated both in the introduction and the conclusion as well. My own observation is this:
US kids are taught to organize and write five paragraph essays like this from early childhood, but they rarely
attain the degree of perfection of the essay above.
This ends the first part of this page, the explanation of the differences between the classic organizational
styles of comparison and contrast essays, (1) block and (2) point-by-point or alternating arrangement.
How to Support Your Point of View though Comparison and Contrast
It was stated in the first part of this paper that we use comparison or contrast in nearly everything
we do. When deciding what to eat, for example, we often choose between fresh foods or canned foods,
exactly as the writer above described. However, do you know the preference of the previous author? Did
he state it directly? Why or why not? What other ways could this essay have ended?
An important point to remember when writing comparison or contrast essays is that many times
writers use comparison or contrast to support a personal point of view. Whenever possible and
appropriate, writers should support their own views. For example, the following paragraphs are from the
book, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by Robert Persig. Note that Persig's description of the
differences between riding in a car and riding a motorcycle is not neutral. Instead, Persig uses comparison
and contrast to serve a persuasive aim: to show the reader why riding a motorcycle is more stimulating
than driving a car (Persig, by Heffernan and Lincoln).
Which do You Prefer?
You see things vacationing on a motorcycle in a way that is completely different from any other.
In a car you're always in a compartment, and because you're used to it, you don't realize that through that
car window everything you see is just more TV. You're a passive observer, and it is all moving by you
boringly in a frame.
On a cycle the frame is gone. You're completely in contact with it all. You're in the scene, not
just watching it anymore, and the sense of presence is overwhelming. That concrete whizzing by five
inches below your foot is the real thing, the same stuff you walk on. It's right there, so blurred you can't
focus on it, yet you can put your foot down and touch it anytime, and the whole thing, the whole
experience, is never removed from immediate consciousness.
Persig's choice of travel is obvious. In a car, you are in a compartment seeing just more TV, a passing
observer. On a motorcycle, however, you're in contact with it all, the real thing, the whole thing, the whole
experience, never removed from immediate consciousness. In writing a comparison or contrast essay, use
contrast to show your own preference, to support your own point of view, to persuade the reader which option
you prefer.
How to Write an Effective Comparison or Contrast Essay: Summary
1. Know what organizational style you are using. Whether you use the block arrangement or
point-by-point arrangement, you should be able to identify it. Being able to identify your organization
will not only help you in the organization of your own writing, but it will also help your reader follow the
points you make.
2. State your organization. Remember the "straight line of development" that was discussed in
the introduction requires that you "tell your audience what you are going to tell them; then tell them; then
tell them what you told them." An important objective in academic writing is clarity, and stating your
organization always contributes to clarity. Err on the side of clarity!
3. Keep your audience in mind. Be sure your reader can relate to your topic. After you finish
writing, read your essay from the perspective of your audience. How will they respond to your ideas?
Will they understand what you have written? Will they agree with your main point? Will the support
appear logical to them?
4. Say what you want to say. Write like Robert Persig did in his book, Zen and the Art of
Motorcycle Maintenance. In your essay, make your preference clear as Persig did when he contrasted the
difference between vacationing by car or motorcycle.
Finally, to further clarify how it would be possible to say what you want to say in your writing,
consider which of the following options would YOU prefer, and why? To support your point in each
essay, what characteristics would you choose to contrast, and what support would you use? Can you think
of any other topics that might be fun to contrast?
A. Vacationing in Paris or taking a three-week trip down the Amazon.
B. Growing up in a small town or growing up in a large city.
C. Working for large company or running your own business.
D. _______________________________________
E. _______________________________________
Appendices
Appendix A
Technical
Texts
THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Special Terms
Fossil: The traces or remains of plant or animal life that existed in previous geological ages.
Petroleum, coal, and natural gas are called fossil fuels because they were created from tiny
plants and animals that lived millions of years ago.
Petroleum: A fuel found in mineral deposits under the ground. Petr comes from the Greek
word for rock, oleum from the Greek word for oil—therefore, rock oil, or oil found in rock.
Crude Oil/Crude Petroleum: Oil or petroleum as it comes from the ground. It is not
commercially usable in this form.
Barrel: Forty-two gallons, when speaking of petroleum. This is the usual unit of measure
that is used for oil.
To Seep: To leak slowly. Sometimes oil seeps through the ground to leave traces on the
surface. It is because of seepage that the first known oil deposits were found.
Distillation: A process of heating a mixture to separate lighter sub stances from heavier
ones. The lighter ones are changed into vapor or steam by the heating process. This is the
basis for refining oil into commercial products.
Internal Combustion Engine: The kind of engine
used in automobiles. Power comes from the
explosion of a mixture of fuel and air. The fuel
most often used is gasoline, a petroleum product.
Gasoline, Kerosene, Asphalt: Commercial products
made from petroleum. Gasoline is the lightest,
asphalt the heaviest. Kerosene was often used as a
source of heat and light in the nineteenth century.
Asphalt is used primarily to pave streets.
By-product: A secondary product obtained in the
process of making something else. In the early
days of the oil industry, gasoline was a by-product
in the distillation of petroleum to make kerosene.
Petrochemicals: Chemicals derived from
petroleum. They are used in the creation of
synthetic (man-made) rubber, plastics, and other
substances.
Vocabulary Practice
1. Why can petroleum be called rock oil?
2. What is a fossil? Why are petroleum, coal, and natural gas called fossil fuels?
3. What is crude oil? How useful is it in this form?
4. What does a barrel of oil mean?
5. How were oil deposits first found?
6. What is distillation? What does it have to do with the oil industry?
7. What are gasoline, kerosene, and asphalt? What is each one used for? Which is lightest?
Which is heaviest?
8. Why do we think of the internal combustion engine when we think of gasoline?
9. What is a by‐product? Give an example from the petroleum industry. Can von also give an
example from some other industry?
10. What are petrochemicals? What are they used to make?

The Petroleum Industry
Petroleum, coal, and natural gas are the most widely used sources of energy in the modern
world. They are of primary importance in the industrialized countries, where vast amounts of
energy are consumed to operate all the different kinds of machines that work for mankind today.
These three energy sources are referred to as fossil fuels.
Fossils are the traces or remains of plant or animal life that existed in previous ages, not just
thousands, but millions and even hundreds of millions of years ago. Enormous numbers of living
creatures and plants died. They were covered by sand or mud, which in time was itself covered by
the waters of the seas. Pressure changed the sand and mud into rock that trapped the fossils,
which by then had changed into oil, coal, or gas. Petroleum is composed largely of the remains of
these tiny marine animals and plants that lived so long ago.
Oil in one form or another has been used by mankind for many centuries to provide light
and heat. Until only a relatively short time ago, most of this oil came from animal or vegetable
sources. Olive oil, for example, was used in lamps and for cooking in the ancient civilizations
bordering the Mediterranean. Indeed, it was one of the major articles of trade and commerce in
antiquity; and even now, olive oil is still used all over the world for cooking and other purposes.
Many other kinds of oils have also been commercially important, including oil from sesame seeds
or cottonseed and oil from whales.
Petroleum differs from other oils because it comes from a mineral source rather than an
animal or vegetable source. In fact, the prefix petr- in the word petroleum is derived from the
Greek word for rock. When petroleum first went on the market, it was called rock oil to
distinguish it from all the other kinds of oil. Since then, modern technology has become such an
enormous consumer of energy that petroleum is probably the most valuable single product in the
world. It is indeed often called “black gold.”
Up until the industrial revolution that began in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
human beings did not use energy on any where near the same scale that we do nowadays. Energy
was used almost entirely for heat and light and for the preparation of food. The principal fuels
that were burned to provide energy were wood, some types of animal wastes, and vegetable and
animal oils. Many areas where civilization flourished, such as China and the Mediterranean, were
very nearly deforested despite the relatively low energy requirements that existed until only two or
three hundred years ago. The machines of the ancient world - few and simple by present-day
standards - used the power of water or the muscles of humans or animals. The millstone is the
classic example of a machine turned by water; its use was widespread throughout the
preindustrial world. One can get some idea of the amount of difficult work that the mill stone
saved by comparing it with the implements used for grinding or pounding corn in pre-Columbian
America, where the wheel had not been invented when the first Europeans arrived.
The industrial revolution began in England in the eighteenth century, when many machines
were being invented that would per form various kinds of work more easily and efficiently. These
early machines, the beginning of a flood of technology that has since swept over mankind, were
generally used in the manufacture of textiles. Power for them came from steam, and the energy for
changing water into steam came from burning wood or coal. Coal, one of the three fossil fuels, was
the energy source that made it possible for the industrial revolution to take place. It has only been
since World War II that oil has replaced coal as our primary energy source.
The enormous growth of the petroleum industry has taken place in just a little more than a
hundred years. The origin of the industry can in fact be dated to 1859, when the first underground
oil well was drilled in the United States in Titusville, Pennsylvania. Before that time, the petroleum
that had been marketed-only in small quantities-came from seepage in places where pressure had
forced oil to leak out onto the surface of the ground. Some of these surface seep- ages of oil had
been known for hundreds of years, such as those around Mosul in what is now Iraq.
The pioneer oil well was brought in at a timely moment in the history of energy. For many
years prior to 1859, whale oil had been used for lamps. But by 1859, because overly eager
fishermen had killed too many whales, not as much whale oil was available. The first important
commercial product from crude petroleum was kerosene, which quickly replaced whale oil in the
kerosene stoves that were also developed for heating purposes. A by-product of the distillation of
petroleum in those early years of the industry was asphalt, which was used for paving streets.
Another by-product, for which no use could be found, was gasoline.
After the beginning of the twentieth century, the demand for petroleum increased
enormously as automobiles came into wider and wider use. In 1900 the United States produced 64
million barrels of oil; by 1925 production had increased to 764 million barrels; by 1950 it was
approximately 2 billion barrels. A barrel is the most common measure of oil; it contains forty-two
gallons.
Some of the early experimental automobiles used steam- or battery-generated electricity.
Gasoline turned out to be a more efficient energy source for the internal combustion engine in
automobiles. Gasoline, once an unwanted by-product, suddenly became the most popular fuel in
the world.
Oil by-products have also become more efficient and cheaper to use than other fuels,
especially coal. Heat for our homes, offices, and schools, for example, is furnished to a
considerable degree by oil instead of coal. Oil is now also used to power most forms of
transportation; it has replaced coal in ships and trains almost everywhere in the world. Oil is also
used to lubricate many different kinds of machines, including automobiles. Without lubrication,
the moving parts of our machines would quickly wear out.
Another principal source of energy in the modern world is electricity. Electricity, however,
does not exist in a usable form in nature, and therefore it must be generated. Some electricity is
produced by water power; most of it is produced by steam, but as we have already noted, steam is
the result of changing water to vapor by burning some kind of fuel. Coal was used for this purpose
by most electric power plants until only a few years ago; now oil is used in the majority of
generating plants.
Coal had the original advantage of existing in large quantities close to the earth’s surface. In
addition, the techniques for mining coal were not new; they were essentially the same as those that
had been used for hundreds of years in the mining of metals. But a ton of coal has the energy
equivalent of less than four barrels of oil; furthermore, it is much more difficult to transport.
After 1859 the oil industry quickly developed an extremely complex technology, first to find oil
beneath the earth and then to drill deeper and deeper wells to bring it to the surface. At the same
time, techniques were developed to take advantage of the fact that petroleum was a liquid and
thus could flow. This involved the development of oil pipelines.
Another important factor in the growth of the oil industry has been the development of
petrochemicals. Many products have been created by chemists from petroleum. These include
most of our modern plastics and fertilizers. Indeed, the increase in agricultural productivity -also
known as the green revolution-could not have taken place without petroleum-based chemicals,
including not only those that enrich the soil like fertilizers but also those that kill weeds, insects,
and other pests-herbicides, insecticides, and pesticides.
The greatest problem for the future of the oil industry is that petroleum is not a renewable
natural resource. All the petroleum that exists, no matter whether it is hidden under the earth or
the seas, was created millions of years ago. As the use of oil has increased, so have the predictions
that oil will soon be exhausted. Nevertheless, improved techniques for exploration, drilling, and
recovery of petroleum have kept the supply ahead of the world’s consumption. The oil industry,
however, looking forward to the day when the supply of oil may become exhausted, is engaged in
research to find not only substitutes for oil but also other sources of energy. In the following units,
we will discuss the major aspects of the oil industry-exploration, drilling, recovery, transportation,
and refining. After we have acquired some knowledge about the different phases of the industry
and the kind of work that is involved, we will discuss the distinctive careers that the industry
offers.
Discussion

1. What energy sources are widely used in the modern world?
2. Why are petroleum, coal, and natural gas of primary importance in the industrialized
countries?
3. What are these energy sources called?
4. What are fossils? What is their relationship to oil, coal, and gas?
5. What is petroleum largely composed of?
6. Has oil only been used by mankind in the last two hundred years?
7. Where did most oil come from in the past? Give an example.
8. What are some kinds of oil that have been commercially important?
9. How does petroleum differ from other kinds of oil?
10. How did people distinguish petroleum from other kinds of oil when it first went on the
market?
11. What has made petroleum so valuable since then? What is it often popularly called?
12. Have human beings always used energy on the same scale that we do nowadays?
13. What was energy almost entirely used for before the beginning of the industrial
revolution?
14. What were the principal fuels at that time?
15. What happened in many areas where civilization flourished?
16. What did the machines of the ancient world use for power? What is an example?
17. How can you get an idea of the amount of work that was saved by using the millstone?
18. Where and when did the industrial revolution begin? What were the first machines used
for?
19. What was the source of power for most of the first machines? Where did the energy to
create this power come from?
20. How long did coal remain the principal energy source in the world?
21. How long has it taken the oil industry to grow to its present size?
22. To what time, place, and event can the origin of the industry be dated?
23. How much oil had been marketed before that time? Where had the oil come from? Give
an example.
24. Why was the first oil well brought in at a timely moment in the history of energy?
25. What was the first commercial product to be made from crude petroleum?
26. What were two by‐products from the distillation of petroleum? What were their uses?
27. Why did the demand for petroleum increase enormously after the beginning of the
twentieth century? Give figures to show this increase.
28. What is the common unit of measure for oil?
29. Did all early automobiles use gasoline for fuel? Why did gasoline win out over other fuels?
30. What are some places in which oil has replaced coal as fuel? Why?
31. Why is oil used for lubrication?
32. What is another principal source of energy in the modern world?
33. Why must electricity be generated?
34. How is electricity produced? Which is used more often in electric power plants nowadays,
coal or oil?
35. What original advantages did coal have as a source of energy?
36. In terms of barrels of oil, what is the energy equivalent of a ton of coal?
37. What did the oil industry quickly develop?
38. What further advantage did petroleum have?
39. What has been another factor in the growth of the oil industry?
40. What are some of the products that have been created from petrochemicals?
41. What is the greatest problem for the future of the oil industry?
42. How has the world’s supply of oil been kept ahead of its consumption?
43. What kind of research is the oil industry engaged in?

RECOVERING THE OIL
Special Terms
Oil Reservoir: Sand or porous rock saturated with oil. This is always a more accurate description
of most petroleum deposits than oil pool.
Drive: Natural pressure which forces oil to the surface.
Dissolved-gas Drive: Pressure from gas dissolved in oil. The dissolved gas expands and forces the
oil to move.
Gas-cap Drive: Pressure from a large amount of gas above the oil. The gas expands and forces the
oil to move.
Water Drive: Pressure from water below the oil that forces the oil to move.
Christmas Tree: A system of valves to control the rate of flow at the surface of a particular well.
Secondary Recovery: Reworking an oil field to recover oil that previously could not be brought to
the surface.
Proved Reserves: The amount of oil already discovered that will be recovered by known
technology.
Ultimate Resources: The amount of oil believed to be in the ground based on estimates by oil
geologists. Both proved reserves and ultimate resources are measured in barrels of oil.
Vocabulary Practice

1. What is a more appropriate name for most petroleum deposits than oil pool?
2. How is the term drive used in the petroleum industry?
3. What is a dissolved‐gas drive?
4. What is a gas‐cap drive?
5. What is a water drive?
6. In the petroleum industry, what does a Christmas tree refer to?
7. What is secondary recovery?
8. What are proved reserves?
9. What are ultimate resources?

Recovering the Oil

We have used the term oil pools to refer to deposits of petroleum as though there were
underground lakes of oil. A more accurate term, however, is one that is often used in the
petroleum industry: oil reservoirs. The deposits are, in other words, more often like piles of sand
or porous rock that have been saturated with oil. Oil does not really flow rapidly through sand or
rock, of course; it must be forced to move. There are three kinds of natural drives, as the forces
that cause the oil to move are called. Each drive involves the gas and water that are almost always
found with oil, as we have previously observed.
First is the dissolved-gas drive. Dissolved gas is mixed with the oil. As it expands, it exerts a
pressure which pushes the oil through rock or sand. Recovery is low when this type of drive is
encountered.
Second is the gas-cap drive. Gas has not only dissolved in the oil; a large amount of it has
formed above the oil. As the gas expands, it forces the oil to move through the rock or sand.
Recovery is generally somewhat higher with this kind of drive.
Third is the water drive, in which there is a large amount of water below the oil. Pressure
forces the water upward into the oil-bearing rock or sand and moves the oil ahead of it. It
generally recovers more oil than the other two drives.
If reservoir pressure is not high enough for the oil and water that flow into the well to be
pushed all the way to the surface, then pumping is necessary. This is more expensive than when
natural drives are present, since power for the pumping must be supplied.
In the early days of the oil industry, new wells often came in as gushers. In these wells great
underground pressure forced the oil upward without any control, and it was necessary to wait
until the pressure dropped enough for the oil to flow at a normal rate before of it could be
recovered. Of course, a great deal of oil was wasted when a well gushed in this way.
Today, great care is taken to prevent gushers. They are indeed rare, thanks to the use of
modern technology. The petroleum industry today is very concerned about acquiring the greatest
possible amount of oil from each deposit without unnecessary waste.
The steps for the recovery of the oil begin as soon as a new well is spudded in. Geologists
study the indications for the presence of the oil itself. Later, petroleum engineers try to predict the
kind of drive that will be present. With the aid of computers, they can determine how a deposit
will behave under the effects of the different techniques that can be used to make the oil flow to
the surface.
At the head of most wells is a device that is called a Christmas tree. This is really a system of
valves that controls the amount of oil which is allowed to flow to the surface. The Christmas tree
directs the oil into the storage tanks, where it is kept until it is shipped to its next destination.
After a well has been brought in, the derrick is usually pulled down, only to be put up at the
spot where another well is to be drilled. The valves of the Christmas tree and the pipes leading
from it will probably be the only sign left that there is a producing oil well in the neighborhood.
This is quite different from many of the older pictures of oil fields, with derricks crowded
together, often only a few feet apart. In fact, in a modern field the wells are usually spaced quite
far apart, since it is more profitable to recover the same amount of oil with fewer wells.
As more oil is removed from the field, the pressure of the original drive gradually decreases.
Sometimes the natural pressure drops to a point where no more oil can be recovered from the
deposit. Nowadays, various methods in addition to pumping are used to keep these deposits
producing if there is an indication that more oil can be recovered.
One technique is to pump water into the oil-bearing formation, pushing or displacing the oil
ahead of it toward the production wells. This system restores water drive. Another technique that
will restore natural pressure to the formation is to pump gas back into the oil- bearing layer.
Wells occasionally become blocked by pieces of asphalt, wax, or other solid material. In this
case, the obstruction can be dissolved by pumping an acid into the well. Another technique
involves pumping water and sand into the well under high pressure.
All of these techniques have enormously increased the amount of oil that can be recovered.
In the early days of the industry, as much as 75 percent of the oil had to be left in the ground.
With more modern methods, the figure has been reduced to 50 percent or even less. Many fields
that had been abandoned have been brought back into production. When a field is reworked in
this way, it is called secondary recovery.
In addition to secondary recovery, the increased technical ability of modern oilmen has led
to the discovery of deposits at levels underneath existing fields. It is now possible to bring in
producing wells more than 20,000 feet below the surface of the earth!
The constantly rising demand for oil

and the world’s increasing dependence on
oil as an energy source have made efficient
recovery more and more important. The
economic forces are the same as those that
have led to deeper drilling and greater
exploration for, under water oil deposits.
Oil is indeed black gold; every drop of it is
precious in today’s world.
More efficient recovery techniques
have led to an increase in the proved
reserves of petroleum, although they
continue to dwindle when expressed in
terms of annual consumption. Proved
reserves refers to the amount of oil in the
ground that will be recovered by known
technology. Ultimate resources refers to the
amount of oil that has been discovered. The
estimates of proved reserves and ultimate
resources are usually given in
barrels of oil. Together, they represent an
educated guess as to the amount of oil still
present beneath the surface of the earth.
Discussion

1. What does the use of the term oil pools suggest?
2. What are deposits of petroleum more often like? What term is used to refer to them?
3. Why must oil be forced to move if it is to be recovered from the ground?
4. What are the forces called that cause oil to move? How many kinds of them are there?
5. What do the chives involve?
6. Describe dissolved‐gas drive. Is recovery high with this drive?
7. Describe gas‐cap drive. Which leads to higher recovery, dissolved‐gas drive or gas‐cap
drive?
8. Describe water drive.
9. What must be done if reservoir pressure is not high enough?
10. Why is pumping more expensive than a natural drive?
11. What often happened to new wells in the early days of the industry?
12. What forced the oil upward in a gusher?
13. When could oil be recovered from a gusher?
14. Was any waste involved with gushers?
15. Why are gushers uncommon nowadays?
16. What is the petroleum industry very concerned about today?
17. When do the steps for recovery of oil from a new well begin?
18. What do geologists and petroleum engineers study and try to predict?
19. What is the system of valves at the heads of most wells called? What does it do?
20. Where does the Christmas tree direct the oil?
21. What usually happens to the derrick after a well has been brought in?
22. What sign is left that there is an oil well in the neighborhood?
23. In a modern oil field, why are the wells usually spaced quite far apart?
24. What happens as more oil is taken out of a field? How low can the
25. Is it possible to recover any more oil when the pressure is low?
26. What is one technique to get more oil from a field?
27. What natural drive is restored when water is pumped into an oil bearing formation?
28. What is another technique that can be used to recover more oil?
29. When an oil well becomes blocked, what is one technique for reopening the well?
30. What is a second technique for opening up a blocked well?
31. How does the amount of oil that can be recovered today differ from the amount that
could be recovered in the early days of the industry?
32. What expression is used for reworking an oil field for additional recovery?
33. What else has the increased technical ability of modern oilmen led to? How deep can
producing wells be drilled today?
34. Why has the technology of efficient recovery become more important?
35. What else have these economic forces led to?
36. Why is oil indeed black gold?
37. What are the estimates called that refer to the oil remaining in the ground that will be
recovered by known technology?
38. How do proved reserves differ from ultimate resources?
39. How are both of them measured?
40. What do both proved reserves and ultimate resources together represent?
TRANSPORTING OIL
Special Terms
Tank: Any large container for holding or transporting a liquid or a gas Tanks of one kind or
another are used both for storing and transporting petroleum and its products.
Tank Car: A railroad freight car specially designed with a tank for transporting petroleum.
Pipeline: A system designed to transport a liquid or a gas through pipes.
Flow line: A pipeline running from a well to a larger line in the field.
Gathering Line: A pipeline running from the storage tanks in the field to a major pipeline.
Trunk Line: A major pipeline connecting the oil field with a refinery or shipping point.
Pig: A device to clean a pipeline. It is forced along by the pressure or flow of the oil.
Pipeline Walker: A person who patrols the pipeline to look for signs of leaks. Nowadays,
much of the “walking” is done from low-flying airplanes.
Product Pipeline: A pipeline that carries finished petroleum products - such as gasoline -
from the refinery to the points where it can be distributed to customers.
Tanker: A ship specially designed to transport petroleum and petroleum products. Some
tankers are enormous, weighing as much as 500,000 tons.
Barge: A fiat-bottomed boat designed primarily for use on inland waterways such as rivers
or canals. Many barges have been adapted to carry oil or petroleum products.
Tank Truck: An automobile truck designed to carry petroleum products. It is ordinarily
used to deliver products to customers.
Vocabulary Practice

1. What is a tank? In what forms of oil transportation does the word tank appear?
2. What are some of the different kinds of pipelines?
3. What is a pig used for?
4. What does a pipeline walker look for? Does he always “walk”?
5. How does a product pipeline differ from a crude oil pipeline?
6. What is a barge? What do many of them carry?

Transporting Oil
One of the most remarkable aspects of the oil industry has been the speed with which it has
developed the technology to increase the world’s supply of oil. We have already noted the great
advances that have been made in drilling both deeper wells and wells in difficult terrain. We have
also observed that technical advances have made, it possible to recover even larger amounts of oil
from existing deposits.
One of the areas in which the technical advances have been most spectacular is in the
transportation of petroleum and petroleum products. Many oil fields have been discovered in
places that are far from the point at which the oil will be refined and used. One has only to think
of oil deposits on the shores of the Arctic Ocean or in the jungles on the interior slope of the
Amazon basin to realize the difficulties that are involved in getting the oil from the well to the
consumer.
In fact, the difficulty was present at the world’s first producing well, the one near Titusville,
Pennsylvania, which we mentioned in Unit One. There were no railroads in that area in 1859, and
no roads were good enough to get the oil out. In addition, the cost of hauling barrels with teams of
horses or mules turned out to be much too high. The first solution was to ship the oil, already
placed in barrels, on barges down a small stream to the Ohio River. This, however, was very
hazardous. There were many accidents and a great deal of oil was lost. When the railroad
eventually reached Titusville, special freight cars - those that we now call tank cars - were soon
designed to transport the oil to market.
Meanwhile, steel pipes that would carry the oil were being developed. These were the first
oil pipelines, which took advantage of the fact that oil is a liquid. The idea of a pipeline was not
new; water had been transported through pipes for hundreds of years. The oil pipelines were not
accepted without a struggle, however. Some men who had been hauling the oil up to that time used
explosives to blow up the newly laid lines! In the long run, however, the pipelines offered so many
advantages that they won out. The first real long- distance pipeline was built in 1879 in
Pennsylvania. It was later extended to New York harbor at Bayonne, New Jersey, which is still an
important storage, refining, and shipping center.
It is the liquid state of oil that offers the great advantage over coal as the primary energy
source in today’s industrialized world. No matter how abundant coal is, it is bulky and heavy and
therefore difficult to ship. Oil can flow through pipelines to the market at a relatively low cost. Of
course, the oil must be pumped because the pipelines go up and down hills.
There are several kinds of pipelines. Flow lines run from the well to a large line in the field
which is called a gathering line. The oil is then carried into a trunk line. The trunk lines transport
the oil to refineries or to storage areas, usually at ports so that the oil can be transshipped by
water. The diameters of pipelines vary from about an inch for a flow line to as much as forty-eight
inches for one of the major trunk lines.
The first step in building a pipeline is to plan and survey the route. The surveying can be
done not only on the ground but from the air. Then the construction crews come in with
bulldozers that clear and level the route and ditching machines that dig a trench for the line if it is
going to run underground.
Some pipelines run above the surface, especially in rugged or uninhabited areas, but many
others run beneath the ground. In farming country with open fields, there may be no surface
indication at all of the black stream of oil under the growing crops. However, the pipelines are
marked by pumping stations at an average distance of about seventy-five miles - closer together in
mountainous areas, farther apart in flat countryside. Special equipment may also be necessary for
some pipelines; in Alaska, for instance, special heating devices are required to keep the oil from
freezing in the intense cold.
Pipelines are cleaned by a device called
a pig. This mechanism has metal blades that
scrape the inside of the pipe to keep it clear of
the tar-like substance that forms in it. The
pressure of the oil itself forces the pig to move
through the pipe. The pig can only go from
one pumping station to the next, where it is
taken out and cleaned.
The pipelines must be constantly
checked. Each section is patrolled by a
pipeline walker who looks for evidence of a
leak or other damage in the line. It is possible
to smell escaping gas or to detect spots where
seepage has occurred. Nowadays, many
“walkers” do their inspecting from low-flying
airplanes, since traces of seepage can he seen
from the air.
A pig, used to clean a pipeline
So far, we have been describing crude oil pipelines, the lines that are used to carry
unrefined petroleum from the wells to refineries or shipping points. In recent years, another type
of pipeline has been developed that carries finished products from the refineries to distribution
centers. It is called the product pipeline. Strange as it may seem, products as different as gasoline,
benzene, or kerosene can be carried in the same pipeline with only a very small amount of mixing.
In part, this is possible because the density of each of these products is different, and as a result
there is relatively little contamination at the interface between the two products. The rate of flow
and the location of each product can be calculated by computers according to each product’s
density.
Typical distribution of petroleum products in a product pipeline
Discussion

1. What is one of the most remarkable aspects of the petroleum industry?
2. What particular technical advances have we already noted?
3. In what area have there been spectacular technical advances?
4. Where have many oil fields been discovered? Give examples. If you know of other
examples besides those given in the reading, tell what they are.
5. What difficulties were encountered at the first producing oil well? Where was that well?
6. What method of transportation turned out to be too expensive?
7. What method was then tried to get the oil out? Why wasn’t this very successful?
8. What was done when the railroad finally reached Titusville?
9. What experiments in transporting oil were being made at the same time?
10. What did the pipelines take advantage of?
11. Was the idea of pipelines new?
12. What struggle accompanied the first attempts to build pipelines?
13. Why did pipelines win out in the long run?
14. When and where was the first real long‐distance pipeline mutt?
15. Why does oil have an advantage over coal as an energy source?
16. Why must oil be pumped through pipelines?
17. What are the pipelines that run from the well into larger lines in the field called?
18. What are the lines that connect these larger lines with the major pipelines called?
19. What are the major lines that transport oil to refineries or shipping points called?
20. Why is oil shipped to ports?
21. How large may the different kinds of pipelines be?
22. What is the first step in building a pipeline? How can this be done?
23. What do construction crews do with bulldozers and ditching machines?
24. Where do some pipelines run above the ground?
25. Where are many other pipelines? What indication may there be of these lines?
26. What is the average distance between pumping stations? Where are they closer? Where
are they farther apart?
27. What is an example of special equipment that may be necessary for a pipeline?
28. How are pipelines cleaned?
29. What forces the pipeline cleaning device to move through the pipe?
30. How far can the cleaning device travel?
31. By whom are the pipelines constantly checked? What do these people look for?
32. What are some ways in which they can detect damage to the pipeline?
33. Why is it possible to do some of this work from the air?
34. What kinds of pipelines have been described up to this point in the reading?
35. What other type of pipeline has been developed in recent years?
36. What can be done with different kinds of products in the same pipeline?
37. What makes it possible for computers to compute the rate of flow and the location of
different products?
REFINING OIL
Special Terms
Refinery: The industrial plant in which oil is refined - processed and purified - into
commercially usable products. The process itself is called refining.
Atoms: The small particles of matter that make up the chemical elements such as hydrogen
and carbon.
Molecules: The smallest units in combinations of atoms. A molecule of table salt, for
example, contains one atom of sodium and one atom of chlorine.
Compound/Mixture: A compound is a combination of atoms which are chemically joined
together into molecules, like water (two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen) or salt. A
mixture combines several different molecules which are not chemically joined together. Salt
water is a mixture of molecules of salt and water.
Hydrocarbons: Substances made up of molecules formed from hydrogen and carbon. Crude
petroleum is a mixture of several different hydrocarbons.
Fraction: The amount of each of the different hydrocarbon coin pounds in a mixture of
crude oil. For example, a fraction of the hydrocarbons makes up gasoline, and another
fraction makes up kerosene. This is known as a cut.
Fractionating Tower: A cylindrical tower at a refinery which is used to separate the different
fractions of crude petroleum.
Distillation: The process of separating lb molecules from heavier molecules hydrocarbon
from the mixture
Sulfur: A chemical which it is often present as an impurity in crude oil.
Sweet Oil: Oil with a low sulfur content.
Sour Oil: Oil with a high sulfur content.
Cracking: The process of breaking down the heavy molecules of some hydrocarbons into
lighter molecules.
Thermal Cracking: Cracking by the use of heat and pressure.
Catalytic Cracking: Cracking with the aid of a catalyst, a substance which speeds up a
chemical change without undergoing any change itself.
Petrochemicals: Chemicals derived from petroleum which are used to form new substances
such as the synthetic, or man-made, plastics.
Herbicide, Pesticide, Insecticide: The suffix -cide means something that kills. A herbicide
kills weeds; a pesticide kills pests; an insecticide kills insects. All of these substances are
widely used in modern agriculture.
Vocabulary Practice

1. What does refining mean? Where is it done?
2. What are some of the chemical elements? What are the small particles of matter that
make them up?
1. .3. What is a molecule? Give an example.
3. What is the difference between a compound and a mixture? Give examples of each.
4. What elements is crude petroleum made up of? Is crude petroleum a mixture or a
compound?
5. What is a fraction? What else is it sometimes called?
6. What is a fractionating tower used for?
7. What is distillation?
8. What is the difference between sweet and sour oil? Is it good to have sulfur in the oil or
not?
9. What is cracking?
10. What is the difference between thermal cracking and catalytic cracking?
11. Where do petrochemicals come from? What are they used for?
12. What does the suffix ‐cide indicate? Give examples of words that include this suffix.

Refining Oil
One of the most distinctive and at the same time most characteristic sights of the industrial
age is the oil refinery. It is a bewildering scene of differently colored pipes, flames shooting into
the sky, and all kinds of forms such as cylinders, spheres, and towers. An unpleasant smell usually
hangs over the entire area. The entire complex is made up of the apparatus in which petroleum is
heated, cooled, pressurized, and mixed to make products that the consumer can use.
Crude oil is a raw material, like iron ore, which must be processed before it can be used. In
fact, there are several different processes through which oil can be passed, but together they are
called refining.
Crude oil is a mixture of a number of different chemicals that are called hydrocarbons
because they are composed of atoms of hydrogen and carbon. The atoms are joined together into
molecules, the corn pounds of which are the smallest physical units of a particular sub stance.
Hydrogen and carbon can join together into many different compounds with different molecular
structures. They can form small, light molecules which are gases, heavier molecules which are
liquids, or even heavier molecules which are solids or semisolids like asphalt and wax. The least
complex hydrocarbons, those with the fewest atoms and therefore the lightest weights, make up
products such as gasoline, while more complex and heavier molecules make up products like
lubricating oil.
The mixture of crude oil contains fractions of the different hydrocarbon molecules, that is, a
certain amount of each of them. A fraction of the molecules is contained in gasoline, for example,
and a fraction of the molecules is contained in heating oil. In addition, the crude oil mixture
usually contains impurities of one kind or another. One of the most common and least desirable of
these is the chemical, sulfur. Oil with a low sulfur content is called sweet oil, and oil with a high
sulfur content is called sour oil.
The refining process separates the different

fractions of molecules in the crude oil mixture into
usable products. It also removes the impurities
from the oil.
The first step is called distillation. The oil is
heated to a high temperature in coils of pipe that
pass over a furnace. Then the oil is piped into a tall
cylinder that is called a fractionating tower. All but
the heaviest molecules change into a vapor or a gas.
The gas rises through a series of levels in the tower.
Those nearest the bottom, where the oil enters, are
the hottest, and those nearest the top are the
coolest. As the vapors rise, they condense - that is,
they turn into liquids again - at a particular
temperature at a particular level in the tower.
Gasoline, the lightest the major petroleum
products, collects at the top levels, with kerosene
below it and heating and lubricating oils further
down. At the bottom are solids and semisolids such
as asphalt and tar. The impurities that have been
removed by the distillation process also collect at
the bottom, where they can be removed. Each level
in the tower is known as a fraction or cut. Pipes
lead off from each level of the fractionating tower
so that each cut can be further refined or
processed, if necessary.
When the oil industry got its start, the
product in greatest demand was kerosene. Then the
automobile came along and the public wanted
gasoline. Since only about 20 percent of crude oil
can be refined into gasoline by distillation, the oil
industry chemists had to find a process by which more gasoline could be created from the other
petroleum products that were not in such great demand.
The process that they devised is called cracking. Cracking means breaking down the heavy
molecules of such petroleum products as kerosene or lubricating oil into the lighter molecules of
gasoline.
There are two basic kinds of cracking, thermal cracking and catalytic cracking. The first
uses heat and pressure to bring about the desired changes in molecular structure. The second
takes advantage of a catalyst, a chemical which causes or speeds up a chemical change without
being changed itself. Through a process called hydro cracking, the amount of gasoline that can be
obtained from crude oil has been increased to more than 80 percent.
Cracking also permits the industry to adjust to seasonal changes in demand. In the summer,
for example, when the weather is warm, less heating oil and more gasoline are turned out by the
refinery. In the winter the ratio can be changed to meet the demand for heating oil.
After the basic fractionating or cracking process, further refining takes place, particularly
of gasoline products. Again, there are several gasolines such as regular, high-test, special, etc.
Whatever the names may be, they indicate that one kind of gasoline will vaporize more quickly
and efficiently than another kind; in other words, it has a lighter molecule that has been obtained
by an additional cracking process. Airplane gasoline is an almost entirely artificial creation, since
the fraction of molecules in a crude oil mixture that can be used for this purpose is very small.
Refineries are a bewildering complex of shapes, pipes, valves, colors, and odors. They are
usually connected with large storage areas and with port and shipping facilities. In spite of this
complexity, how ever, not many people work in a refinery because it is one of the most highly
automated of all industrial operations. A few workers at a central control panel can make sure
that oil flows steadily into the refinery, goes through the various processes, and comes out as the
commercial products that will be sent to market.
Chemistry has played an essential part in the development of the refining process. It has
also created an entire, new industry, petrochemicals. These are chemicals which are derived from
petroleum. The molecules of hydrocarbon that make up petroleum can be changed in various
ways so that entirely new substances are formed. Atoms can be added or taken away from the
molecule. The molecules can also be rearranged into different shapes—from a cluster, for
example, to a chain. Other chemicals, frequently chlorine or fluorine, can be introduced into the
molecule to change its properties still further.
Many products which we are all familiar with are made from petrochemicals. They include
several different kinds of synthetic plastics which seem to be everywhere today—in our homes,
our cars, and our clothes. Synthetic fabrics such as nylon and Dacron are made from
petrochemicals. Many of the products made from petrochemicals are substitutes for such natural
substances as cotton, silk, wood, rubber, and so on.
One area in which petrochemicals have played an important part is agriculture. The so-
called green revolution, which has produced higher yields of many crops, depends on three
factors, and two of them involve petroleum. One factor involves the mechanization of farming
with the use of machines such as tractors and harvesters, which of course use petroleum products
for fuel? A second factor involves enriching the soil with fertilizers while at the same time
controlling weeds and various types of pests that can eat the crops before they are harvested. Most
of the fertilizers, weed-killers (herbicides), pest-killers (pesticides), and insect-killers (insecticides)
used in modern agriculture are made from petrochemicals. Only in the third factor in the green
revolution, the development of new types of seeds that bring a higher yield, do oil products not
play a significant part. In just a little over a hundred years, oil and oil products have assumed a
central place in industrialized society. One reason, as we have observed, is that oil is a liquid,
which has made it relatively cheap source of energy. The second reason is the chemistry of oil,
which has made it possible to create a rich diversity of products from crude petroleum.
Discussion

1. In what way is the sight of a refinery bewildering?
2. What is an entire refinery complex made up of?
3. How is crude petroleum like iron ore?
4. Is there only one process through which oil passes?
5. What is crude oil?
6. How can the molecules of hydrocarbons differ from each other?
7. What do the lightest molecules form? What do heavier molecules form?
8. What does the mixture of crude oil contain? Give an example.
9. What else does the mixture usually contain?
10. What is a common impurity in crude oil? What terms are used that describe oil with this
impurity?
11. What two things does the refining process do?
12. What is the first step in the refining process?
13. How is the oil heated?
14. Where is the oil piped after it has been heated?
15. What happens to the heaviest molecules in the mixture?
16. Through what does the gas rise? Which are the hottest and which are the coolest?
17. What happens to the vapors as they rise?
18. Why does gasoline collect at the top levels? What is below it?
19. What collects at the bottom of the fractionating tower?
20. What is each level in the tower called?
21. Why do pipes lead off from each level of the fractionating tower?
22. What product was in greatest demand in the early days of the industry?
23. What changed public demand?
24. Why did oil industry chemists have to find new processes?
25. What process did they devise? What does this process do?
26. How does thermal cracking bring about a change in molecular structure?
27. How does catalytic racking bring about such a change?
28. What has been accomplished by hydro cracking?
29. What else does cracking permit the industry to do?
30. What different kinds of gasoline are there? How do they differ from each other?
31. Why is airplane gasoline almost entirely an artificial creation?
32. What are refineries usually connected to?
33. Why don’t many people work in a refinery?
34. What are a few workers at a control panel able to do?
35. What new industry has chemistry created?
36. Why can entirely new substances be made from the petrochemicals? How?
37. What are some of the products that are made from petrochemicals?
38. For what are they often substitutes?
39. What is an area in which petrochemicals have played an important part?
40. What are the three major factors on which the green revolution depends? Which of them
involve petroleum products?
41. What has happened with oil in only a little over a hundred years?
42. What two reasons are there for the importance of oil?

Appendix B
Scientific
General
texts
Hard and Soft Water
A
People say that some water is ‘hard’. When they say this they mean that it
does not lather easily and quickly with soap. The reason for this is that it has in it
very small amounts of calcium compound from the rocks in the earth through
which it has flowed.
People say that rain-water is ‘soft’, because it lathers easily and quickly with
soap, and the reason is that it does not have in it any calcium compound. The
water from reservoirs does not usually have much calcium compound in it, but
well-water often does, and so people say that it is ‘hard’.
When we boil hard water in a pan, a layer of a hard substance, which is
called ‘fur’, is thrown out of the water and left behind on the bottom and sides of
the pan. This is made of the limestone which is made when the water is heated,
and is thrown out and left behind as the water changes to steam.
B
(1)Some water is said to be ‘hard’. (2)By this is meant that it does not lather
(3)readily with soap. The reason for this is that it (4)contains traces of calcium
compound from the rocks in the earth through which it has flowed.
(1)Rain-water is said to be ‘soft’, because it lathers (3)readily with soap, and
the reason is that it does not (4)contain any calcium compound. The water from
reservoirs does not (5)generally (4)contain much calcium compound, but well-
water (6)frequently does, and (7)consequently (1)it is said to be ‘hard’.
When a pan of hard water is boiled, a layer of a hard substance, (8)known as
‘fur’, is (9)deposited on the bottom and sides of the pan. This (10)consists of the
limestone which is (11)formed when the water is heated, and is (9)deposited as
the water (12)evaporates.
Evaporation and Condensation of Water
A
When you boil a kettle of water, you can see steam coming out of the spout.
This is because the boiling water gives off water vapor, which we can see only as
steam. The water in the kettle gets less and less, because it is changing into
vapor. Or we can say that it is vaporizing or evaporating. It cannot evaporate
without heat.
If you hold a cold surface in the steam, you can see tiny drops of water being
made on it. This is because the water-vapor gets cool when it touches the cold
surface. Then it changes back into liquid water. This process is known as
condensation.
Water vapor makes clouds. With the help of the sun’s heat, water is changed
to vapor from the earth’s surface, and when it meets a body of cold air, this water
vapor changes to water in the form of millions and millions of tiny drops of
water. These may join together until they are so heavy that they can/fall down.
B
When a kettle of water is boiled, steam can be seen coming out of the spout.
This is because water vapor is given off by the boiling water, and (1)is visible only
as steam. The water in the kettle (2)decreases because it is (3)being converted
into vapor. (4)In other words, it is vaporizing or evaporating. It cannot evaporate
(5)in the absence of heat.
If a cold surface is held in the steam, (6)droplets of water can be seen
(7)forming on it. This is because the water vapor (8)is cooled on touching the cold
surface, and is (3)converted into liquid water. This process is known as
condensation.
Clouds are made by water vapor. (9)By the aid of the sun’s heat, water
(10)evaporates from the earth’s surface, and, (11)on meeting a body of cold air,
this water vapor (12)condenses in the form of millions and millions of (6)droplets
of water. These may (13)combine until they are (14)heavy enough to (15)be
precipitated.
Change of State of Matter
A
If you make water cold enough, it changes to ice. Ice is the solid form of
water. If you make water hot, it changes to vapor. Water vapor is water in the
form of a gas. If you make water vapor colder, it changes back again to water; if
you make ice hot, it changes back again to water.
Most substances have three forms: solid, liquid and gas. When a solid
changes to liquid, it is said to melt. When a liquid changes to gas, it is said to
become a vapor.
When a gas changes back again to liquid when it gets colder, it is said to
condense. When a liquid changes back again to solid, it is said to freeze, or
become a solid.
At unchanging pressures, these changes of form always/happen at fixed
temperatures. E.g. ice always melts and water always freezes at 0oC. So 0oC is
known as the freezing point of water. Water in ordinary, usual conditions boils at
100oC; so this is known as the boiling point of water.
Different substances have different freezing and boiling points. E.g. iron
which has been melted turns solid or freezes at 1,528oC. Alcohol changes to vapor
or boils at 78.3oC in ordinary, usual conditions. Sulfur melts at 113oC.
B
If (1)water is cooled sufficiently, it changes to ice, (2)which is water in its
solid state. If (3)water is heated, it (4)vaporizes. Water vapor is water in a (5)gas
state. If (6)water vapor is cooled, it (7)returns to water; if ice (3)is heated, it
(7)returns to water.
Most substances have three (8)states: solid, liquid and gas. When a solid
(9)liquefies, it is said to melt. When a liquid (10)is converted to gas, it is said to
(4)vaporize.
When a gas (9)liquefies (11)on cooling, it is said to condense. (12)A liquid
returning to the solid state is said to freeze, or (13)solidify.
At (14)constant pressures, these changes of (8)state (15)invariably (16)take
place at fixed temperatures. E.g. ice (15)invariably melts and water (15)invariably
freezes at 0oC. (17)Therefore 00C is known as the freezing point of water. Water in
(18)normal conditions boils at 100oC; (17)therefore this is known as the boiling
point of water.
(19)The freezing and boiling points of different substances differ. E.g.
(20)molten iron (13)solidifies or freezes at 1,528oC. Alcohol (4)vaporizes or boils
at 78.3oC in (18)normal conditions. Sulfur (21)has a melting point of 113oC.
Two important gases of the air

A
At first people believed that air was made of only one gas. But by
experiment they found out that it is made of two important gases and very small
amounts of others.
Here is a description of one experiment which they did to find out what one
of these two important gases is.
They placed a lighted candle upright in water and covered it with a jar
shaped like a bell. As the candle burned, the water level slowly went higher in the
jar, and, after some time, the candle went out.
In this way they showed that the candle had burned some of the air, but that
it could not burn the air which was left in the jar. The gas which the candle used
for burning is known as oxygen. Consequently it is said that oxygen allows things
to burn in it. The gas which was left, and which the candle could not use for
burning, is known as nitrogen. Consequently, it can be said that nitrogen does
not allow things to burn in it.
Oxygen is a very important gas, because animals and green plants use it for
breathing and most substances cannot burn in its absence. Nitrogen is also very
important, because animals and green plants need it to make them grow.
The air also has in it very small amounts of other gases, and water vapor. At
great heights above the earth, the air surrounding the earth is thinner.
B
At first it was believed that air (1) consisted of a single gas. But by
experiment it was (2)discovered that it (1)consists of two important gases and
(3)traces of others.
One experiment which (4)was carried out to discover what one of these two
important gases (5)might be, (6)is described as follows:
A lighted candle was placed upright in water and covered with a (7)bell-jar.
As the candle burned, the water level (8)gradually rose in the jar, and
(9)eventually the candle went out.
(10)Thus it was proved that the candle had burned some of the air, but
(11)was unable to burn (12)the remainder. The gas which the candle used for (1
3)combustion is known as oxygen. Consequently it is said that oxygen
(14)supports combustion. The (15)remaining gas. which the candle (11)was
unable to use for (13)combustion, is known as nitrogen. Consequently,
(16)nitrogen cannot be said to (14)support combustion.
Oxygen is a gas (17)of great importance, because animals and green plants
use it for (18)respiration and most substances (11)are unable to burn in its
absence. Nitrogen is also (17)of great importance, because animals and green
plants (19)require it for their growth.
The air also (20)contains (3)traces of other gases, and water vapor. At
(21)high altitudes, the (22)atmosphere is rarefied.
Sources of Energy
A
Nearly all energy comes from the sun, either in a roundabout way or
straight from it, in the form of heat rays and light rays. The light from the moon,
too, comes from the sun. The moon can be said to be like a large mirror which
throws back the sun’s light to the earth.
Electrical energy comes
from the sun in a roundabout
way; e.g. it can come from the
power of water falling down a
mountainside. The water fell
there as rain, and we know that
rain is made by the sun’s heat
evaporating the water on the
earth’s surface. This water
vaporizes, condenses on
cooling, and falls as rain.
The light and heat energy from coal also comes from the sun in a
roundabout way. Coal was made by the rocks pressing on trees and plants which
died millions of years ago. Those trees and plants grew with the aid of sunlight,
from which they made carbohydrates, in this way changing the sun’s energy into
chemical energy. When we burn coal, some of this energy is set free.
Energy which we use to drive car engines comes from petrol, which also was
made with the aid of the sun in a roundabout way. Plants, and animals which ate
the plants, died millions of years ago, and the parts of them that were left were
pressed under the rocks in the earth. These parts left from dead animals and
plants made petroleum, from which petrol and oil are now obtained.
Thus we can say that the sun is the place where nearly all energy comes
from, and that without the sun’s heat and light, there could be no life on earth.
B
Nearly all energy (1)is derived from the sun, either (2)indirectly or directly,
in the form of heat rays and light rays. (3)Also moonlight (1)is derived from the
sun. The moon can be (4)compared to a large mirror which (5)reflects the sun’s
light to the earth.
Electrical energy (1)is derived from the sun (2)indirectly; e.g. it can be
(1)derived from the power of water falling down a mountainside. The water fell
there as rain, (6)which is known to be formed by the evaporation of the water on
the earth’s surface, by means of the sun’s heat. This water vapor rises, condenses
on cooling, and falls as rain.
The light and heat energy from coal (1)is also derived (2)indirectly from the
sun. Coal was (7)formed by the (8)pressure of the rocks on (9)vegetation which
died millions of years ago. That (9) vegetation grew with the aid of sunlight, from
which carbohydrates were (7)formed, (l0)thus converting solar energy into
chemical energy. When coal is burnt some of this energy is (11)released.
Energy (12)used to drive car engines (l)is derived from petrol, which was
also (7)formed with the (2)indirect aid of the sun. Plants, and animals which
(13)fed on them, died millions of years ago, and (14)their remains were pressed
under the rocks in the earth. These (15)dead animal and vegetable remains
(7)formed petroleum, from which petrol and oil are now obtained.
Thus the sun can be said to be the (16)source of nearly all energy, and that
(17)in the absence of the sun’s heat and light, (18)no life could exist on earth.
Heat Transfer: (1) Radiation
A
Heat is derived from the sun. We do not exactly know how it comes, but we
think that it is with electro-magnetic waves which cannot be seen, which are able
to pass through a completely empty space. When the rays of the sun touch a
thing, they make it warm, although the rays themselves are not hot. We know this
because the space between the sun and the earth remains quite cold, although
the rays are traveling through it.
But when the rays reach the earth, they warm the air, the ground, and
everything else they touch. Some rays are thrown back and some are taken in by
the things on which they fall. A shiny surface throws back more heat than a dull
surface, which takes in more heat than a shiny surface.
We say that the sun radiates heat, and we call this way of heating/the
passing of heat by radiation. Radiation is only one of the three ways in which
heat is passed from one place to another.
B
Heat is derived from the sun (1)in a way which is not fully understood, but
(2)it is thought to be with (3)invisible electro-magnetic waves, which are able to
pass through a (4)vacuum. Although they themselves are not hot, when the rays
of the sun touch (5)an object, they make it warm. This is known because (6)space
remains quite cold, although the rays are traveling through it.
(7)However, on reaching the earth, the rays warm the air, the ground, and
(8)all other objects they touch. (9)The rays are partly reflected and (10)partly
absorbed by the (5)objects on which they fall. A (11)polished surface (9)reflects
more heat than a dull surface, which (10)absorbs more heat than a (11)polished
surface.
(12)The sun is said to radiate heat, and (13)this method of heating is known
as (14)heat transfer by radiation. Radiation is only one of the three (15)methods
by which heat is (16) transferred.
Heat Transfer: (2) Conduction

A
If you dip a silver spoon and a wooden spoon into boiling water at exactly
the same time, the handle of the silver spoon quickly gets hot, while the handle of
the wooden one stays cool. Why is this?
The reason is that the heat at one end of the silver spoon is passed on
quickly from one molecule of silver to the next. However, this is not true for
wood.
The passing on of heat from one molecule to the next is known as
conduction. When heat is passed on like this, we say that it is conducted.
Materials in which this happens easily and quickly are said to be good
conductors of heat, and all metals are good heat conductors. In materials such as
wood, rubber and air, heat does not pass easily and quickly from one molecule to
the next. When we say that we mean that these materials are bad conductors of
heat.
Bad conductors of heat are often known as insulators. They stop heat from
getting away because their molecules do pass on heat easily and quickly from
one to the next. Air which is not moving is one of the worst conductors, and so it
is one of the best insulators. Any material which holds inside itself plenty of air is
a good insulator: e.g. wool, cork, asbestos and fiber-glass.
B
If(1)a silver and a wooden spoon are dipped (2)simultaneously into boiling
Water, the handle of the silver spoon (3)rapidly becomes hot, while (4)that of the
wooden one (5)remains cool. Why is this?
The reason is that the heat at one end of the silver spoon is (6)transferred
rapidly from one molecule of silver to the next. However, this is not (7)the case
with wood.
The (8)transfer of heat from one molecule to the next (9)is known as
conduction. When heat is (6)transferred (9)in this way, it is said to be conducted.
Materials in which this (10)occurs readily are said to be good conductors of
heat, and all metals are good heat conductors. In materials such as wood, rubber
and air, heat is not (6)transferred (10)readily from one molecule to the next.
(11)By this is meant that these materials are (12)poor conductors of heat.
(12)Poor conductors of heat are (13)frequently known as insulators. They
(14)prevent heat from escaping because their molecules do not (6)transfer heat
(10)readily from one to the next. (15)Still air is one of the (16)poorest conductors;
(16)consequently it is one of the best insulators. Any material which (1 7)encloses
plenty of air is a good insulator: e.g. wool, cork, asbestos or fiber-glass.
Heat Transfer: (3) Convection

A
If you fill a glass vessel with water and drop into it a few crystals of
permanganate of potash - written like this in chemistry: KMnO4 - you see that
the water near the crystals turns pink. If you heat the water, you can see the way
in which the pink water moves. First it rises, then it moves across the surface, and
then it sinks down the side of the vessel.
Movement of water is known as current. As the water moves, it carries the
heat with it, and we say that the heat travels by convection. The name we give to
these movements is convection currents. Heat does not travel by convection in a
solid, because the solid does not move, like a liquid does. We find convection
currents only in liquids and gases.
To put the main ideas into a few words: The three methods of heat transfer
are (i) radiation, (ii) conduction, and (iii) convection. Heat travels by radiation in
space or in gases, by conduction in solids, and mainly by convection in liquids and
gases.
The sun radiates heat, and this is known as the passing on of heat by
radiation. Solids conduct heat, and this is known as heat passed on by
conduction. Liquids and gases convect heat, and this is known as heat passed on
by convection.
B
If a glass vessel is filled with water and a few crystals of (1)potassium
permanganate, (2)chemical formula: KMnO4, are dropped into it, the water near
the crystals is seen to turn pink. If the water is heated, the way in which the pink
water moves can be seen. First it rises, then it moves across the surface, and then
it sinks down the side of the vessel.
Movement of water is known as current. As the water moves, the heat is
carried with it, and the heat is said to travel by convection. (3)These movements
are known as convection currents. Heat does not travel by convection in a solid,
because the solid does not move (4)as does a liquid. Convection currents are
found only in (5)fluids.
(6)To summarize: The three methods of heat transfer are (i) radiation, by
which heat travels in space or in gases, (ii) conduction, by which heat travels in
solids, and (iii) convection, by which heat travels mainly in (5)fluids.
Heat is radiated by the sun, and this is known as (7)heat transfer by
radiation. Heat is conducted in solids, and this is known as (7)heat transfer by
conduction. Heat is convected in (5)fluids, and this is known as (7)heat transfer
by convection.
A Vacuum Flask
A
A vacuum flask is made out of two very thin walls of glass, and a vacuum is
between the two walls. When we say that we mean that we have taken out the air
and everything else.
We have seen that radiation, conduction and convection can pass heat
along. If the space between the walls is a vacuum however, heat cannot be passed
along by either conduction or convection. It could be passed along by radiation,
but in order to stop this from happening, the inside of the glass walls is covered
with a very thin layer of shiny metal. This is done in order to throw back the
heat into the flask, instead of letting it get away.
In this way, very little heat is lost by radiation, so we can keep hot things
hot in the flask for a long time. We can also use a vacuum flask to keep cold
things cold for a long time. Because heat cannot get away from the inside, in the
same way, heat from the outside cannot get through.
B
A vacuum flask (1)consists of two very thin walls of glass, a vacuum (2)being
between the two walls. (3)By this is meant that the air and everything else has
been (4)extracted.
It has been seen that heat can be (5)transferred by radiation, conduction
and convection. If the space between the walls is a vacuum however, heat cannot
be (5)transferred by either conduction or convection. It could be (5)transferred
by radiation, but in order to (6)prevent this, (7)the interior of the glass walls is
(8)silvered. This is done in order to (9)reflect the heat back into the flask,
(10)rather than allowing it (11)to escape.
(12)Thus, very little heat is lost by radiation, so that heat (13)can be
preserved in the flask for (14)long periods. A vacuum flask can also be used to
(13)preserve the cold for (14)long periods. (15)Since heat cannot (11)escape from
(7)the interior, (16)similarly heat from (17)the exterior cannot (1 8)penetrate.
Appendix C
Introduction
What is an essay?
An essay is a piece of writing that usually has five or
more paragraphs. An essay is written about one topic that
has several main points. The main points are introduced
in an introductory paragraph and supported in body
paragraphs. The conclusion is the last paragraph.
Parts of an Essay
An Introduction
An introductory paragraph is the first paragraph in an
essay. It contains two parts.
1. General Statements: a few sentences about your
subject that catch the attention of your reader.
2. A Thesis Statement: one sentence that tells your
reader the main points of your topic and states the overall
“plan” of your essay.
Example
An Introduction
General statement
“Metropolitan City is full of charm and scenic beauty, so visitors from

around the world come to enjoy its famous theaters, museums,
countless ethnic restaurants, and scenic wonders. Although
Metropolitan City seems like a paradise, it isn’t. The city has several
serious problems: poor public transportation, congested streets, and
expensive housing”.
Main statement
(topic sentence)
Parts of an Essay
Body Paragraphs
The body consists of one or more paragraphs
following the introduction. Each paragraph supports the
main idea of your essay by breaking it down into smaller
ideas or subtopics.
Each body paragraph consists of a topic sentence and
several supporting sentences. A conclusion sentence
draws the paragraph together.
Example
Body Paragraph
“The first and most important problem is Metropolitan City’s

inadequate public transportation system. Thousands of
residents rely on the city’s buses and streetcars to travel
throughout this large city, but Metro Transportation System’s
daily schedules are totally unreliable. A bus or streetcar that
should arrive at 7:45 may not arrive until 8:00 or later.
Moreover, it is not unusual for a bus driver to pass up groups of
people waiting for the bus, because he wants to make up for
lost time. Unfortunately, people often end up going to work late
or missing important appointments. In order for people to get
to their destinations on time, people must allow for waiting
time at the bus and streetcar stops”.
Conclusion
The conclusion paragraph is the last paragraph in the
essay. It completes the essay by summarizing or
repeating the most important ideas. The conclusion can
also include an opinion, a prediction, or a solution to a
problem.
Example
Conclusion
“In conclusion, Metropolitan City must improve its
public transit system, clear up the massive traffic jams
caused by slow-moving traffic in the downtown areas, and
keep rentals down to affordable levels. In other words,
Metropolitan City must improve its image, or it will soon
become just another mediocre city due to the lack of
administrative responsibility to solve these unfortunate
problems”.
Example
An Introduction
Example
Body Paragraph
Example
Conclusion
Body Paragraphs
Writing Paragraphs of Importance
Purpose
The body paragraphs in your essay support the main
idea in your thesis statement by breaking it down into
smaller ideas or subtopics. Ideas in your paragraphs should
relate back to the thesis statement.
Form
Most paragraphs contain between five to ten
sentences. The first line of a paragraph is usually indented
(begin a few spaces to the right of the margin) to show
that there is a new paragraph.
Key Features
Body paragraphs should contain some of the following
features…
A Topic Sentence
Supporting Sentences
A Concluding Sentence
Unity
Topic Sentences
Definition: Every paragraph should have a topic

sentence. This is the most important sentence because it
expresses the main idea of the paragraph.
Example
Topic Sentence
Topic Sentence Essentials
Complete Sentence
There are several things you need to remember when
writing topic sentences. The first is that topic sentences are
always complete sentences.
Example
Two Parts
A topic sentence contains the topic of the paragraph
and a controlling idea. The controlling idea limits the topic
to something very specific.
Example
Topic and Controlling Idea
Topic and Controlling Idea

Be Careful!
Make sure that your topic sentence does not contain

too many controlling ideas.
Example
Supporting Sentences
Definition
Every paragraph has sentences that relate to the ideas
in the topic sentence. These sentences are called
supporting sentences. Look at the supporting sentences on
the next page to see how the writer provided more
information on the subject in the topic sentence.
Concluding Sentence
Definition and Purpose

A concluding sentence is the last sentence in a
paragraph. A conclusion can remind the reader of the main
points of a paragraph and/or leave the reader with
something to think about in relation to the topic. Look at
the next page to see how the writer used a concluding
sentence.
Useful Expressions
It is sometimes helpful to have a concluding expression in
your last sentence to signal the end of your paragraph. Some
common expressions used in concluding sentences are listed
below.
Unity
Definition
Good paragraphs have unity. That means that each
sentence in the paragraph is related to the topic sentence.
Unified paragraphs also discuss only one main idea.
The Conclusion
Making Your Last Paragraph Count
A Conclusion
Definition and Purpose: The conclusion is the last

paragraph in your essay. A conclusion completes the essay
and reemphasizes your thesis statement or main ideas.
Look at the example thesis statement and conclusion
below.
So What?
In addition to referring back to your main idea, your
conclusion needs to show your reader the significance of
your thesis. When discussing the importance of your thesis,
try to address questions such as…
How and why is this topic important?

How might this topic affect me or other people?
What can be learned from this topic?
Look at the example below of a conclusion that shows

the reader the importance of the main idea of the essay.
Example
Example
Conclusion
Look at the example below of a conclusion that refers
back to the thesis statement and shows the reader the
importance of the main idea of the essay.
Example
Concluding an Essay
Techniques
Some ways to enhance a conclusion are to include a…
Prediction
Recommendation
Quotation
A Prediction
A prediction talks about what might happen in the
future. A prediction can be a good way to finish your essay.
It can make your reader think about the possible results of
your thesis statement.
Example
A Recommendation
A recommendation is often used by a writer after
he/she has discussed a problem in an essay. A
recommendation can be used to suggest a solution or call
the readers to do something about the problem in the
essay.
Example
Concluding an Essay
“A Quotation”
A relevant quotation can bring good closure to your
essay, especially if the quotation is from an expert on the
topic in your composition.
Example
Useful Transitions
It is sometimes helpful to have a transition at the
beginning of your conclusion to signal the end of your
essay. Some common transitions used in conclusions are
listed below. Remember to use a comma after your
transitions.
Example of Transition Use

Review of Steps
On an essay exam…
Read the question carefully.
Rephrase the question into a

statement.
Brainstorm ideas.
Focus your answer.
Make a rough outline.
Write your essay and look at the time!
Re-read your answer.
Edit.
Brainstorming
Getting Ideas Before You Write
“Writer’s block” is a common problem to many students.

This is when ideas for writing do not come very easily. It is easy
to get very frustrated when beginning to write.
Brainstorming activities can help you get ideas for your
essay and help you become less frustrated.
Three Activities for Brainstorming:

Clustering
Listing
Free writing
Clustering
1- Start with the main topic of your essay. Write that
word in the center of your paper.
2- Write down any sub-topics that are connected to
that main topic. Draw arrows to the sub-topics from the
main topic.
3- If you have new ideas, connect those words to the
appropriate sub-topic.
Example # 1
Listing
word or words at the top of your paper.
2- Write down any word or phrase that might relate to
your main topic underneath. Don’t worry about spelling or
grammar. Your goal is to write down as many ideas as
quickly as possible.
Why I Want to Become a Doctor
Like problem solving Opportunities for promotion

Many jobs available Interested in study of diseases
Good salary Interested in study of human body
Like working in a hospital Flexible hours
Want to help other people Will always learn something new
Challenging job Like science
Free writing
word or words at the top of your paper.
2- Free writing is like talking to yourself on paper.
Write as much as you can in connected sentences (not
lists) about your topic. Write as quickly as you can
without stopping to think about grammar or organization.
My Favorite Book
My favorite book…I don’t know where to start. I read so many
books that are interesting that it’s hard to choose just one. I guess I
could start by talking about the kinds of books I really like. I like
biographies and autobiographies the best. I really enjoy reading
about another person’s life. One of my favorite books is called
Roots by Alex Haley. How the author was able to trace his family
history all the way back to Africa was amazing! Another book I
really enjoyed was Carl Sandburg’s biography of Abraham Lincoln.
What an incredible president! There are also some very interesting
books about leaders like Napoleon, Churchill, and Stalin. Well, I
guess that gives me a few ideas about where I can start on my
topic.
A Problem I Have
I have of course many problems in my life like everybody has,
but right now I am feeling new problems like the cultural shock. I
got out of my country and came to study in the U.S.A. One of the
biggest problems is to make friends, to make or have the good old
friends I have back home. It’s so hard here-you don’t know how to
act, whether you should ask them their telephone number or wait
for them to do it, whether you should call them very often or not.
Are they bothered by my language problem? Can they not carry on
a conversation with me because they always talk about local or
national subjects about, which I am not informed? This is really
hard and sometimes makes me feel like a stranger in a group
where everybody is laughing and talking and they supposedly were
my friends.
(Spack, R., 1996)
Using Transitions
Look at the two groups of sentences below. Which sentences

read more smoothly?
- My friend, Marcos, loves to play sports and is very athletic.

He has won a scholarship to play football at a university next
year.
- My friend, Marcos, loves to play sports and is very athletic.

In fact, he has won a scholarship to play football at a university
next year.
A transition word directly tells the reader the logical

relationship between one idea and another idea.
Example:
The transition, however, tells the reader that the logical relationship
between the two ideas is contrast.
Transitions are words that help make your writing more

coherent. They create connections between:
- one clause and another clause

- one sentence and another sentence
- one group of sentences and the next group of sentences
Joining Two Independent Clauses One way of joining two

independent clauses is with a semicolon, a transition, and a
comma.
Connecting Two Sentences: You can use a transition and
comma to tell the reader the logical relationship between two
sentences.
Placement of Transition: Rather than placing the transition

at the beginning of the second sentence, you may place it in the
middle of the second sentence after the subject with two commas.
Transitions in Longer Writing: When writing a paragraph

or a larger piece of writing, you can use a transition to show the
reader the logical relationship between one group of sentences
and another group of sentences. This is useful when you want to
let the reader know that you are changing from one idea to
another idea.
Example-Longer Piece of Writing
Types of Transitions
Excellent! This sentence reads more smoothly because it
contains a transition. Transition words connect ideas within and
between sentences.

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English For Special Purposes AUT – Chemical Engineering Dep.

During this activity:

• You will learn how to combine sentences using subordinate and

Many products are made from

Many products which we are all familiar

I live in San Francisco. I love living in the

I love living in the city of San Francisco. I

• Independent Clauses (IC)

Prepare a short report about relative clauses.

1. Simple (one independent clause):

To have a strong sentence, presence of at

A dependent clause must be combined with an independent clause in order to make

If the DC is the first clause, separate the

He drove the car. The car crashed into the bridge.

Of course, not all sentences need to be

Aluminum is a metal. It is abundant. It has many

1. A paragraph is a group of sentences which

NOW ASK YOURSELF

TOPIC VS. TOPIC SENTENCE

Topic Sentence = TOPIC + LIMITING STATEMENT

Discuss the history of cracking

The topic sentence is not simply a statement

The following are examples of statements of fact:

1. Christmas is celebrated on December 25.

A topic sentence can be either:

1. Computers make some jobs easier.

1. The pesticide DBCP has several side effects.

Sometimes a topic sentence can be both a

Topic Statement Which Limits the Topic

NOW ASK YOURSELF

1. Where does a topic sentence usually come in a paragraph?

Tells what the paragraph will be about

The topic sentence: States the main idea of the paragraph

Introduces the reader to the main idea in the paragraph

Focuses and directs the paragraph

The topic sentence Is the most general sentence in the paragraph

Is the most important sentence in the paragraph

• It must be arguable rather than a statement of fact.

Identifying Categories Which Limit Topic Sentences:

Remember that besides the

It is possible, of course, that some

NOW ASK YOURSELF

1. What must all supporting sentences do?

This is what a diagram of the above paragraph would look like:

NOW ASK YOURSELF

1. How are sentences 2 and 5 related to the topic sentence?

• It may be too general;

• It may be too specific;

• It may not relate to the supporting sentences.

Choosing proper topic sentence:

Choose a topic sentence & Defend Your Choice:

A. British and American English are not the same.

II.____________________________________________. The operation of both can be thought

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. Both the computer and the telephone are helpful inventions.

Defend Your Choice

1. I did not choose letter _ because _________________________

Ill. _______________________________________________________________________. The

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. Flat tires constitute a serious problem for the motorist.

Defend Your Choice

1. I did not choose letter _ because _____________________

SUPPORTING TOPIC SENTENCES