Aquino Doctoral Essay

VILLA-LOBOS’S CELLO CONCERTO No.
A PORTRAIT OF BRAZIL
by
Felipe José Avellar de Aquino
Doctoral Essay
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts in Performance and Literature
(Violoncello)
Advisor: Dr. Matthew Brown
Eastman School of Music
University of Rochester, 2000
Rochester, New York

“…when can a father say that the ‘Son’ will
be this or that? Now then, I don’t know what
will come out of my pen and thus it will be
impossible for me to make any promise about
the Concerto for Violoncello and Orchestra.
The only thing I can declare is that I shall
write a work with sincerity; it remains to be
seen, nevertheless, if this sincerity will please
or not.” 1
1
Villa-Lobos’s response to Aldo Parisot’s commission (Peppercorn 1994).
For Sandra, Lucas, and my parents.
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to greatly thank my advisor, Dr. Matthew Brown, for his invaluable
insight and his coherent guidance. In addition, I wish to express my gratitude to
Professor Alan Harris, for helping me not only to play this piece but also to achieve a
higher level in my musical development. Likewise, I have to acknowledge all my music
teachers, specially my very first one, my dearest mom.
I want to express my appreciation to the Villa-Lobos Museum, in Rio de Janeiro,
for providing all the manuscripts and assisting with the research. Finally, I have to
acknowledge the Brazilian Government, through the National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development - CNPq, for supporting my studies at the Eastman School of
Music.
iii
Preface
This doctoral essay studies the Brazilian elements in Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto
No. 2. It shows how these components infuse the finished score and how they appeared
in the compositional process. By understanding the composer's inspirational sources we
might enlighten any performance of the concerto.
Although Villa-Lobos does not directly quote any folk themes in the Cello
Concerto No. 2, the music sounds definitively Brazilian: folk-like elements and dance
rhythms permeate the score. The use of Brazilian sources can be viewed as a tribute to a
countryman, Aldo Parisot, to whom the work was dedicated. Interestingly, some of these
elements were taken from the music of the northeast of Brazil, a region whose folk
expression was greatly admired and studied by Villa-Lobos. Being born in that same
region, I soon found that the piece had specific allusions to Northeastern material such as
the desafio and berimbau patterns; this immediately compelled me to research and write
about this marvelous work. Not by coincidence, the northeast is the same region that
Parisot is from, in this way Villa-Lobos probably intended to capture his native roots.
In order to understand Villa-Lobos's use of vernacular elements in the Concerto,
this study traces his background, musical style in general, and his particular affection to
the cello. This latter aspect of the study might unveil what compelled him to write such a
piece. Moreover, this essay summarizes the formation of the Brazilian culture,
highlighting some of the elements that are crucial for the understanding of the work.
iv
In terms of the finished score, I discuss Villa-Lobos's use of Brazilian folk
materials, such as idiomatic themes, harmony, rhythm, texture, form, and instrumental
color. Some of these elements are obvious at the surface of the music but others are
hidden in the texture. I consider, in particular, the influence of the guitar in Villa-Lobos's
writing as well as the use of rhythmic patterns derived from Brazilian folk instruments,
such as the berimbau and pandeiro. Moreover, I discuss some of the implications of
trying to absorb vernacular material into the rarified genre of the concerto.
Concerning the genesis of the piece, I discuss Villa-Lobos's sketches and
manuscripts, currently owned by the Villa-Lobos Museum in Rio de Janeiro. These
materials, which are available in facsimile, shed important light on Villa-Lobos's creative
approach, as well as on the composition process of the work.
Finally, this doctoral essay does not intend to make an ethnomusicological study
of the Brazilian culture, its ultimate purpose is to demonstrate how the understanding of
the Brazilian sources might be helpful in shaping the interpretation of the piece.
v
Table of Contents
Aknowledgements.............................................................................................................. iii
Preface................................................................................................................................ iv
List of Examples .............................................................................................................. viii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1 - Introduction...................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Villa-Lobos and the Cello: a lifelong commitment ............................................ 2
Chapter 2 - Aspects of Villa-Lobos's Musical Style........................................................... 6
2.1. Search for a Musical Language ......................................................................... 6
2.2. Brazilian Folk Roots ......................................................................................... 11
Chapter 3 - Elements of the Formation of the Brazilian Culture and Folklore................. 18
Chapter 4 - Preliminary Considerations on the Second Cello Concerto........................... 23
4.1. Historical Background ...................................................................................... 23
4.2. Nationalism and Neo-Classicism in Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto No.2 ......... 27
Chapter 5 - Nationalistic Elements in the Work ............................................................... 31
5.1. First Movement: Allegro non troppo ................................................................ 31
5.2. Second Movement: Molto andante cantabile ................................................... 50
5.3. Third Movement: Scherzo (Vivace). ................................................................. 60
5.4. Fourth Movement: Allegro energico ................................................................ 70
vi
Chapter 6 - Villa-Lobos's Manuscripts and the Compositional Process........................... 76
Chapter 7 - Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 84
Appendix - List of Villa-Lobos's Compositions for the Cello.......................................... 86
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 91
vii
List of Examples
Example 1. Villa-Lobos's arrangement of folk songs...................................................... 14
a) No Fundo do Meu Quintal, song No. 57 from the Guia Prático.......................... 14
b) Ó Ciranda, Ó Cirandinha, song No. 35 from the Guia Prático........................... 15
Example 2. Villa-Lobos's arrangement of Bach's Prelude 22, BWV 867, from the first
book of The Well-Tempered Clavier......................................................................... 16
Example 3. Three scale modes from northeastern Brazil. ................................................ 21
a) First mode. ............................................................................................................ 21
b) Second mode......................................................................................................... 21
c) Third mode: characteristic scale containing a raised ^4 and lowered ^7.............. 21
Example 4. First page of the orchestration. ...................................................................... 30
Example 5. Main motive of the first movement. .............................................................. 33
Example 6. Responsorial style in the Cello Concerto emulating a desafio, mm. 9-25.... 35
Example 7. Papai Curumiassú - Lullaby from Pará......................................................... 38
Example 8. Allusion to J.S. Bach's polyphonic style....................................................... 40
a) J.S. Bach’s G minor Fugue for lute (BWV 1000) ................................................ 40
b) Villa-Lobo's Cello Concerto No. 2 - 1st movement mm. 52 - 63. ........................ 40
Example 9. Ascending sequence based on the tritone, mm. 67-71.................................. 41
Example 10. Syncopated figure created by an implied accentuation, rehearsal No. 18. . 44
Example 11. Syncopated figure created by an implied accentuation as it appears in Villa-
Lobos's Caboclinha and Nazareth's Tango .............................................................. 46
viii
Example 12. Polyrhythm in Brazilian folk music............................................................. 47
Example 13. Villa-Lobos's Concerto for guitar and small orchestra (1951). .................. 48
Example 14. Resemblance between the second movement of the Cello Concerto and the
Aria from the Bachianas brasileiras No. 5……………………………………………... 53
a) Opening measures of the Aria from the Bachianas brasileiras No. 5.................. 53
b) Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto No. 2, first theme of the 2nd mov., mm. 8-12........ 54
Example 15. Second movement mm. 35-42. ................................................................... 55
Example 16. J.S. Bach's Prelude No. 23 in B major, from the first book of The Well-
Tempered Clavier, BWV 868. .................................................................................. 56
Example 17. F#-B interval that frames the movement. ................................................... 59
a) Opening of the second movement. ....................................................................... 59
b) Ending of the second movement. ......................................................................... 59
Example 18. Main motive of the Scherzo, whose bow stroke alludes to the percussive
sounds of the berimbau............................................................................................. 61
Example 19. Lejaren Hiller's An Apotheosis of Archaeopteryx (1979) for piccolo and
berimbau. .................................................................................................................. 63
a) The use of glissando in the berimbau. .................................................................. 63
b) Exploration of upper neighbor-tone as the main melodic
feature of the berimbau............................................................................................. 64
Example 20. "Villa-Lobos glissando" in the Cadenza, related to the sounds of the
berimbau…………………………………………………………………………... 66
Example 21. Dotted rhythmic figure as a new element in the Cadenza ........................... 69
a) Dotted rhythm figure in the Cadenza................................................................... 69
ix
b) Dotted rhythm as one of the main motivic elements of the Scherzo (third
movement) of Villa-Lobos's Deuxième Sonate pour violoncelle et piano. .............. 69
Example 22. Main theme of the Finale ........................................................................... 72
Example 23. Motive of the second episode and its counterpoint treatment .................... 73
a) Motive of the second episode. ............................................................................. 73
b) Same motive explored in imitation, mm. 28-30. ................................................. 74
Example 24. Allusion to a berimbau pattern in the coda of the final movement. ........... 75
Example 25. Villa-Lobos's Sketches of the Second Cello Concerto ............................... 79
a) Beginning of the first movement (from the first page of the sketches) ............... 79
b) Motivic cell employed in the third movement (page 5 of the sketches).............. 80
Example 26. Più mosso moderato section from the second movement .......................... 81
a) Piano reduction, mm. 37-44................................................................................. 81
b) Orchestration of the same passage, mm. 35-42 ................................................... 82
x
List of Figures
Figure 1 - Villa-Lobos's cello at the Museu Villa-Lobos, Rio de Janeiro - Brazil. ............ 5
Figure 2 - Program of the first performance of Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto No. 2 ....... 26
Figure 3 - The berimbau ................................................................................................... 62
List of Tables
Table 1 - Formal scheme of the first movement. .............................................................. 49
Table 2 - Formal scheme of the second movement .......................................................... 58
Table 3 - Formal structure of the third movement............................................................ 67
Table 4 - Formal scheme of the fourth movement............................................................ 71
xi
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Written in 1953, Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto No. 2 belongs to his final
compositional period. As such, it is the last of a string of important works for cello and
orchestra, which also includes the Grand Concerto (1913) and the Fantasia for cello and
orchestra (1945).
Heitor Villa-Lobos is generally regarded as the most important Brazilian
composer. Born in Rio de Janeiro in 1887, he enjoyed great popularity during his
lifetime both in his homeland and abroad. It is perhaps a sign of his international
reputation that the Fantasia for cello and orchestra was dedicated to Serge
Koussevitzky. 1
There can be little doubt that his total musical output, which includes around one
thousand works, was strongly influenced by the Brazilian folk and popular music. In
fact, Villa-Lobos was the first Brazilian composer to insert a strong national identity into
his works, as such he influenced several generations of composers in his country.
Towards the end of his long and productive life he fulfilled several concerto
commissions, thereby incorporating virtuosic elements into his nationalistic
compositional style. The Cello Concerto No. 2 is just such a piece: it probably contains
1
The Fantasia was premiered in Brazil in 1946 by cellist Iberê Gomes Grosso. Its first performance in the
United States was given by Aldo Parisot, on 8 July 1957, with the Stadium Symphony Orchestra under the
composer's baton, at the Lewisohn Stadium in New York City.
1
more folk and dance elements than any other concerto ever written for the instrument.
Thus, Villa-Lobos managed to give his music a strong improvisatory character while
adhering to the traditional demands of the concerto.
1.1. Villa-Lobos and the Cello: a lifelong commitment
Villa-Lobos started his musical training at an early age. When he was about six
years old, his father, who was an amateur cellist, started teaching him the instrument on
an adapted viola. Through this intense training, by 1898 he already started developing
his love for the works of J.S. Bach, as well as for the popular music of Rio de Janeiro;
two elements that were to become very influential in his compositions.
As Churchill points out, "his father trained him to love music and to analyze
every sound that he heard. He would play a game in which he named the pitches of any
sound around him, a streetcar, a bird, or the crash of a pot in the kitchen…. It can be said
that anything that Villa-Lobos heard was absorbed and internalized through his powerful
instinct." 2 Besides the cello, Villa-Lobos also played the guitar, an instrument widely
employed in the Brazilian folk and popular music, which enabled him to be in contact
with the most important popular musicians of his time.
After his father's death in 1899, Villa-Lobos was obliged to work in order to
support himself. This is when he began to play the cello professionally in places such as
2
Mark Churchill, "Brazilian Cello Music: A Guide for Performing Musicians." (Doctoral Essay, University
of Hartford, 1987) 39.
2
theaters and cafés. According to Churchill, the performances at those venues led him to
compose a series of short pieces for cello and piano. 3 At the same time, Villa-Lobos
started taking cello lessons from Benno Niederberger at the National Music Institute of
Rio de Janeiro. Later on he studied both cello and harmony with the influential
Portuguese teacher Frederico Nascimento (1852-1924). 4 In fact, Nascimento, together
with Alberto Nepomuceno, anticipated Villa-Lobos in collecting Brazilian folk tunes on a
trip to the North and Northeast of the country in 1888. These are regions that Villa-
Lobos visited in 1912, when he went on a tour playing the cello as a member of Luís
Moreira's Operetta Company.
An accomplished cellist, Villa-Lobos composed several works for the instrument.
Besides the pieces already mentioned, he also wrote two sonatas for cello and piano (the
first of which is lost). In addition, he composed a Fantasia Concertante for 32 cellos
(dedicated to the Violoncello Society in New York - 1958), the Bachianas brasileiras
No. 1 (dedicated to Pablo Casals - 1930), and the Bachianas brasileiras No. 5 (1938) for
cello ensemble and soprano soloist. Even if Villa-Lobos did not invent the genre of cello
ensemble, it was certainly established by him.
Early in his career Villa-Lobos used to play concerts with his first wife, pianist
Lucília Guimarães, Robert Soriano, Souza Lima, among others. 5 According to the
catalog of the Villa-Lobos Museum, he still performed the cello as late as 1930, when he
3
Ibid, 42.
4
Ibid, 36.
5
Villa-Lobos: Sua Obra, 2nd ed. (Rio de Janeiro: MEC, Museu Villa-Lobos [1972] ), 178-180.
3
premiered his arrangement of O Trenzinho do Caipira in São Paulo, accompanied by
pianist Souza Lima. 6 After quitting playing professionally he never stopped to write new
works for the instrument, as shown in his long list of cello compositions (see appendix).
Even in his Professional Card of 1937, a mandatory employment document in
Brazil, his profession is listed as musician/cellist. Furthermore, Parisot recounts that
during the compositional process of the Second Cello Concerto, in 1953, Villa-Lobos was
always demonstrating on the cello how a certain phrase or effect should sound. 7
Finally, in January 1959, the year of his death, Villa-Lobos served on the jury of
the second International Pablo Casals Competition in Mexico, together with eminent
cellists such as André Navarra, Zara Nelsova, Milòs Sádlo, Gaspar Cassadó, Mstislav
Rostropovich, Maurice Eisenberg, Adolfo Odnoposoff, and Pablo Casals himself.
Russian cellist Mstislav Rostropovich recounts:
He [Villa-Lobos] once announced his intention to write a Triple Cello
Concerto for Pierre Fournier, André Navarra and myself, which would
reflect our different personalities in musical portraits. I very much regret
that death prevented him from fulfilling his wish. However, the composer's
three musical loves - the cello, Bach, and Brazilian folk music - are clearly
manifested in the first of his Bachianas brasileiras. 8
6
Ibid, 178.
7
Lisa M. Peppercorn, The Villa-Lobos Letters, Musicians in Letters No. 1 (London: Toccata Press, 1994),
137.
8
Rostropovich, Liner Notes, in Rostropovich: The Russian Years 1950-1974. EMI CDs 72017-72029
(released 1997), 32.
4
Today his instrument and bow are hosted at the Museu Villa-Lobos in Rio de
Janeiro. His cello is labeled Martin Diht Chur, 1779, while his bow was made by L.
Lecherc (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Villa-Lobos's cello at the Museu Villa-Lobos, Rio de Janeiro - Brazil.
5
CHAPTER TWO
Aspects of Villa-Lobos's Musical Style
2.1. Search for a Musical Language
Even though Villa-Lobos died only forty years ago, his life is full of controversies
and obscure passages, which make the work of several scholars somewhat contradictory.
The problems affect mere biographical data such as determining the year in which he was
born or the total number of his musical output. Peppercorn, for instance, was probably
one of the first scholars to determine the composer's year of birth as 1887, while in
several other sources this data appears anywhere between 1881 to 1891. 9 Regarding his
musical compositions the numbers are even more contradictory. According to the
Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music, Villa-Lobos's musical output consists of more than
three thousand works, the Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians (8th edition,
1992) numbers two thousand, while Appleby's Bio-Bibliography lists about six hundred
compositions. Béhague, on the other hand, mentions one thousand works, a number that
is ratified by the Villa-Lobos Museum in Rio de Janeiro. More significantly, some
scholars question the extent of Villa-Lobos's scholarly studies of Brazilian musical
traditions and the originality of the folk material employed in his own music.
9
See L. Peppercorn, “The History of Villa-Lobos’ Birth Date” published in The Monthly Musical Record,
78 (898), (July/August 1948), 153-55.
6
As a composer from a country outside of the main musical stream, Villa-Lobos
was a figure surrounded by myths and exotic episodes. In many instances he is pictured
either as a wanderer that participated in all sorts of street musical gatherings, or as an
exotic composer who was among native Indians in the middle of the jungle, searching for
inspiration. Both of these images are ones that Villa-Lobos himself contributed to create.
This poem by Mark Frutkin entitled "Villa-Lobos Lugs his Cello Through the Amazon
Jungle" is a good example of how he has been frequently portrayed:
Villa-Lobos lugs his cello

through the Amazon jungle.
Where he started out is unimportant.
Where he is headed is untrackable.
No path threads the jungle together,
but when he rests and plays
each leaf takes its perfect place,
the brown and green river
bends and bends and never breaks.
Birds like shattered stained-glass windows
drawn to the quivering sound,
blink their green eyes
and sharpen their yellow beaks
hoping to compete with the cello's
music in the cool of evening.
At night the musician lays his body

down inside the cello
and he feels hollow and trembly
in his vine-draped dreams.
7
The veins of his wrists are like strings.
He dreams an entire orchestra of night
that by morning will be nothing but dew
its music lingering in the triple fan of leaves
in the breathing of umbrella trees. 10
Despite all the controversial matters that surround his life, Villa-Lobos was,
according to Béhague, the “symbolic liberator of the music of Brazil from the post-
romantic European values that dominated its musical circles.” 11 In fact, his early
compositions still show a strong European influence, notably by the music of Claude
Debussy and by the composition treatise Cours de Composition Musicale, by Vincent
d'Indy. This influence can be clearly noticed in works such as the Sonata-Fantasia
No.1 (Desesperance) for violin and piano (1913), the piano Trio No. 2 (1915), the cello
Sonata No. 2 (1916), as well as in his first two Symphonies. Works that sound very
French in character.
Even before his first trip to Paris in 1923, Villa-Lobos was in touch with
important figures such as Milhaud, Rubinstein, and Diaghilev. Despite living outside of
the main musical stream, he was aware of the rapid changes in the music aesthetics that
was taking place in Europe in the first two decades of the 20th century. Thus, Villa-
10
Mark Frutkin, "Villa-Lobos Lugs his Cello through the Amazon Jungle," PRISM International Vol. 26,
Issue 2 (January 1988), 41.
11
Gerard Behague, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil’s Musical Soul (Austin: University of Texas
Institute of Latin American Studies, 1994), 149.
8
Lobos's acquaintance with Darius Milhaud, who lived in Brazil from 1917-1919, allowed
him to become more familiar with the music of Debussy and Les Six. Rubinstein, with
whom Villa-Lobos developed a strong friendship, was one of the first internationally
reputed musicians to perform his works in Europe. 12 Diaghilev, Nijinsky, and the Ballets
Russes caught Villa-Lobos's attention during their performances in Rio de Janeiro in
1913 and 1917. In these performances he had a chance to hear Debussy's Prélude à
l'après-midi d'un faune, Stravinsky's Petrushka and Firebird, as well as Ravel's Daphnis
et Cloé. 13 According to Wright, Villa-Lobos even planned a stage production of his
symphonic poem Amazonas with the Russian company, a project that unfortunately was
never accomplished due to Diaghilev's death in 1929. 14 Furthermore, during his stay in
France Villa-Lobos was surrounded by a circle of important celebrities. Among them are
some of the most important artists of the time, including figures such as Fernand Léger,
Paul Le Flem, Florent Schmitt, Edgard Varèse, Leopold Stokowski, Serge Koussevitzky,
Arthur Rubinstein, Sergey Prokofiev, and Andrés Segóvia.
Another major event, important not only for the establishment of Villa-Lobos's
compositional style but also a milestone to the advent of modernism in Brazil, was the
so-called Week of Modern Art held in São Paulo in 1922. This was basically a festival,
in which Villa-Lobos was one of the forefront figures. It consisted of concerts, art
12
As a result of this friendship, Villa-Lobos composed the Rude Poema, which is a musical portrait of
Rubinstein's personality and contains some Amerindians melodies.
13
Peppercorn implies that in these performances Villa-Lobos was playing the cello in the theater's orchestra
(Pepercorn 1989, 39).
14
Simon Wright, Villa-Lobos, Oxford Studies of Composers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 19.
9
exhibitions and lectures that were to change the entire aesthetics of the arts and
literature in Brazil.
According to Béhague, the Week of Modern Art main goal was to seek "a
national artistic renovation based on the principle of adoption of avant-garde European
techniques in the arts mixed with enthusiastic promotion of Brazilian folk topics." 15
Musicologist Mario de Andrade, one of the philosophical leaders of the event, is even
more emphatic. He remarks that the Week of Modern Art led to "the right of artistic
experimentation, the updating of Brazilian artistic intelligence, the formation of a
national artistic expression, and the elimination of the slavish imitation of European
models." 16 This event was thus a turning point in Villa-Lobos's evolution as a
composer.
15
Gerard Béhague, Music in Latin America: An Introduction, Prentice-Hall History of Music Series, ed. H.
Wiley Hitchcock (Englewood Cliffs:Prentice-Hall, 1979), 185.
16
Mario de Andrade, O movimento modernista (Rio de Janeiro: Casa do Estudante, 1942), 2; quoted in
Mark Churchill, "Brazilian Cello Music: A Guide for Performing Musicians" (Doctoral Essay, University
of Hartford, 1987) 7.
10
2.2. Brazilian Folk Roots
After discovering the richness of the folk music of Brazil, Villa-Lobos became the
first Brazilian composer to insert a strong national identity into his works. His
compositional language created a school of nationalistic composers in his homeland.
About his compositional style Villa-Lobos said:
Não escrevo dissonante para ser moderno. De maneira nenhuma. O que

escrevo é conseqüência cósmica dos estudos que fiz, da síntese a que cheguei
para espelhar uma natureza como a do Brasil. Quando procurei formar a
minha cultura, guiado pelo meu próprio instinto e tirocínio, verifiquei que só
poderia chegar a uma conclusão de saber consciente, pesquisando,
estudando obras que, à primeira vista, nada tinham de musicais. Assim, o
meu primeiro livro foi o mapa do Brasil, o Brasil que eu palmilhei, cidade
por cidade, estado por estado, floresta por floresta, perscrutando a alma de
uma terra. Depois, o caráter dos homens dessa terra. Depois, as maravilhas
naturais dessa terra. Prossegui, confrontando esses meus estudos com obras
estrangeiras, e procurei um ponto de apoio para firmar o personalismo e a
inalterabilidade das minhas idéias.
[I don’t write dissonant pieces to be modern. Absolutely not. The way I

write is a cosmic consequence of the studies I’ve done, of the synthesis I’ve
arrived to portrait a Brazilian nature. When I sought to develop my culture,
guided by my own instincts and experience, I realized that I could only come
to a conclusion of conscious knowledge researching and studying works
which, on the surface, were not musical. Thus, my first book was a map of
Brazil, the Brazil that I combed through, town by town, state by state, forest
by forest, scrutinizing the soul of the land. Then, the character of the people
11
of this land. Then, the natural wonders of this land. I went on, comparing
my studies with foreign compositions, and I sought something to support and
strengthen my personal approach and the unchanging character of my
ideas.] 17
Even though Villa-Lobos's field research was not as systematic as Béla
Bartók's, one can draw a parallel between the compositional thoughts of these two
composers. They are related on the way they employed the vernacular material.
Hence, when discussing Bartók's Suite for piano, Op.14, Morgan affirms that "…it can
be said to represent a sort of 'free imitation' of folk music, in which the folk quality has
been modified to accommodate the formal and developmental ambitions of concert
music. Bartók later wrote that it should be the aim of the composer 'to assimilate the
idiom of folk music so completely that he is able to forget all about it,' so that it
becomes his 'mother tongue.' " 18 Compared to Villa-Lobos's own words above, this
last statement can be easily applied to describe the compositional approach of the
Brazilian composer. Like Bartók, he was close to any form of vernacular expression
from the people of his native country, whose elements he ingeniously combined with
the avant-garde European musical aesthetics of his time.
17
Museu Villa-Lobos Home Page. Villa-Lobos: Life and Works (1996) Online. Internet. Available:
alternex.com.br/~mvillalobos/
18
Robert P. Morgan, Twentieth-Century Music: A History of Musical Style in Modern Europe and
America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991), 108.
12
Villa-Lobos’s bohemian lifestyle led him to participate directly in several forms
of folk and popular expressions. For instance, he performed with the chorões (urban
instrumental music ensemble), participated in the Brazilian carnival, and played the
cello in venues such as theaters and cafés. Besides, from 1905-1913 Villa-Lobos
undertook several journeys throughout the country, notably to the northern (Amazon
region) and northeastern part of Brazil. Even though his research was not as
scientifically oriented as those of Bartók and Kodály, Villa-Lobos collected over one
thousand folk melodies. Moreover, he absorbed the folk elements from the three
primary ethnic groups that comprise the Brazilian population: Portuguese, African, and
native Indians.
As a result of his extensive traveling and his contact with such a diverse folk
material, Villa-Lobos compiled the Guia Prático in 1932. It consists of harmonization
of 137 collected Brazilian folk rounds, popular tunes, lullabies, and other children’s
songs. It is important to point out that according to Béhague, “as with most Latin
American countries, it is difficult to make a clear distinction between Brazilian popular
music and folk song.” 19 Thus, the Guia Prático, scored for children’s chorus, was
mainly arranged for educational purposes, but Villa-Lobos actually employed several
of its tunes in his own compositions. This is precisely the case of the Cirandas (1926)
and A Prole do Bebê No. 1 for piano (1918). When Villa-Lobos did not quote a folk
material, he still incorporated folk characteristics into his compositions.
19
Gerard Béhague, “Brazil,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie.
Vol. 3, 6th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1980), 224.
13
Example 1a shows the interesting rhythmic and melodic content of a Brazilian
folk song. Besides, it demonstrates how Villa-Lobos carefully harmonized this simple
tune named No Fundo do Meu Quintal. Example 1b is entitled Ó Ciranda, Ó
Cirandinha, song No. 35 from the Guia Prático, whose theme Villa-Lobos employed in
his Polichinelo from Prole do Bebê No. 1, for Piano.
Example 1. Villa-Lobos's arrangements of folk songs.
a) No Fundo do Meu Quintal, song No. 57 from the Guia Prático.
14
b) Ó Ciranda, Ó Cirandinha, song No. 35 from the Guia Prático.
According to Corrêa de Azevedo, Villa-Lobos found a strong affinity between
Bach’s compositions and Brazilian folk music. 20 At some point, the composer even
claimed to have found counterpoint typical of J.S. Bach in Brazilian folk music, which
20
Luiz Heitor Corrêa de Azevedo,“Villa- Lobos, Heitor,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, Vol. 7, 6th ed. (London: Macmillan, 1980), 765.
15
was never demonstrated with musical examples. 21 Despite this claim, Villa-Lobos
deeply studied J.S. Bach's contrapuntal techniques, having transcribed several of his
Preludes and Fugues from The Well-Tempered Clavier for both cello orchestra, and
cello and piano. As a result, he incorporated several contrapuntal techniques into his
own compositional approach, which can be noticed in many sections of the Cello
Concerto No. 2.
Example 2. Villa-Lobos's arrangement of Bach's Prelude 22, BWV 867, from the first
book of The Well-Tempered Clavier.
21
Eero Tarasti, "Heitor Villa-Lobos and the Problem of National Neoclassicism." Atti del XIV congresso
della Società internazionale di musicologia: trasmissione e recezione delle forme di cultura musicale,
(Torino: EDT, 1990), 384.
16
The combination of Bach's contrapuntal style with the strong rhythmic figures and
melodic styles of the folk music from northeastern Brazil is probably what makes Villa-
Lobos's music sound so unique. He treated folk tunes, or folk-derived material, in a
contrapuntal texture that resembles Bach’s. This latter feature was highly in fashion in
the so-called “neo-classic” style of the first half of the 20th century. Hence, Villa-Lobos's
Bachianas brasileiras are the best examples of how to combine neo-classical trends with
a strong national inspiration. They consist of a series of nine suites for different
instrumentation, written between 1930-45, in which most of them contains a prelude and
a fugal movement. 22 Ultimately, the fusion of the two elements discussed above is
embodied even in the title of this series.
22
Bachianas brasileiras No. 1 for 8 cellos (1930); No. 2 for small orchestra (1930); No. 3 for piano and
orchestra (1938); No. 4 for piano (1930-6) and orchestrated in 1941; No. 5 for voice and 8 cellos (1938);
No. 6 for flute and bassoon (1938); No. 7 for orchestra (1942); No. 8 for orchestra (1944); No. 9 for strings
or mixed choir (1945).
17
CHAPTER THREE
Elements of the Formation of the Brazilian Culture and Folklore
In order to understand Vila-Lobos's use of vernacular elements in the Cello
Concerto No. 2, we have to take into consideration the formation of the Brazilian culture,
highlighting some of the elements that are crucial for the understanding of the work.
Among these aspects one must include the contribution of each ethnical group that form
the Brazilian population, the use of modal and pentatonic scales, the use of percussion
instruments, as well as the importance of the instruments from the guitar family.
Brazilian folk music is basically formed by the miscegenation of the three distinct
ethnic groups already mentioned: Portuguese, Amerindians and Afro-Brazilians.
Considering that Portugal colonized and ruled Brazil from 1500 to 1822, the Luso-
Hispanic influence is very strong. Further European immigrations, such as the German
and Italians that moved to Brazil in the 19th century, added other European aspects in the
formation of the Brazilian culture. 23 On that respect, Mario de Andrade comments:
23
Furthermore, due to the French invasions in the course of Brazilian history, their influence on the
formation of the Brazilian culture is also relatively noticeable. As simple example, until recently the
French language was taught in schools, while the wealthy families used to send their sons and daughters to
pursue an education both in France and Switzerland.
18
Although Brazilian music has attained an original ethnical expression, its
sources are of foreign derivation. It is Amerindian in a small percentage,
African to a much greater degree, and Portuguese in an overwhelmingly
large proportion. Besides, there is a Spanish influence, mainly in its
Hispano-American aspect…The European influence is revealed not only
through parlor dances such as the Waltz, Polka, Mazurka, and the
Schottische, but also in the structure of the Modinha…Apart from these
influences, already absorbed, we must consider recent contributions,
particularly American jazz. 24
Luso-Hispanic instruments, particularly from the string family, permeated throughout the
country. According to Béhague, one of the most important means of folk musical
expression is through the viola, “a type of guitar with five double courses made of wire or
steel. There are various sizes, the standard one being somewhat smaller that the Spanish
classical guitar. There are at least five types of viola: the viola paulista, cuiabana,
angrense, goiana, and nordestina.” 25 The viola tradition presents a considerable variety
of tuning. Approximately 25 different tunings are found just in São Paulo, each tuning
employed according to the way the instrument is being used - i.e. to accompany a certain
song genre, dancing, or even to play solo and in duets. Still according to Béhague, the
24
Mario de Andrade, Ensaio sobre a música brasileira, 3rd ed. (São Paulo: Livraria Martins, 1972); quoted
in Nicolas Slonimsky, Music of Latin America. Da Capo Press Music Reprints Series, ed. Frederick
Freedman (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972), 110.
25
19
Luso-Hispanic influence can also be found in the “melodies built on the old European
modes, ‘gapped’ scales, and altered modes.” 26
The African influence came from almost 400 years of slave trade. This influence,
which came primarily from Angola and Congo, can be noticed in the use of scales such
as “pentatonic, major diatonic with flattened 7th, and major hexatonic without the seventh
degree.” 27 Characteristically, "African rhythmic traits, such as the hemiola rhythm, form
the basis of many rhythmic intricacies of Brazilian folk music." 28 The Amerindian
influence, in a smaller proportion, is noticed mainly through the use of percussion
instruments, such as rattles of the maraca type, in the Brazilian folk and popular music.
Hence, the Brazilian culture is an amalgamation of distinct elements. For
instance, the slaves' religious rites merged with Roman Catholicism to form unique Afro-
Brazilian cults, notable for their exotic ceremonies, in which the most influential is the
Candomblé.
Brazilian composer José Siqueira, who also did field research, identifies three
melodic modes that appear in the folk music of northeast of Brazil (Example 3). Like the
authentic and plagal modes in the church modal system, each of these scales has a
derived version. 29 Furthermore, Siqueira found anhemitonic pentatonic scales [0,2,4,7,9]
being widely employed in the music of African-Brazilian origin. 30
26
Ibid. , 224.
27
Ibid. , 224.
28
Ibid. , 224.
29
José Siqueira, O sistema modal na música folclórica do Brasil, (João Pessoa: Secretaria de Educação e
Cultura, 1981), 1-9.
30
José Siqueira, Sistema Pentatônico Brasileiro, (João Pessoa: Secretaria de Educação e Cultura, 1981), 1.
20
The first two scale modes are basically the Mixolydian and Lydian modes,
respectively. Whereas the third mode, according to Siqueira, is very unique, it contains a
raised ^4 and a flattened ^7 (Example 3c). This scale is thus one of the most striking
features of the music of northeastern Brazil.
Example 3. Three scale modes from northeastern Brazil.
a) First mode.
b) Second mode.
c) Third mode: characteristic scale containing a raised ^4 and lowered ^7.
#^4 b^7
21
As described above, Brazilian folk and popular music combine many remarkable
features. Thus, after composers started incorporating those characteristics into their
work, Nationalism became a strong trend throughout the entire 20th century in Brazil.
Thereby, as the study of Villa-Lobos's Second Cello Concerto will demonstrate, art music
was strongly influenced by vernacular elements.
22
CHAPTER FOUR
Preliminary Considerations on the Second Cello Concerto
4.1. Historical Background
The Cello Concerto No. 2 was written in 1953, in a period in which Villa-Lobos
fulfilled several work commissions such as the concertos for guitar, harp, cello, and
harmonica. This piece is, for instance, contemporary with the Harp concerto written for
Nicanor Zabaleta. It belongs to Villa-Lobos’s last compositional period, which began
around 1945. In this phase his compositional style is noted by the exploration of
instrumental virtuosity. Nevertheless, the Cello Concerto is not limited to a simple
display of technical virtuosity, for Villa-Lobos continuously explores elements of
Brazilianism.
Among Villa-Lobos's cello works, the Concerto No. 2 is, in my opinion, the most
outstanding. It was dedicated to the Brazilian cellist Aldo Parisot - one of the leading
cello pedagogues in the USA, on the faculty of both Yale University and the Juilliard
School of Music - who commissioned the piece for his first performance with the New
York Philharmonic in Carnegie Hall. During the late 40s and 50s Parisot was in the peak
of his concert career and was considered one of the most important cellists of his
23
generation. He even collaborated with Villa-Lobos on several aspects of the score,
especially passages of virtuosic display.
In an interview to Claude Kenneson, Parisot states that after his first appearance
with the New York Philharmonic, Columbia management suggested him to request a
Brazilian composer to write a new cello concerto. This is how he decided to commission
the work to Villa-Lobos, who replied on how difficult it is to write for the instrument.
Parisot then comments on his collaboration with the composer:
I went to New York from New Haven every day for one week and there I
practiced in his hotel room - scales, etudes, concertos - while he was writing.
On one side he had the cello concerto, on the other side a symphony, and he
was jumping from one to the other. And who was there during all those
sessions? Andrés Segovia! …When Villa-Lobos had something ready in the
concerto, he'd let me try the passage. Then he would say, 'No, no, Aldo. Not
that way, this way.' He loved to hear sliding on the cello, not shifting
connections, but real slides. And he would demonstrate. In one week he had
the whole thing blocked out. Tailor made… 31
Despite his close participation during the compositional process and the fact that the
composer was an accomplished cellist, Aldo Parisot continued to alter the cello part both
31
Claude Kenneson, Musical Prodigies: Perilous Journeys, Remarkable Lives (Portland: Amadeus Press,
1998), 223.
24
in the first performance and in his subsequent recording of the work. He claims that
these alterations were done so that the work would sound more idiomatic to the
instrument. According to him, Villa-Lobos approved these changes, even though they
did not appear in the published score.
Following the premier under Walter Hendl on 5 February 1955, Parisot was
granted exclusive rights to perform the concerto for two years. 32 He made the first
recording of the piece, in 1962, with the Vienna State Opera Orchestra under Gustav
Meier. The first edition was eventually published in Paris by Editions Max Eschig in
1982. 33
32
Walter Hendl later became the director of the Eastman School of Music.
33
So far, Editions Max Eschig has never published the orchestral score of the concerto, which still is in
manuscript form.
25
Figure 2. Program of the first performance of Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto no. 2.
26
4.2. Nationalism and Neo-Classicism in Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto No. 2
It is common knowledge that Villa-Lobos had a very fertile and creative mind to
write new themes. However, being mostly a self-taught composer, his greatest weakness
was on how to organize his ideas within a coherent formal structure. The lack of formal
training, on the other hand, led him to be much more audacious in his compositional
approach. As we are able to verify in his second Cello Concerto, the use of the
vernacular element, whether a simple thematic material or even the use of a Brazilian
musical genre, is always the leading factor in his musical language.
This path seems to be a natural choice for a prominently nationalistic composer
writing for a countryman in the peak of his international concert career. Some of the
components of this piece were taken from the folklore of the northeastern Brazil, a region
whose folk expression was profoundly studied by Villa-Lobos, and where Parisot was
born. Therefore, Villa-Lobos's major task was to combine nationalistic trends, which
includes a strong improvisatory character, with virtuosic writing, in a traditional genre
such as the concerto.
In this piece Villa-Lobos demonstrates some of his most characteristic
compositional techniques as he combines elements of neo-classicism and nationalism.
As such, in several sections he employs compositional techniques similar to those from
his Bachianas, combining idiomatic material with contrapuntal procedures in the style of
J.S. Bach.
27
Furthermore, Villa-Lobos employs the standard pattern for a four-movement work
in this concerto, which can be viewed as another example of his neoclassical
characteristic. 34 This pattern usually consists of an elaborated opening movement in a
fast tempo (generally in sonata form), contrasted by a slower and singing second
movement. This is followed by a Scherzo in the third movement and a Finale, generally
in a fast tempo, cast in either rondo or sonata-rondo form. Thereby, the Second Cello
Concerto lasts about twenty minutes and is divided into four movements, according to the
archetype described above: Allegro non troppo, Molto andante cantabile, Scherzo
(vivace) – cadenza, Allegro energico. The first movement consists of an elaborated
multi-sectional structure (though not in sonata form) that is contrasted by a slow second
movement in an ABA form. The third movement is a rhythmically rich Scherzo,
followed by a compact Finale in rondo-form. Since the last two movements are very
short, each one lasting three to four minutes, they are linked by a cadenza in order to give
balance to the overall structure. Thereby, the cadenza works as a structural transition
from the Scherzo to the Finale.
Despite the use of elements that weaken the tonality, such as a bold harmony that
includes chords with added 9th, 11th or even a 13th, and the constant avoidance of strong
cadences to establish the main keys, the work has its basic tonal center in A minor. In
terms of orchestration, the writing is somewhat conservative, in the sense that Villa-
Lobos employs a standard large orchestra without exploring the percussion instruments to
depict the vernacular ambience. As shown in the opening page of the orchestral score,
34
As observed in his musical output, Villa-Lobos followed this four-movement pattern very consistently
(see appendix).
28
the instrumentation includes piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, english horn, 2 clarinets, bass
clarinet, 2 bassoons, double bassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani,
percussion (pandeiro de caixa - a small tambourine-like with attached bells - side drums,
celesta, cymbals, tam-tam), harp, and strings (Example 4).
29
Example 4. First page of the orchestration.
30
CHAPTER FIVE
Nationalistic Elements in the Work
5.1. First Movement: Allegro non troppo
The form of the first movement is somewhat unclear. Even though some scholars
label as a modified sonata form, it is in fact a multi-sectional movement in which each
section presents and develops its own thematic material. Besides the use of distinct
musical ideas, each section is clearly defined by change of tempo, meter, and texture. In
order to depict the vernacular character, Villa-Lobos employs elements that diverge from
the tonal common-practice, such as the use of modal and pentatonic scales. The
movement, however, has many tonal features for most of the time the composer makes
use of triadic harmony and tonal sequences. Nonetheless, the continuous avoidance of V-
I motion makes the movement sound tonally ambiguous. It opens, for instance, with an
open fifth E-B and closes with an E minor-seventh chord. In contrast, as the movement
develops, the key of A minor is continuously emphasized through the use of pedal points
and eventual points of arrival.
Surprisingly, in this movement Villa-Lobos does not use percussion instruments
as means of orchestration coloring. It is not uncommon to hear the cello accompanied
either by the strings or the wind section alone. In this sense, he was probably concerned
with balance between soloist and accompaniment, as he found somewhat difficult to
write for cello and orchestra.
31
Section A - Introduction
The movement opens with an eleven-measure orchestral “prelude” that anticipates
the main thematic material. The first measure presents a chord formed by the perfect
fifth E-B, in the entire orchestra, colored with the sound of the tam-tam. According to
Parisot, this chord depicts the sound of the Brazilian jungle. 35 From mm. 2-4, this chord
is broken into a long ascending motion that goes from the low E1 in the double-basses to
the high b3 in the piccolo, flutes and violins. While the bassoons sustain a double pedal
(E-B), the melodic cell E-B passes through almost all the instruments of the orchestra, as
if he is exploring the palette of orchestral colors in its entire range. In fact, the perfect
fifth is employed linearly as the opening interval of the first theme, which is first stated
by the orchestra and then presented by the soloist in m. 12. As shown in Example 5, the
main motive of this section is comprised by two sub-motives: two ascending leaps, of a
perfect fifth and a minor third (A), followed by a descending motion (B).
35
Aldo Parisot, Liner Notes, in Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto No. 2/Guarnieri's Choro for cello and
orchestra, Westminster Recordings LP XWN- 18755 (recorded 1962).
32
Example 5. Main motive of the first movement.
A B
After the long orchestral fermata on the tone A, m. 12, the theme is presented by
the solo cello in a recitative-like manner. Its highly declamatory style and improvisatory
character immediately establishes a dialog between soloist and orchestra; each statement
of the cello theme is subsequently responded by the orchestra as in a responsorial singing.
In my opinion, this is reminiscent of the popular song genre known in Brazil as desafio.
The term desafio (which literally means "challenge") refers to an orally transmitted
tradition in which two or more alternating singers compete to show their improvisational
skills on a given subject matter. This challenge may continue until one of the singers can
no longer respond or gives up to end the contest. 36 Even though the desafio, a long
36
33
tradition in Europe, is not exclusively Brazilian in origin, it is very strong in the Brazilian
culture. 37 This form of folk expression is notably found in the northeastern region of
the country.
Several aspects of the opening section of the concerto are related to the desafio.
The very first entrance of the soloist, for instance, is marked Impetuoso (impetuous),
which refers to the impulsive and spontaneous character of the cello statement that
challenges the orchestra. This improvisatory character is highlighted by the way in which
this theme is presented. It consists of a written-out accelerando through the rhythmic
diminution of the main melodic motive, in which a variation of sub-motive B is treated as
descending sequences in mm. 15-20 (Example 6).
Due to its declamatory style, the soloist opening statement becomes so irregular
that requires a continuous shift of meter (mm. 12-21). In a ten measure span the meter
signature changes from 6/4 to 9/4, 6/4, 2/2, and 6/4. Metric irregularity is further
explored in the second cello intervention, mm. 26-28, in a sequence that displaces a
three-note melodic motive in groups of four eight-notes. Those elements emphasize the
irregularity of the phrases as if they were being simply improvised.
37
According to Béhague this improvisatory singing is very common in southern Europe. (Ibid. , 239)
34
Example 6. Responsorial style in the Cello Concerto emulating a desafio, mm. 9-25.
35
Improvisation is the most important element in the Brazilian desafio. Since each
singer is expected to improvise on a given subject matter, the melody is generally
subordinated to the text. In analogy, the motives from Example 5 in this opening section
seem to be the subject of improvisation, whereas the resulting melodic material is the
consequence of their manipulation.
According to Béhague, the desafio consists of a recitative-like melody presenting
melodic sequences and isometric rhythms. 38 Moreover, while one singer is improvising,
the other makes short interventions or provides the accompaniment. 39 In the case of the
Cello Concerto, the soloist and the orchestra alternate the statements of the thematic
material. Each intervention presents the theme either in sequence or emphasizing a
different key. Furthermore, whenever the theme is being stated, the other medium
provides the accompaniment by sustaining a pedal point or making short interventions. 40
The register explored in the cello part is another link between vocal and
instrumental writing. The register of the cello is by nature the closest to the human voice,
but in this entire section, mm.1-45, the range of the cello is restricted to its first three
octaves, C - c1, which is very close to the range of the male voice. Even though the
performance of the desafio is not restricted to a single gender, it is generally performed
by male singers.
38
Ibid. , 239.
39
Slonimsky (Music of Latin America, 114, 303) defines four different kinds of desafio: ligeira, in short
phrases and fast tempo; martelo, in recitative style; carretilha, in vigorous rhythmic movement; and
parcela, in moderato tempo.
40
See Béhague for an analogy of one of a desafio style (embolada) in the second movement of the
Bachianas brasileiras No. 5 (Béhague 1994, 118-122).
36
As mentioned above, despite the strong relation to the vernacular material, in this
work Villa-Lobos does not quote any folk theme. However, we can find strong affinities
between the thematic material of first cello entrance in the concerto and some Brazilian
folk tunes. Such is the case with Papai Curumiassú, a lullaby collected by Houston-Péret
in the state of Pará, in the Amazon region (Example 7). 41 The first striking analogy
concerns to the irregular rhythmic construction of the lullaby and the opening theme of
the concerto, which requires a continuous change of meter. The resemblance of the first
four measures of Example 7 and measures12-14 of the concerto is also remarkable. This
Brazilian lullaby, for instance, starts with an up-beat and presents two consecutive
ascending leaps - a perfect fourth and a minor third - followed by a stepwise descending
line that leads to the tonic note. The first cello entrance of the concerto starts with a
similar melodic and rhythmic figuration. It contains two consecutive ascending leaps - a
perfect fifth and a minor third - followed by a stepwise descending line, except for the
descending major third E-C, that leads to the E.
41
Elsie Houston-Péret, Chants Populaires du Brésil (Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1930), 34.
37
Example 7. Papai Curumiassú - Lullaby from Pará, in Chants Populaires du Brésil.
38
Section B
After the opening section, a short transition leads to a melodic and textural
contrasting segment that starts in rehearsal number 4 (Allegro – in cut time). In this new
section the cello presents an arpeggiated second theme in the style of guitar writing - an
instrument that was extremely important in Villa-Lobos’s life. In the first eight measures
of the B section, the arpeggiated theme is accompanied by an ostinato rhythmic figuration
that emphasizes the offbeat syncopation. One could easily imagine a guitar accompanied
by some percussion instruments playing these eight measures, whose insistent
accompaniment gives a flavor of popular music. The reference to the guitar style is not
limited to these few bars, in the Meno that begins in m. 54, another guitar-like figuration
starts to be extensively explored (Example 8b).
As mentioned before, the guitar is certainly the most important instrument
employed in the Brazilian folk and popular music. Hence, in this section Villa-Lobos
probably intended to depict its predominance. In order to illustrate the use of the guitar
style, let's compare a similar figuration found in Bach’s G minor Fugue for lute (BWV
1000), shown in Example 8a.
39
Example 8. Allusion to J.S. Bach's polyphonic style.
a) J.S. Bach’s G minor Fugue for lute (BWV 1000).
b) Villa-Lobo's Cello Concerto No. 2, 1st movement, mm. 52 - 63.
The examples above show a very similar figuration. Example 8a emphasizes two
distinct voices, whereas Example 8b establishes a three-voice texture in the cello part.
40
The continuous string crossing in this sort of figuration, which is somewhat unidiomatic
to the cello, clearly represents Villa-Lobos's fascination for the guitar.
The second theme is presented and developed within this section (mm.46-109). It
explores the elements already mentioned as well as the melodic augmented second
interval. Villa-Lobos also employs some of the current avant-garde compositional
techniques such as the ascending sequence based on the tritone in the cello part, over a
descending chromatic line in the orchestral accompaniment (Example 9). Notice that the
lower notes of this sequence form an anhemitonic pentatonic scale [0,2,4,7,9], as marked
in the example bellow. Furthermore, in this section the composer also leaves room for
virtuoso display as in the technically challenging passage in mm. 77-85.
Example 9. Ascending sequence based on the tritone, mm. 67-71.
[0, 2, 4, 7, 9] [0, 2, 4, 7,
9] [0, 2, 4, 7, 9]
41
The orchestral ritornello in mm. 86-93 leads to a variant of the arpeggiated theme.
At this point, the end of the B section, Villa-Lobos combines some of the elements
explored so far. Hence, from mm. 94-109 he combines the arpeggiated theme (mm. 94-
97) with a variant of motive A from the introduction (mm. 99, 101-103). In addition, he
reorganizes the descending sequence that originally appeared metrically irregular in mm.
26-28. It is rearranged as regular sextuplets in mm. 104-105.
Notice that in mm. 98-100 Villa-Lobos employs an exotic scale marked by the
two augmented-second intervals, D-Eb-F#-G-A-Bb-C#-D. Furthermore, mm. 105-106 is
one of the few examples of a clear V-I motion, which leads to the area of D, a resting
point that closes the section.
Section C
The next important section, Più mosso (rehearsal number 9, mm.110-174),
abruptly changes the character of the music. It is marked by an intense dance rhythm,
which includes syncopations and rhythmic displacement. In this section Villa-Lobos
employs his favorite combination: a simple melodic material that recalls folk theme and
its contrapuntal elaboration. Section C is, in fact, the most contrapuntal of the entire
movement.
42
The orchestra introduces the section presenting a new motive in the oboe, bass-
clarinet, violins, cellos, and basses, in doubling octaves. Thus, exploring the extremes of
instrumentation register. The solo cello enters one measure later, a fifth higher than the
initial statement, creating an imitative texture. At some points, such as in mm. 114-119,
the fabric contains as many as four different layers. In those measures, the bassoon plays
an ascending stepwise line while the cellos explore an ascending sequence based on the
first motive of this section. At the same time the insistent motive of the english horn
supports the descending sequence of the soloist.
In several instances the soloist establishes an imitative dialog with individual
sections of the orchestra, as in mm. 123-135. In contrast, from mm. 136-149 the texture
becomes homophonic, with the orchestra simply providing a harmonic support to the
cello, until the return of the main imitative material in measure 150.
The harmony at the end of this section is clearly modal, establishing Bb Aeolian
in mm. 165-166 and closing on G Phrygian. Before ending the section, mm. 166-173, the
violins curiously move in crude parallel fourths. This orchestration resource is employed
as another example of Villa-Lobos's regionalism.
Section C (mm. 110-174) can be viewed as a closed unity, since a new thematic
material is presented and explored within those measures. Furthermore, at rehearsal
number 15 (Tempo Primo), the orchestra restates the first theme of the movement, clearly
articulating the return of a modified A section.
43
Section A'
The first theme that was heard in recitative-like style returns with a different
rhythmic figuration and a distinct character in the final section of the movement. It is
developed with the interpolation of some virtuosic passages that explore several aspects
of the instrument technique. This includes extended arpeggios and double stops.
In the first four measures of rehearsal number 18 (Example 10 - mm. 206-209),
the lower double stops in the cello line create another characteristic Brazilian dance
rhythm. This is a syncopated figure created by an implied accentuation, in other words, a
syncopation obtained through melodic means. Thus, the lower double stops create an
irregular accentuation on the first, fourth, and seventh notes of the eight eighth-note
figure. This implied rhythm is a variant of a rhythmic pattern from the urban popular
music of Brazil (see Example 11).
Example 10. Syncopated figure created by an implied accentuation, rehearsal No. 18.
44
Béhague defines syncopation as “one of the most frequent accompaniment figures
of the Brazilian polka, the maxixe, and the choro” (Example 11). 42 According to him, this
is a typical Villa-Lobos's rhythmic pattern, which he employed in several other works
such as the Caboclinha (from A Prole do Bebê No. 1 for piano) and the Lenda do
Caboclo. Béhague further states:
…the syncopated pattern obtained exclusively through accentuation of the
first, fourth, and seventh notes of the eight sixteenth-note pulsation finds its
counterpart in numerous tangos of the popular composer Ernesto Nazareth,
and recurs in other works of Villa-Lobos (e.g., in the ostinato figure of the
first piece of the second Prole do Bebê and the Noneto)…. The syncopated
melody of Caboclinha further epitomizes the basic patterns of much popular
dance music: the so-called habanera pattern (2/4 ), extended
to form what is a ubiquitous figure in Latin America and the Caribbean,
called tresillo by the Cubans (2/4 or ), and
followed by one of its numerous variants. 43
42
Gerard Behague, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Search for Brazil’s Musical Soul (Austin: University of Texas
Institute of Latin American Studies, 1994), 60-63.
43
Ibid, 61-62.
45
Example 11. Syncopated figure created by an implied accentuation, as it appears in
Villa-Lobos's Caboclinha and Nazareth's Tango (in Béhague 1994, 63).
Coda
The first movement closes with a coda in which Villa-Lobos juxtaposes several
rhythmic patterns (polyrhythm), and treats the first theme in rhythmic diminution. In
fact, polyrhythm is another important feature of the Brazilian folk music, as shown in this
example for voice and percussion instruments collected by the Brazilian composer
Luciano Gallet (Example 12). Besides the intricate syncopated rhythms, this example
shows a characteristic irregular accentuation.
46
Example 12. Polyrhythm in Brazilian folk music. 44
The way the cello part is written in the last nine measures of the first movement
refers once again to the guitar style. It consists of broken chords and repeated notes in
the top line. A similar figuration can be found in an excerpt from Villa-Lobos's guitar
concerto written a few years earlier (Example 13).
Before closing the movement with a B minor seventh chord, Villa-Lobos explores
the E-B interval that was originally presented in the very beginning of the piece. The
return of the same interval that opened the work frames the movement and, above all,
gives a sense of unity and closure.
44
From Nicolas Slonimsky, Music of Latin America, Da Capo Press Music Reprints Series, ed. Frederick
Freedman (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972), 118.
47
Example 13. Villa-Lobos's Concerto for guitar and small orchestra (1951).
48
As shown in this analysis, the first movement is comprised by four main sections
and a coda. It creates an ABCA' scheme, in which the final section (A') and the coda
explore the opening thematic material. Each section is clearly articulated with change of
tempo marking, which, in some cases, is combined with a shift of meter. Moreover,
each section contains an individual character, presenting and exploring its themes as a
closed unity. The following chart summarizes the form of the first movement.
Table 1. Formal scheme of the first movement.
Section Tempo Marking Measures Thematic Treatment
Section A Allegro non troppo 1-45 Theme I treated as a desafio
Introduction Responsorial-like style
Section B Allegro 46-109 Theme II in guitar-like style
Section C Più mosso 110-173 New theme (folk-like/dance
character) and contrapuntal writing
No development of themes I and II
Section A’ Tempo primo 174-230 First theme newly treated and
developed
Coda 231-246 Theme I in rhythmic diminution
Polyrhythm
49
5.2. Second Movement: Molto andante cantabile
If in the first movement Villa-Lobos combines distinct elements of the Brazilian
folklore, in the second he restrains to a single aspect of Brazilianism, which is the use of
a major Brazilian genre, the Modinha, as its compositional model. Moreover, this
movement is marked by a strong resemblance with another Villa-Lobos's work, the
famous Aria from the Bachianas brasileiras No. 5, written in1938, which is a Modinha in
essence.
The Modinha, as pointed by Béhague, was one of the most important salon genres
in Brazil and Portugal in the 18th and 19th centuries. 45 Thus, most of the Portuguese-
speaking poets had their poems set to music in the Modinha style. Through the influence
of the Italian opera aria, on the other hand, the Modinha "began to lose its original
simplicity, acquiring elaborate melodic lines with typically superficial ornamentation." 46
Despite its European likely origin, this genre can be labeled as the Brazilian Aria.
The Modinha, which is generally cast in minor keys, features a sentimental
character, almost always dealing with love subject. Its performance was initially
restricted to the aristocracy, becoming so popular in Brazil that converted into one of the
45
Gerard Béhague, “Modinha,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie.
46
Ibid., 454.
50
favorite genres for both popular and classical musicians. Hence, what initially was a
colloquial salon genre gradually turned into an urban popular song.
Scholars have observed a number of different forms in which the Modinhas have
been cast, never establishing a fixed formal plan to its structure. However, Mario de
Andrade affirms that the Modinha's main harmonic feature consists of a continuos change
of mode (major/minor), with a tendency to modulate to the subdominant area. 47
According to Kiefer, several Modinhas open with a characteristic gesture, which consists
of an opening phrase starting with ascending leaps followed by descending melodic lines.
This is one of the elements that give this music its mournful character. The presence of
internal syncopation in its melodic lines and the predominance of feminine endings are
some of the characteristics verified by Kiefer. 48 Furthermore, the Modinha contains long
melodic lines and is generally sung with guitar accompaniment.
Clearly related to the Modinha, the second movement of Villa-Lobos's Second
Cello Concerto opens with an orchestral introduction that is marked mostly by a
chromatic triplet figure in the lower instruments. This figure imitates the melodic basses
of the guitar accompaniment of a Modinha and is explored as a subsidiary motive
throughout the movement. Similarly to the opening of the first movement, the Molto
andante cantabile starts with a sequence of an ascending melodic interval F#-B. 49 This
47
Mario de Andrade, Modinhas Imperiais, 8th ed. (Belo Horizonte: Editora Itatiaia Limitada, 1980), 8-9.
48
Bruno Kiefer, A modinha e o lundu: duas raízes da música popular brasileira, Coleção Luís Cosme
Vol.9. (Porto Alegre: Editora Movimento, 1977), 17.
49
As opposed to the ascending E-B in the first movement (see page 32).
51
melodic cell passes through the strings instruments, from the lower register of the cellos
to the high pitched first violins. In fact, the introduction does not foresee any of the
thematic material that governs the movement. It is tonally and melodically unstable
except for the presence of the accompaniment motive already mentioned.
Unexpectedly, right in the first entrance of the solo cello, in m. 9, the audience is
moved to the ambience of the Bachianas brasileiras No. 5. At this point the cello starts a
theme that has the same ascending major third followed by two descending major
seconds as in the Aria from the Bachianas. As mentioned above, the opening phrase
formed by ascending leaps followed by a descending melodic line is characteristic to the
Modinha. However, the rhythmic figuration of the main melodic voice is also very
similar to that from the famous Aria (Example 14).
52
Example 14. Resemblance between the second movement of the Cello Concerto and the
Aria from the Bachianas brasileiras No. 5.
a) Opening measures of the Aria from the Bachianas brasileiras No. 5.
53
b) Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto No. 2, first theme of the 2nd movement, mm. 8-12.
Besides the example above, the pizzicati accompaniment in the middle section of
the movement reinforces the similarities between both pieces. Thus, from mm. 37-57 the
melodic line of the solo cello flows over two complementary lines: the pizzicati in the
strings and a walking bass line that is doubled by the double-basses and an alternating
woodwind instrument (Example 15).
The character of urban popular song is noticed in the pizzicati passages that
resembles a guitar writing, as well as in some bass line clichés played in the guitar
accompaniment of a Modinha, such as in mm. 6-7, 34-35. Measure 44 is an example of
54
the subtle relation between this movement and the Modinha. In that measure the flute
and double-basses play a scalar bridge in pizzicato that leads to the return of the main
melodic material of the middle section. This is a common cliché found in many
Modinhas.
Example 15. Second movement mm. 35-42.
55
The figuration of the lower strings in mm. 37-42 is another reference to J.S.
Bach's contrapuntal style. Notice how this figure is similar to the opening of Bach's
Prelude No. 23 in B major from the first book of The Well Tempered Clavier (Example
16). This emphasizes the relation between this movement and the contrapuntal
techniques characteristic employed in the Bachianas.
Example 16. J.S. Bach's Prelude no. 23 in B major, from the first book of The Well-
Tempered Clavier, BWV 868.
The resemblance to the celebrated Aria from the Bachianas brasileiras No. 5 is so
evident that Mr. Parisot comments:
I had hoped Villa-Lobos would write a slow second movement similar in
expression to his famous Bachianas for eight cellos and voice. When he
finished the concerto the resemblance was remarkable, even to the melody of
56
the soloist accompanied by the pizzicati of the strings imitating the sounds of
the Brazilian violão or guitar. 50
As in the Bachianas this movement is marked by the use of constant change of meter.
This is a result of its asymmetrical and eliding phrases that occur specially in the outer
sections. It also denotes to the improvisatory style that characterizes the entire concerto.
Furthermore, this movement is marked by the intense use of chromaticism in its melodic
lines.
Modeled after the Aria from the Bachianas No. 5, the movement is clearly shaped
as an ABA'. Unlike its model, this structure is preceded by an eighth-measure
introduction. Despite the fact that the melodic material of the Più mosso moderato is a
derivation of the A section - the rhythmic and melodic figuration of the solo cello is in
essence a variant of the first theme - the threefold structure is clearly defined.
The harmonic plan of the slow movement follows a characteristic tonal tendency
of the Modinha, which consists of a modulation to the subdominant area. Thus, the A
section is mostly in B minor, while the B section is in E minor. The return to the slightly
modified A section reestablishes the initial key of B minor that closes the movement.
The following chart describes the scheme of the movement (Table II).
50
57
Table 2. Formal scheme of the second movement.
Section Tempo Marking Measures Tonal Area
Introduction Molto andante cantabile 1-8 Chromatic/tonally unstable
A Largo 9-36 B minor
B Più mosso moderato 37-68 E minor
A' Tempo primo 69-99 B minor
As occurred in the first movement of the concerto, the melodic intervals that are
extensively explored in the opening measures reappear at the end in order to frame the
movement and create unity. Thus, F#-B is the melodic interval that frames the slow
movement. In comparison to the Allegro non troppo, this feature has been slightly
modified. The direction of the ascending opening tones, which form a perfect fourth,
appear inverted at the end in order to close the movement with a stronger descending
motion (Example 17).
58
Example 17. F#-B interval that frames the movement.
a) Opening of the second movement.
b) Ending of the second movement.
59
5.3. Third Movement: Scherzo (Vivace).
The Influence of the Berimbau and Capoeira
Even though this is the shortest movement of the concerto, just sixty-seven
measures long, it is in the Scherzo that dance elements are mostly explored. Thus, the
expression mark that entitles the movement is associated with its character rather than its
formal structure. The orchestration of the Scherzo is very rich, in which Villa-Lobos
employs the full orchestra, including an active participation of the percussion instruments
and the harp, to an extent that had not been explored in the preceding movements.
The Scherzo is grounded on a rhythmically strong motive based on a triplet figure,
which sounds at a first glance as influenced by Spanish music (Example 18). This figure,
in my opinion, might be originaly from Spain but it is also a stylization of the rhythmic
patterns of the berimbau - a musical bow with a single string of African origins that is
widely popular in Brazil and certainly very well know by Villa-Lobos. 51 One can not
assure if Villa-Lobos intentionally combined the Spanish rhythm with the berimbau
patterns or if he created this ingenuous combination intuitively. The most important
51
Originated in Angola and Congo, according to Renato de Almeida, the berimbau was brought to Brazil
still in the 16th century (Almeida 1942, 115).
60
aspect is that the blending of European and African elements in some way summarizes
the formation of the Brazilian culture (see Chapter Three).
Example 18. Main motive of the Scherzo, whose bow stroke alludes to the percussive
sounds of the berimbau.
The berimbau (or urucungo) is a percussion instrument consisting of a wooden
stick in which a metal string is attached to each end in order to provide its arch shape.
There is also a hollowed gourd attached at the lower end of the bow that works as a
resonator (see Figure 2). The main sound is produced by striking the string with a small
and thin bamboo stick. Besides, a metal coin serves as a movable bridge that provides
the different pitches. In order to complete the instrument, the performer holds, together
with the bamboo stick, a small basket shaker called caxixi that provides an accompanying
sound.
61
Figure 3. The berimbau
The berimbau is closely associated with the Capoeira, a Brazilian martial art and
dance practiced originally by the Afro-Brazilians. 52 In fact, during the colonial period
the Afro-Brazilians, who were treated as slaves, were forbidden to practice their athletic
games. They incorporated musical elements to their practice so that they could pretend
they were simply dancing instead of preparing to literally fight for their freedom.
The ensemble that provides the accompaniment for the dance generally consists
of three berimbaus of different pitches, two pandeiros (tambourines), agogô (double
bell), reco-reco (a notched bamboo scraper) and atabaque (a conga drum). The ensemble
performs specific rhythmic patterns corresponding to each dance figure. It is important to
notice that this is all part of an orally transmitted tradition, which consists of a significant
bulk of improvisation.
52
As Béhague precisely labels, “a mock fight involving several dance figures.” (Béhague 1980, 242)
62
As a one-string instrument and extremely rudimentary, the basic melodic feature
of the berimbau is the exploration of the upper neighbor-tone one whole step apart.
Despite of its limitations, several players, notably Naná Vasconcelos, explores the
instrument in its entirety. Another example of the capabilities of the instrument may be
found in An Apotheosis of Archaeopteryx (1979) for piccolo and berimbau, by the
American composer Lejaren Hiller, where he explores a wider range of pitches and
effects, including the interesting use of glissando (Example 19). 53
Example 19. Lejaren Hiller's An Apotheosis of Archaeopteryx (1979) for piccolo and
berimbau.
a) The use of glissando in the berimbau.
53
Since the berimbau is part of an orally transmitted tradition, An Apotheosis of Archaeopteryx is in fact
one of the few published examples of a musical composition employing the instrument.
63
b) Exploration of upper neighbor-tone as the main melodic feature of the berimbau.
According to Mestre Moraes, a Capoeira and berimbau player, one of the basic
rhythmic patterns is composed of “two quick strikes against the damped string, followed
by a low note, a high note, and a one-count rest" or . 54 "It might be spoken
‘tch-tch dong ding (rest)’.” 55
54
A buzz tone (dampened note) is produced with the coin pressed lightly on the string; a low tone means
the open string; while the high tone is produced by placing the coin against the string, generally an upper
neighbor tone to the open string.
55
Mestre Moraes, Liner Notes, in Capoeira Angola from Salvador, Brazil. Smithsonian/Folkways CD SF
40465 (released 1996).
64
Hence, the triplets figure in the third movement of Villa-Lobos’s Concerto is, in
my opinion, derived from the pattern “tch-tch dong ding (rest).” Of course, this is neither
a quotation nor a direct variation of that pattern, but as said before, a stylization of that
rhythmic figure. Moreover, this melodic motive creates the dance character that
permeates the entire movement.
As a cellist himself, Villa-Lobos wrote exactly the kind of effect he was looking
for. In the first cello entrance the bow stroke alludes to the percussive sounds of the
berimbau (Example 18). In order to obtain the exact effect written by the composer - slur
with dots - the player has to literally throw the bow on the strings like a berimbau player
would throw the bamboo stick to obtain the same effect in his instrument.
Furthermore, several elements of this movement create the environment of a roda
de capoeira (a capoeira gathering). These include the intense dance rhythm, the
exploration of the upper neighbor-tone, and the use of the pandeiro de caixa
(tambourine). As shown in mm. 29-34 of Hiller's example (Example 19b) the berimbau
is a melodically limited instrument, whose main melodic feature is the exploration of the
upper neighbor-tone. This characteristic feature is heard in both soloist and orchestral
instruments. It is explored, for instance, by the bassoon and cellos in mm. 5-6, by the
solo cello in mm. 18-19, and by the violas in mm. 13-15. Furthermore, the upper
neighbor feature is somehow alluded in the top notes of the cello solo creating a moving
line A-G, F-E (Example 18).
In the cadenza, where Villa-Lobos explores thematic elements from all the
preceding movements, the tremolo glissando, which Parisot refers to as “Villa-Lobos
65
glissando,” recalls the glissando of the berimbau (Example 20). 56 This is very similar to
m. 23 of Hiller’s An Apotheosis of Archaeopteryx (Example 19a).
Example 20. "Villa-Lobos glissando" in the cadenza, related to the sounds of the
berimbau.
As mentioned above, the expression mark that labels the movement, Scherzo, is
more related to the character of the movement rather than to its formal structure. In fact,
in terms of form, the Scherzo can be labeled as an ABA' that is followed by the cadenza.
This might be schematized as follows.
56
66
Table 3. Formal structure of the third movement.
Section A orchestral introduction berimbau-like pattern 1-12
solo cello berimbau-like pattern 13-20
Section B solo cello elaboration of material from A 20-44
Section A' solo cello return of berimbau-like pattern 45-51
orchestral ritornello bridge to the cadenza 52-67
Cadenza soloist structural transition to the finale
Hence, the main thematic material is first stated in a twelve measure orchestral
introduction displaying the berimbau-like pattern, which is then carried by the cello for
eight measures. The end of the cello statement merges with the beginning of the inner
section (mm. 20-44 - section B), which is rhythmically related to the opening material.
After this short elaboration of the opening motives, the berimbau-like theme returns in a
transposed version in mm. 45-48 (section A'). This is followed by an orchestral
ritornello, mm. 52-67, which leads to an extensive cadenza.
Villa-Lobos gives enormous importance to the only cadenza in the entire
Concerto, placing it in a transitional point between the third and fourth movements. It
explores themes of each of the previous movements in the exactly order they appeared.
67
The cadenza is subdivided into four sub-sections that are clearly articulated by a different
tempo marking (Poco moderato, Allegro, Largo, and Vivace). Each sub-section is related
to one of the previous movement. It starts, for instance, with the same material of the
first cello entrance in the initial movement. The cadenza thus combines the main
thematic material of the first, second and third movements interpolated with virtuosic
elements that includes double stops and the so-called "Villa-Lobos glissandi." 57
Interestingly, Villa-Lobos interpolates a section between the ones equivalent to
the first and second movements, marked Allegro, whose motive is formed by a poignant
rhythmic figure that had not been employed anywhere in the concerto (Example 21).
This dotted rhythm figure is a foreign element to the piece and does not even foresee any
of the elements employed in the final movement. This is probably a look back to a
previous work for it was widely employed in the third movement (Scherzo) of the Second
Cello Sonata from 1916. After the introduction of this new element, the cadenza takes its
normal course, quoting one phrase from the slow movement and exploring the berimbau-
like pattern from the Scherzo. It closes with the "Villa-Lobos glissando" that leads
directly to the Finale. Hence, as mentioned above, the cadenza works as a structural
transition to the fourth movement, where dance rhythms are again widely explored.
57
This combination of tremolo and glissando, labeled by Parisot as "Villa-Lobos glissandi," was also
employed in the other two Villa-Lobos's works for cello and orchestra. It appears in the second movement
of the Fantasia (1945) and in the final movement of the Grand Concerto (1913).
68
Example 21. Dotted rhythmic figure as a new element in the cadenza.
a) Dotted rhythm figure in the cadenza.
b) Dotted rhythm as one of the main motivic elements of the Scherzo (third movement)
of Villa-Lobos's Deuxième Sonate pour violoncelle et piano, mm. 60-68.
69
5.4. Fourth Movement: Allegro energico
Like the preceding Scherzo, the final movement of the Concerto is also very short,
having just ninety-four measures. Its most important feature is the dance character that is
basically kept throughout the entire movement. The refrain, for instance, has the kind of
simplicity that reminds a folk-like material. Furthermore, Villa-Lobos extensively
explores the pentatonic scale as the basic melodic element of the main theme.
The festive property of the Allegro energico is reached through the use of
syncopated rhythms in addition to the polyrhythm in different voices (Example 22). It is
clear that the syncopations employed are associated with folk rhythms, which highlights
the vernacular inspiration of the work. A rhythmic feature that is extensively explored in
this movement is the syncopation over the bar line as in mm. 2-4, and almost in every
measure from mm. 15-20. These same syncopations occur in mm. 26-29, 33-35, 45-51,
62-65, and 67-68. Besides, in some instances Villa-Lobos explores a sort of rustic
texture in which two or more voices move in parallel octaves for several measures in
order to depict the vernacular ambience. This orchestration coloring is notably employed
in mm. 10-12.
In terms of form, the Allegro energico can be viewed as a very compact rondo, in
which some of the sections are very short. The refrain that alternates with the episodes is
presented just three times throughout the entire movement. Even though each refrain is
clearly articulated, they always merge with the beginning of the episodes, giving a sense
of continuity to the movement. The rondo structure can be laid out as follows.
70
Table 4. Formal scheme of the fourth movement.
Refrain: mm. 1-6
Episode I: omitted and replaced orchestral introduction.
by a short link, mm. 6-12.
Refrain: (theme transposed and expanded): mm. 13-24 - solo cello.
Episode II: mm. 25-60 - solo cello in dialog with the orchestra.
Refrain: mm. 61-69 - solo cello.
Episode III: 69-83 - solo cello alternating with orchestra.
Coda: mm. 84-94 - allusion to a berimbau pattern - closing in A minor.
As previously mentioned, the last two movements are linked by the cadenza.
Thus, the finale starts as an outcome of what Parisot calls "Villa-Lobos glissando," which
connects the end of the cadenza to the orchestral ritornello that opens the movement. The
Finale starts with a twelve-measure orchestral introduction that states the principal theme
from which the movement is built (Example 22). Those measures comprise the first
statement of the refrain, which merges to a short transition that acts basically as an
extension of the theme and links to the first solo cello entrance. The main motive of the
refrain is formed by transpositions of the anhemitonic pentatonic scale [0,2,4,7,9], which
71
according to Siqueira, is one of the prominent scales employed in the music of African-
Brazilian origins (see pages 21-22). 58
Example 22. Main theme of the Finale.
58
José Siqueira, Sistema Pentatônico Brasileiro, (João Pessoa: Secretaria de Educação e Cultura, 1981), 1.
72
The first cello entrance already states the second appearance of refrain (mm.13-
24), in which the theme is transposed and expanded. As opposed to the first refrain, the
texture in this statement is very thin, in which the orchestra simply provides
accompaniment either with short chords or with one wind instrument dialoging with the
soloist. As characteristic in this movement, the end of the refrain merges with the
beginning of the episode. Thus, mm. 23-24 that close the refrain also work as a link to
the second episode.
Being thirty-five measures long, episode II is by far the longest section in this
movement. It explores two distinct elements: the motive from Example 23, which is
explored in counterpoint in mm. 29-30 and returns in m. 48; and the sequential material
that starts in m. 37, where the meter shifts to 5/4. From mm. 54-58 the texture becomes
again very simple, in which the soloist is accompanied basically by the cellos and basses
in doubling octaves. Moreover, mm. 58-60 anticipates the pentatonic scale whose
transposition will be the material of the return of the refrain.
Example 23. Motive of the second episode and its counterpoint treatment.
a) Motive of the second episode.
73
b) Same motive explored in imitation, mm. 28-30.
In the last appearance of the refrain, which also coincides with the return of the
4/4 measure, the theme is again stated by the solo cello (mm. 61-69). If in the second
statement of the refrain the theme was presented in a transposed version, this time it
appears very similar to what was first stated by the orchestra in the opening of the
movement. One short episode (mm. 73-83) and a coda follow this last refrain.
The most striking element of the coda is another allusion to the berimbau patterns
that is very prominent until m. 89 (Example 24). After which, the solo cello is joined by
the orchestra insistently repeating a pattern based on the lower neighbor tone, again a
reference to the Brazilian musical bow, until close the work strongly in A minor.
74
Example 24. Allusion to a berimbau pattern in the coda of the final movement, cello part
mm. 84-94.
75
Chapter Six
Villa-Lobos's Manuscripts and the Compositional Process
The study of Villa-Lobos's sketches and manuscripts shed important light on the
compositional process of the Second Cello Concerto. They show some of Villa-Lobos's
characteristics as a composer, demonstrating that he was able to write in a very fast pace.
It also reveals how he worked on more than one musical thought at the same time, having
a very clear idea about the overall shape of the piece from the very first sketches.
There are three manuscripts of the Cello Concerto No. 2 in possession of the
Villa-Lobos Museum in Rio de Janeiro, whose facsimiles were used in this study:
1) Initial sketches (39 pages) in the form of a cello and piano reduction, in which no
dating or signature could be verified.
2) The autograph manuscript that probably served as fear copy for the Max Eschig
edition. This manuscript is dated "Rio, 1953" just bellow the composer's name as
well as on the final page. This includes the cello part (15 pages) and the piano
reduction (45 pages), both signed by Villa-lobos at the end.
76
3) Full orchestral score (78 pages), also dated "Rio, 1953." Curiously, this remains to
be the only source of the orchestration for until the present moment Editions Max
Eschig has never published the full score of the concerto.
After analyzing the three manuscripts above, one can assume that Villa-Lobos
started the orchestration only after finishing the fear copy, for several indications that
appear in the full orchestral score are simply missing in the piano reduction, which
indicates that they were inscribed at a later time. Therefore, the order of the manuscripts
above seems to be the one in which Villa-Lobos worked during the compositional
process.
Villa-Lobos started sketching the piece during his visit to New York City in late
1953. During that trip he met daily with Aldo Parisot so the dedicatee could demonstrate
his playing, in order to inspire the composer, as well as to try some of the passages.
Villa-Lobos worked so fast that, according to Mr. Parisot, "in one week he had the whole
thing blocked out." 59
It is common sense that Villa-Lobos could write very fast, his piano piece New
York Sky-Line, for instance, was written in just one hour and fifty minutes. However,
Mr. Parisot's statement probably referrers to the 39 pages of sketches, which is in essence
a musical puzzle for most of the sections of the work are either in a different place or
59
Claude Kenneson, Musical Prodigies: Perilous Journeys, Remarkable Lives (Portland: Amadeus Press,
1998), 223.
77
interpolated within a distinct movement. The piece was finished only upon Villa-Lobos's
return to Brazil, for in the front page of the fair copy is written "Rio, 1953" just bellow
the composer's name (see Example 4 on page 30). Irving Kolodin, in the program notes
of the first performance of the work, states that the concerto was completed in one month
and a half, which is still a very short period of time for such a major work.
Some passages in the sketches, like the opening thirty measures of the first
movement, appear almost as in its finished form, while other excerpts appear just as an
unfinished idea (Example 25). The sketches indicate that Villa-Lobos jumped from one
movement to another during its composition. For instance, some of the ideas from the
second and third movements are interpolated within the sketches of the first movement.
This suggests that he immediately started writing when a new idea came out of his
creative mind, whether an idea for the movement that he was currently working or a
motivic cell that he would employ in a later movement.
78
Example 25. Villa-Lobos's sketches of the Second Cello Concerto.
a) Beginning of the first movement (from the first page of the sketches).
79
b) Motivic cell employed in the third movement (page 5 of the sketches).
The three manuscripts show that Villa-Lobos worked in process of addition. In
each of the manuscripts the composer added and enriched his ideas, specially concerning
the orchestral accompaniment. In some sense, the piano part can be considered as a poor
reduction, not because the composer was afraid of writing unidiomatic passages for the
pianist, but simply because several lines are omitted in that reduction. One concludes
that in the orchestration, which was probably the final compositional step, Villa-Lobos
added and enriched several aspects of harmony and texture. For instance, let's compare
mm. 37-57 of the second movement in which the woodwind line that move in parallel
sixth with the bass is completely omitted in the reduction (Example 26).
80
Example 26. Più mosso moderato section from the second movement.
a) Piano reduction mm. 37-44.
81
b) Orchestration of the same passage, mm. 35-42.
82
Despite that the piece was written in a relatively short period of time, the words of
the composer himself demonstrate not only his sincerity towards the work, but also how
careful he was in composing a piece that was to reflect detailed elements of the Brazilian
culture.
In a letter to Aldo Parisot dated from 26 October 1953, just before he started
working on this new composition, Villa-Lobos replied to the cellist commission with the
following words:
“…Now, here is the answer to your kind wife: when can a father say that the
‘Son’ will be this or that? Now then, I don’t know what will come out of my
pen and thus it will be impossible for me to make any promise about the
Concerto for Violoncello and Orchestra.
The only thing I can declare is that I shall write a work with
sincerity; it remains to be seen, nevertheless, if this sincerity will please or
not.” 60
60
Lisa M. Peppercorn, The Villa-Lobos Letters, Musicians in Letters No. 1 (London: Toccata Press, 1994),
135-137.
83
Chapter Seven
Conclusion
Being an artist extremely linked to his country, Villa-Lobos presented his peer
cellists with a work full of Brazilian elements. By using numerous folk and dance
elements as the basic feature of his music, he demonstrated not to be concerned with
formal elements but to find ways to express his strong nationalism. Therefore, this piece
is certainly a worth contribution to the cello repertoire, for it certainly contains more folk
and dance elements than any other concerto ever written for the instrument.
As this essay intends to demonstrate, in the Cello Concerto No. 2 Villa-Lobos
portraits many elements of the Brazilian culture. This includes references to folk
expressions such as the desafio, the imitation of guitar writing, the use of the Modinha as
a model to the slow movement, and the stylization of berimbau patterns combined with
Spanish rhythms. Furthermore, the composer employs modal and pentatonic scales
found in Brazilian folk music, and includes folk-like themes throughout the entire work.
Villa-Lobos was able to insert all those exotic elements in a language that is European in
essence, ingeniously combining the vernacular material to achieve a distinct quality in his
music. Indeed, one can not assure that he employed each of these elements intentionally
or if this is a result of his fertile and creative mind. On the other hand, one has to agree
that in this composition Villa-Lobos was able to capture the essence of the Brazilian
84
culture, expressing it through this wonderful music. This is why the Cello Concerto No.
2 can be viewed as a portrait of Brazil.
Despite the fact that it has been recorded four times, the work has not been
performed as frequently as it should be. Like most of Villa-Lobos’s compositions, this is
probably a work yet to be discovered by a larger number of performers, scholars and
music lovers. After all, a composer that writes a marvelous work such as the Bachianas
brasileiras No. 5 is not to be neglected.
Thus, when referring to the short period of time in which Villa-Lobos completed
the Second Cello Concerto, Parisot summarized in few words a great deal of Villa-
Lobos's personality:
"For ordinary people, time is a clock or a calendar; for a genius like Villa-
Lobos, it is an empty space to be filled with creation." 61
61
Aldo Parisot, “Parisot on Parisot.” Musical America, (December 1962) 64-65.
85
Appendix
List of Villa-Lobos's Compositions for the Cello
(Including Trios, String Quartets, and Arrangements)
Year Work Movements Instrumentation

1909 Ave Maria (sacred work) Voice,Cello, and Orchestra
1910 Prelude in F# minor Cello and Piano
(Chopin)
1911 Trio no. 1 Allegro non troppo Violin, Cello, and Piano
Andante sostenuto
Scherzo
Allegro (Vivace Scherzo)
Troppo e final
1913 Pequena Suite Romancette Cello and Piano
Legendária
Harmonias Soltas
Fugato (All'antica)
Melodia
Gavotte-Scherzo
1913 Prelúdio no. 2, Op. 20 Cello and Piano
1913 Pequena Sonata (Work has been lost) Cello and Piano
1913 Grand Concerto (no.1),Op.50 Allegro con brio Cello and Orchestra
Tempo de Gavotta
Allegro Moderato
1914 Sonhar (Melodia) Op. 14 Cello and Piano
1915 Berceuse, op. 50 Cello and Piano
1915 Il Bove (O Boi) Voice, Piano, and Cello
1915 Trio no. 2 Allegro Moderato Violin, Cello, and Piano
Berceuse
Barcarola
Scherzo
Final
1915 Capriccio Op. 49 Cello and Piano
1915 Sonata no. 1 (Work has been lost) Cello and Piano
86
1915 Quartet no.1 Cantilena String Quartet
Brincadeira
Scherzando
Canto Lírico
Cançoneta
Quasi Allegretto
Melancolia
Saltando como um Saci
1915 Quartet no. 2 Allegro non troppo String Quartet
Scherzo (Allegro)
Andante
Allegro Deciso
1916 Sonata no. 2, Op. 66 Allegro moderato Cello and Piano
Andante cantabile
Scherzo
Allegro Vivace Sostenuto
1916 Elegie Cello and Piano
Molto vivo
Molto adagio
Allegro con fuoco
1917 Canto do Cisne Negro Cello and Piano
1917 Quartet no. 4 Allegro con moto String Quartet
Andantino (Tranquilo)
Scherzo (Allegro Vivace)
Allegro
1918 Trio no. 3 Allegro con moto Violin, Cello, and Piano
Assai moderato
Allegro spirituoso
Final
1929 Deux Chôros (bis) Violin and Cello
1930 Bachianas brasileiras no.1 Introdução (Embolada) Orchestra of Cellos
Prelúdio (Modinha)
Fuga (conversa)
1930 Trenzinho do Caipira Cello and Piano
from Bachianas no. 2
87
1930 Canto do Capadócio Cello and Piano
from Bachianas no. 2
1931 Canto da Nossa Terra Cello and Piano
from Bachianas no.2
1931 Preludes nos. 8 and 14 Cello and Piano
from Bach's WTC transcription
1931 Quartet no. 5 Poco Andantino String Quartet
Vivo e enérgico
Andantino
Allegro
1931 Fuga no. 10 Cello and Piano
from Bach's WTC transcription
1931 Noturno, Op. 9 no.2 Cello and Piano
(Chopin) transcription
1938/ Bachianas brasileiras no. 5 Ária (Cantilena) Voice and Orchestra of Cellos
1945 Dança (Martelo)
1938 Quartet no. 6 Poco animato String Quartet
Allegretto
Andante quasi adagio
Allegro vivace
1941 Préludes et Fugues from Prélude 22 Orchestra of Cellos
Bach's WTC Fugue 5 transcription
Prélude 14
Fugue 1
Prélude 8
Fugue 8
Fugue 21
1942 Quartet no. 7 Allegro String Quartet

Andante
Scherzo (Allegro vivace)
Allegro giusto
1944 Quartet no.8 Allegro String Quartet
Lento
Scherzo (Vivace)
Quasi Allegro
88
Andantino vagaroso
Allegro poco moderato
Molto Allegro
1945 Fantasia Largo Cello and Orchestra
Molto vivace
Allegro espressivo
1945 Trio Allegro Violin, Viola, and Cello
Andante
Scherzo (Vivace)
Allegro preciso e agitado
1946 Divagação Cello and Piano
(Divagation)
1946 Quartet no. 10 Poco animato String Quartet
Adagio
Scherzo (Allegro Vivace)
Molto Allegro
Scherzo vivace
Adagio
Poco andantino
Andante Melancólico
Allegretto Liggiero
Allegro
1950 Assobio a Jato Allegro Flute and Cello
(Jet Whistle) Andantino
Animato
Scherzo
Adagio
Allegro vivace
Andante
Scherzo
Molto Allegro
89
1953 Concerto no. 2 Allegro non troppo Cello and Orchestra
Molto andante cantabile
Scherzo
Allegro energico
1954 Quartet no.15 Allegro non troppo String Quartet
Moderato
Scherzo
Allegro
Molto andante
Vivace (Scherzo)
Molto Allegro
1956 Bachianas brasileiras no. 5 Ária (Cantilena) Cello and Piano
Molto lento
Scherzo
Allegro Vivace
1958 Fantasia Concertante Allegro Orchestra of Cellos
Lento (16 or 32 cellos)
Allegretto Scherzando
Molto Allegro
90
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98

Aquino Doctoral Essay

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VILLA-LOBOS’S CELLO CONCERTO No.

Felipe José Avellar de Aquino

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts in Performance and Literature

Advisor: Dr. Matthew Brown

Eastman School of Music

University of Rochester, 2000

Rochester, New York

be this or that? Now then, I don’t know what

will come out of my pen and thus it will be

impossible for me to make any promise about

the Concerto for Violoncello and Orchestra.

The only thing I can declare is that I shall

write a work with sincerity; it remains to be

seen, nevertheless, if this sincerity will please

insight and his coherent guidance. In addition, I wish to express my gratitude to

higher level in my musical development. Likewise, I have to acknowledge all my music

teachers, specially my very first one, my dearest mom.

I want to express my appreciation to the Villa-Lobos Museum, in Rio de Janeiro,

Technological Development - CNPq, for supporting my studies at the Eastman School of

in the compositional process. By understanding the composer's inspirational sources we

might enlighten any performance of the concerto.

In order to understand Villa-Lobos's use of vernacular elements in the Concerto,

Concerning the genesis of the piece, I discuss Villa-Lobos's sketches and

manuscripts, currently owned by the Villa-Lobos Museum in Rio de Janeiro. These

approach, as well as on the composition process of the work.

List of Examples .............................................................................................................. viii

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi

1.1. Villa-Lobos and the Cello: a lifelong commitment ............................................ 2

Chapter 2 - Aspects of Villa-Lobos's Musical Style........................................................... 6

2.1. Search for a Musical Language ......................................................................... 6

2.2. Brazilian Folk Roots ......................................................................................... 11

Chapter 3 - Elements of the Formation of the Brazilian Culture and Folklore................. 18

Chapter 4 - Preliminary Considerations on the Second Cello Concerto........................... 23

4.1. Historical Background ...................................................................................... 23

4.2. Nationalism and Neo-Classicism in Villa-Lobos's Cello Concerto No.2 ......... 27

Chapter 5 - Nationalistic Elements in the Work ............................................................... 31

5.1. First Movement: Allegro non troppo ................................................................ 31

5.2. Second Movement: Molto andante cantabile ................................................... 50

5.3. Third Movement: Scherzo (Vivace). ................................................................. 60

5.4. Fourth Movement: Allegro energico ................................................................ 70

Chapter 7 - Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 84

Appendix - List of Villa-Lobos's Compositions for the Cello.......................................... 86

Example 1. Villa-Lobos's arrangement of folk songs...................................................... 14

a) No Fundo do Meu Quintal, song No. 57 from the Guia Prático.......................... 14

b) Ó Ciranda, Ó Cirandinha, song No. 35 from the Guia Prático........................... 15

book of The Well-Tempered Clavier......................................................................... 16

Example 3. Three scale modes from northeastern Brazil. ................................................ 21

a) First mode. ............................................................................................................ 21

c) Third mode: characteristic scale containing a raised ^4 and lowered ^7.............. 21

Example 4. First page of the orchestration. ...................................................................... 30

Example 5. Main motive of the first movement. .............................................................. 33

Example 7. Papai Curumiassú - Lullaby from Pará......................................................... 38

Example 8. Allusion to J.S. Bach's polyphonic style....................................................... 40

a) J.S. Bach’s G minor Fugue for lute (BWV 1000) ................................................ 40

b) Villa-Lobo's Cello Concerto No. 2 - 1st movement mm. 52 - 63. ........................ 40

Example 9. Ascending sequence based on the tritone, mm. 67-71.................................. 41

Example 11. Syncopated figure created by an implied accentuation as it appears in Villa-

Lobos's Caboclinha and Nazareth's Tango .............................................................. 46

Aria from the Bachianas brasileiras No. 5……………………………………………... 53

Example 15. Second movement mm. 35-42. ................................................................... 55

Tempered Clavier, BWV 868. .................................................................................. 56

Example 17. F#-B interval that frames the movement. ................................................... 59