Foxtail millet: morphology and architecture

Foxtail millet is a C4 annual monocot with slender, erect, leafy stems capable of
growing up to a height of 90–180 cm (own field data; Figure 1A, and 1B). It has a dense root
system, with generally thin and lanky adventitious roots (Figure 1C). The leaves are arc-
broad and lack hairiness, while culms are vertical and slim with hollow internodes. It has the
architecture of a distinctive domesticated plant that consists of only one stalk or a small
number of tillers, and large inflorescences that mature more or less uniformly (Doust et al.,
2009). The inflorescence is a constricted panicle that often nods at the top and looks like a
spike due to its short branches. The spikelets (one yellow pistilled flower per spikelet) are
packed and combined with firm bristles (generally long sterile branches and often reddish or
purplish in color) giving the panicle the appearance of a foxtail, and hence the name
(http://www.plantguide.org/foxtail-millet.html). It has a relatively small generation time (up
to 15 weeks) and several hundreds of seeds can be typically produced per inflorescence
(Reddy et al., 2006; Doust et al., 2009). The seeds are small (~2 mm in diameter), and
sheathed in thin, delicate hull that can be separated without difficulty during threshing
(Figure 2). Seed color also differs significantly among foxtail millet cultivars such as yellow,
red, white and black (Figure 2). The seeds usually germinate easily and can be cultivated
without any trouble in glasshouses at high densities or in the fields (Dekker, 2003; Doust et
al., 2009).

Nutritional and medicinal uses of foxtail millet

Foxtail millet grains contain higher seed protein (14–16%), crude fat (5–8%) and
minerals than finger millet (Ravindran, 1991; Dwivedi et al., 2012). Biological value of the
digestible protein in foxtail millet is superior to major cereal crops such as rice and wheat as
it contains seven of the eight essential amino acids (Zhang et al., 2007a). The grains contain
2.5-fold more edible fiber than rice, and its bran contains 9.4% crude oil enriched with
linoleic (66.5%) and oleic (13.0%) acids (Liang et al., 2010; Dwivedi et al., 2012), and high
fiber (42.56%) (Amadou et al., 2011). In China, foxtail millet was considered as sacred and
principal among the “Five Grains” that comprised foxtail millet, proso millet, rice, soybean
and wheat due to its enormous contribution to the prehistoric civilization (Austin, 2006).
Considerable differences in the waxy phenotype (waxy and non-waxy) has been reported in
foxtail millet providing prospects to expand its food uses exploiting this locus-specific allelic
variation (Fukunaga et al. 2002; Dwivedi et al., 2012). Foxtail millet is extensively used as an
energy source for pregnant and nursing women, children and diabetic patients (Sema &
Sarita, 2002; Dwivedi et al., 2012). It is also helpful in reducing concentration of blood
glucose, serum lipids and glycosylated hemoglobin in type 2 diabetic patients (Thathola et
al., 2010). The germinated seeds of foxtail millet cultivars, especially yellow-seeded have
great medicinal properties and are utilized for curing dyspepsia, celiac disease, weak
digestion and abdominal food stagnancy (www.agrisources.com/herbs/setariaitalica).

Yield potential of foxtail millet and effects of fertilization

Foxtail millet is cultivated efficiently on a broad array of soils and is usually planted in the
late spring and harvesting can be done for grain in 75–90 days (averageyield 800–900 kg/ha)
and for fodder in 65 – 70 days (average yield 3000–4000 kg/ha;
http://www.summagallicana.it/lessico/p/panico.html). Foxtail millet is considered as a
remarkably drought tolerant crop and its water use efficiency (WUE) have also been found
to be higher than maize, wheat and sorghum (Zhang et al., 2007c). Its drought tolerance
ability has also been accredited to the association between increased WUE and its several
morphological characteristics such as dense root system, thick cell walls, epidermal cell
arrangements and minuscule leaf areas (Li, 1997). Further for 1 g of dry biomass, foxtail
millet requires only 257 g of water which is much lower than maize and wheat which require
470 and 510 g water, respectively (Diao, 2007; Li & Brutnell, 2011). Therefore, its short life
cycle and high WUE makes it a suitable crop for cultivation in semi-arid, dry and marginal
lands. Seghatoleslami et al. (2008) evaluated yield and yield components along with some
morphological attributes in three millets namely, foxtail millet, pearl millet and proso millet
under water stress. Foxtail millet produced highest seed yield and highest number of seeds
per ear under deficit irrigation. It was also found to have highest WUE and harvest index (HI)
and therefore greatest yield in both stress and non-stress conditions as compared to other
two millets (Seghatoleslami et al., 2008). Zooleh et al. (2011) recommended alternate
irrigation method (watering alternated between two halves of root system) for foxtail millet
to obtain acceptable yield and efficient water use under mild drought stress conditions.
Since millets are low input crops, they respond exceptionally to fertilization practices (Baker,
2003). Golden German millet, a foxtail millet variety released by Colorado State University
needs moderate rates of nitrogen (50–70 lb.) and phosphate (15 lb.) fertilizer for obtaining
its potential yield of 2 – 3 tons dry matter per acre
(http://www.agriculture.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx?DN=0961cdc0-60de-424e-
be4389965e98a240).
Biofertilizers also play an important role in alleviating nitrogen requirements of crop
plants. Kapulnik et al. (1981) proposed that inoculation of Setaria italica with Azospirillum
brasilense may lead to enhanced productivity and may also help in reducing nitrogen
fertilizer usage. A considerable increase in shoot dry weight of S. italica as a result of A.
brasilense inoculation had also been reported (Okon et al., 1983). In another study, Rao and
Charyulu (2005) reported that the grain yield of Azospirillum lipoferum inoculated foxtail
millet cv. Lepakshi (sensitive) was significantly higher than that of the control plants as it
increased both the panicle and seed weight. Very recently Aghtape et al. (2011) examined
the effects of application of treated wastewater with complete fertilizer (NATBA-LIB) on
some fodder characteristics of foxtail millet and found that irrigation with wastewater at
every growth stage resulted in increased grain yield and improved forage quality
characteristics like soluble carbohydrate, crude protein, ash, dry matter digestibility,
improved cell wall features and lignin percentage.

FOXTAIL MILLET
The genus Setaria is widely distributed in warm and temperate areas. Foxtail millet is
the most economically valuable of the genus. Foxtail millet is one of the world’s oldest
cultivated crops. Foxtail was the most important plant food in the neolithic culture in China,
and its domestication and cultivation was the earliest identifiable manifestation of this
culture, the beginning of which has been estimated at over 4,000 years ago (Chang 1968).
Foxtail millet is also known as Italian millet, German millet, or hay millet (Baltensperger
1996). Malm and Rachie (1971) thoroughly reviewed the domestication of foxtail millets and
the taxonomy.
Foxtail millet was and is by far the most important millet in China, although the
growing area of it declined from 1986 to 1990 as maize increased (Jiaju and Yuzhi 1993).
China produced more than 90% of the world foxtail output, according to 1981 to 1985
estimates (Dendy 1995).
In the US, foxtail millet was introduced from the old world about the middle of the
nineteenth century as a forage crop. Nearly all foxtail millet cultivars grown in the US are
the result of selections from land races rather than designed crosses and selections. Most of
the foxtail millet breeding work took place over the period 1930 to 1965 in the former USSR,
China, and India (Rachie 1971). Many related species, with 2n levels as multiples of the
2n=2x=18 chromosomes occur in China.
Foxtail millet ranks second in the total world production of millets and it continues to
have an important place in world agriculture providing approximately six million tons of
food to millions of people, mainly on poor or marginal soils in southern Europe and in
temperate, subtropical, and tropical Asia (Marathee 1993). Its cultivation is successful even
in areas with low rainfall from sea level up to 2000 m (Oduori 1993). It is cultivated in the US
as a catch crop, especially for fodder and pet food for caged and wild birds. Foxtail can yield
as much as proso, but foxtail seeds are generally much smaller. Foxtail millet has about
500,000 seeds kg-1 or more than twice that of proso. Foxtail millet and proso millet both
grow to a height of 0.5 to 2 m, but make little or no regrowth once they are cut.
Foxtail millet breeding has been very limited until the past several years (Siles et al.
2001a). Andrews has identified three lines with longer photoperiod and adaptation to
eastern Nebraska during this time, while my program has focused on adaptation to the High
Plains. The primary limitation of foxtail millet production in the High Plains of the US is that
it serves as a carrier for both the wheat curl mite (Eriophyes tullipae Keifer), the carrier for
wheat streak mosaic virus, and the virus itself. While adapted cultivars of foxtail are not
seriously impacted by the disease, the crop serves as an over-summering host and adjacent
wheat fields are frequently severely impacted. Germplasm has been identified with much
higher levels of resistance that may help to expand the utilization of foxtail millet in the
region (Marcon 1994). Several advanced lines developed from planned crosses to
incorporate wheat streak mosaic resistance, increased head size, and improved seed yield
are currently being evaluated (Siles et al. 2001b). It is anticipated that potential releases for
the grain market, niche color for bird seeds, and large individual heads for caged birds as
well as forage types will be released from this breeding program in the near future. South
Dakota has been screening types primarily for the forage industry and Missouri has had
recent efforts to look at grain types for the bird seed market through the efforts of Rob
Myers. Foxtail millet continues to suffer from limited research and market development.
Management work of all three millets has included rotation studies throughout the
High Plains (Daugovish et al. 1999; Lyon and Baltensperger 1995) and weed control work
(Uludag et al. 1997). Mason and colleagues have worked extensively on pearl millet
management (Maman et al. 1999). Row spacing work on proso has been conducted on
modern cultivars by Agdag et al. (2001).