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c Titration
By Ali Abbas
Potentiometry
Potentiometry is an electroanalytical
method which is based on measurement
of potential of an electrode system under
the conditions of no current flow.
Potentiometric measurements enable
selective detection of ions in presence of
other substances.
Electrochemical Cell
The electrochemical cell is a device in which a
redox reaction takes place indirectly and the
decrease in potential energy of the reaction
appears largely in the form of electrical energy.
Electric current results from a chemical reaction; in
which oxidation (loss of electrons) occurs at one
electrode and reduction (gain of electron) at the
other electrode. Oxidation and reduction occur
simultaneously. Oxidation occurs only if reduction
take place at the same time. This can be
illustrated by taking a few examples.
1 . Zn-CuSO4 reaction in a beaker (oxidation
of zinc metal by Cu++ ions).
If a zinc rod is placed in a solution of
copper sulphate, the following observation
will be made. The zinc strip starts dissolving
forming Zn2+ ion in a solution (oxidation):
Zn (s) → Zn2+(aq) + e_
At the same time, copper starts precipitation
out from the solution is due to reduction of
Cu2+ present in a solution of copper metal:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e_ → Cu(s)
Both reactions are called half reactions where the
first reaction and second reaction are referred as
oxidation half reaction and reduction half
reaction respectively. The overall redox reaction is
obtained by summation of two half reactions:
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
The reaction is exothermic i.e. accompanied by
evolution of heat. Hence ΔH is negative. The
decrease of potential energy appears as heat.
Possibility of reverse reaction is nil (copper rod in a
solution of zinc sulphate); it means, zinc metal can
be oxidized by Cu2+ ion but Copper metal cannot
be oxidized by Zn2+ ions.
2 . Cu-AgNO3 reaction in a beaker
(oxidation of copper metal by Ag++ions).
Cu(s) + 2Ag+ (aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s)
Copper can be oxidized by Ag+ ion but
silver cannot be oxidized by copper.
Redox Reaction in
Electrochemical Cells
Due to the redox reaction in
electrochemical cells, the decrease of
potential energy appear as electrical
energy. It can be explained by the
following experiment.
Procedure
Take a dilute (0.1 ml) solution of copper
sulphate in one beaker and a dilute solution
of zinc sulphate in an another beaker. Put a
copper rod in the copper sulphate solution
and zinc rod in the zinc sulphate solution.
Connect one end of metal rod (zinc rod)
to one terminal of ammeter and other
(copper rod) through variable resistance to
the other terminal of the same ammeter.
Finally connect the two solutions with each
other through a glass tube containing a
solution of potassium sulphate (salt bridge).
Ifthe metal rods are not connected to
each other or if salt bridge is taken out, no
current flows through the ammeter and
no reaction takes place in the cell. But, as
soon as the connection is made, the
current starts flowing as indicated by the
reading.
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
The current continuous to flow as long as
chemical reaction continues to take place. If
the flow of current is stopped after some time
by disconnecting the wire and metal rods are
washed, dried and weighed. It will be seen
that zinc rod has lost in mass, while copper
rod has gained in mass. The gain and loss in
mass in copper and zinc rod take place
according to faraday’s second law.
Loss in mass of zinc rod/gain in
mass of copper rod
The loss in mass of zinc rod is due to passing of zinc metal
into solution as Zn2+ ions:
Zn(s) -------- Zn2+(aq) + 2e_
This is an oxidation half reaction. The electrons thus
released accumulate in the zinc rod, move into ammeter
and then through the resistance, enter the copper rod
there, then taken up the Cu2+ ions which are discharged as
copper metal (s) on the copper electrode.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e_ ----------- Cu(s)
This is reduction half reaction thus the number of electrons
liberated in one half reaction is equal to number of
electron consumed in another half reaction.
Itis also observed that no heat is evolved
in present case, whereas a large amount
of heat (about 212 KJ per ‘g’ of zinc
changing into Zn2+ ions) is evolved when
the same reactions take place in a
beaker.
The Daniel cell
The galvanic cell in which the Zn-CuSO4
reaction takes place is called Daniel cell.
It differs from the electrochemical cell.
There is no salt bridge in the present case.
Zinc sulphate is placed in a porous pot
while copper sulphate is placed in a glass
vessel. The two solutions can seep through
the porous pot with each other
automatically.
Relative tendencies of electrodes to liberate
electrons
When two electrodes are joined to form a cell, a
competition sets in between two electrodes to
liberate electrons. In the cell of Zn-Cu electrodes,
zinc has greater tendency to liberate electrons
than copper. The electrons flows from zinc to
copper. Zinc, therefore acts as the negative
electrode white copper acts as the positive
electrode. In the cell of Cu-Ag electrodes copper
electrodes has greater tendency to liberate
electron.
In Zn-H2 cell, zinc has greater tendency to
liberate electrons. So it acts as negative
electrode while hydrogen (gas) electrode act
as a positive electrode. If, however, a Cu-H2
(g) cell is set up, hydrogen (gas) having
greater tendency to liberate electrons then
hydrogen act as negative electrode while
copper act as the positive electrode. From
these observations, various electrodes can be
arranged in decreasing order of tendencies
to liberate electrons.
Zn > H2 > Cu > Ag
According to convention, the electrode at
which electrons are released is written to the
left while at which electrons are taken up is
written on the right while keeping this view,
the Zn-Cu cell (Daniel cell) can be written as:
Zn/ZnSO4 || CuSO4/Cu
A single vertical line represents a phase
boundary across which a potential difference
exists. The double vertical line signifies a
boundary between two solutions of different
composition across which a potential
difference exists.
Theory
The main theory involved in the potentiometry is, when the
known potential electrode immersed in the sample solution
then the potential is given by Nernst equation:
E= E0 +(0.592/n) log c
Where E is the potential of the solution;
E0 is the standard electrode potential
n is the valency of the ions
c is the concentration of the sample solution
0.592 is the value obtained from the RT/F
where R is the gas constant
T is the temperature in Kelvin
F is the faradays constant.
Principle
The principle involved in the
Potentiometry is when the pair of
electrodes is placed in the sample
solution it shows the potential difference
by the addition of the titrant or by the
change in the concentration of the ions.
Instrumentation
Electrodes
These are mainly used to measure the
voltages. Mainly two electrodes are used
in the potentiometry .They are as follows
Reference electrode
Indicator electrode
Reference electrode
The reference electrode is the electrode which
contains of its own potential value and it is stable
when dipped into sample solution. The salt bridge
is used to prevent the interference of the analyte
solution with that of reference solution. Here
analyte solution is the solution whose potential is to
be measured.
These are mainly used for the determination of the
analyte by maintaining the fixed potential.
Standard hydrogen electrode
Silver-silver chloride electrode
Saturated calomel electrode
The reference electrodes are classified
into two main classes they are as follows
Primary standard electrodes
Standard hydrogen electrode
Secondary standard electrodes
Silver-silver chloride electrode
Saturated calomel electrode
Indicator electrode
The indicator electrode is the electrode which
responds to change in the potential of analyte
solution. The electromotive force of the complete
cell is given by the following equation:
Ecell = Ereference + Eindicator + Ejunction
where
Ereference is the electromotive force of the reference
electrode,
Eindicator is electromotive force of indicator
electrode,
Ejunction is the electromotive force at the junction of
the liquid.
Indicator electrode is used to measure the
potential of the analyte solution comparing with
that of reference electrode. Its potential is directly
proportional to ion concentration.
Example
Hydrogen electrode.
Glass electrode.
Antimony –antimony oxide electrode.
There are two classes of indicator electrodes:
Metal indicator electrodes
Ion-selective electrodes
Metal indicator electrodes
These develop electric potential in
response to redox reaction on the metal
surface.
Platinum or Au are used as metal
indicator electrodes.
These are mainly classified into three types
of electrodes used in the potentiometry.
They are as follows.
First kind electrodes
They are composed of the metal rod
immersed in its metal solution. These
electrodes respond to the ionic activity of
the electrode.
Example
Silver electrode dipped in the silver nitrate
solution.
Copper electrode dipped in the copper
sulphate solution.
Second kind electrodes
These are composed of the metal wires coated with
the salt precipitates. These electrodes respond to the
changes in the ionic activity through the formation of
the complex.
Example
Ag/ AgCl/ KCl Hg/ Hg2Cl2/ KCl
Third kind electrodes
These electrodes are also known as inert electrodes
and redox electrodes. They are composed of inert
metal electrode immersed in the redox solution.
Example
Pt-H2 electrode
Ion selective indicators
These are composed of ion-selective
membrane by which the ion crosses and it
creates the imbalance.
Example
Glass membrane electrode
Antimony – antimony oxide electrode.
Glass electrode
E.M.F. of cell and its measurement
The flow of electricity from one electrode
to other electrode in a galvanic cell
indicates that two electrodes have
different potential. The difference of
potential which causes flow of current
from one electrode (at higher potential)
to another electrode (at lower potential)
is called the electromotive force (E.M.F).
The (E.M.F.) of cell can be measured by
connecting the two electrodes to the two
terminals of voltmeter. The potential difference is
then read directly from the instrument. This
method, however, suffers from two defects. Firstly,
as some current is drawn from the cell during the
process of measurement, chemical reaction
occurs to some extent. Secondly, with flow of
current, a part of the E.M.F. is used up in
overcoming the internal resistance of the cell.
Hence, the potential difference, as read from the
voltmeter, will not be correct E.M.F. of the cell.
E.M.F. of a cell can be measured
accurately only by a method which
involves little or no flow of electricity. Such
a method is based on Poggendorff’s
compensation principle. In this method,
the E.M.F. of another cell or battery is
measured until two E.M.F‘s become equal
and there is no net flow of current in the
circuit. The electrical assembly used is
known as potentiometer.
Potentiometer
A potentiometer in simple form consists of two
electrical circuits in combination. The first circuit
consists of uniform wire AB of higher resistance. A
storage battery (B) of constant E.M.F. which should
be larger than E.M.F. of the cell to be measured, is
connected at the ends A and B of the wire. The
second circuit is made up of two cell’s X and S
(one of accurately known potential, the other
whose potential is to be determined), a switch, K
to include one or other of the cells in the circuit, a
galvanometer to show the flow of current, and a
sliding contact, D on the length of resistance wire.
When switch K is closed, the battery, B sends
electricity flowing from the battery B to the end A
of the resistance wire AB. At point A, the current
from battery can divide part of it flowing through
the resistance wire AB and then back to battery B;
the remainder tends to flow through the second
part of the circuit. The tendency for electricity from
battery B to flow in the second circuit is opposed
by the tendency for electricity to form cells Ex and
Es. The galvanometer G then will indicate whether
current is flowing in the second part of the circuit
and in which direction.
The sliding contact is moved along the wire
AB till no current flows through the
galvanometer. First of all, the Es (of unknown
E.M.F.) is included through switch, S1 and the
sliding contact is moved till no current flows in
galvanometer. Then E.M.F. of the cell, say Ex is
proportional to the distance AD. Then E.M.F.
of the cell, say Es is proportional to the
distance AD1. Then emf of a cell can be
measured.
Types of Potentiometric
titrations
Acid-base titration
Reference electrode
Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE)
Indicator electrode
Quinhydrone, Glass electrode
Redox titration
Reference electrode
Saturated Calomel Electrode
Indicator electrode
Platinum Electrode
Complexometric titration
Reference electrode
Saturated Calomel Electrode
Indicator electrode
Silver Electrode or mercury Electrode
Precipitation titration
Reference electrode
Saturated Calomel Electrode
Indicator electrode
Silver-Silver Chloride Electrode
Diazotization titration
Reference electrode
Saturated Calomel Electrode
Indicator electrode
Glass Electrode
APPLICATIONS
Clinical chemistry
Ion selective electrodes are present sensors for clinical
samples because of their selectivity for analyte in complex
matrices. The most common analytes are electrolytes such
as Na, k, Ca, H, and Cl and dissolved gases such as CO2
Environmental chemistry
For analysis of CN- ,NH3, NO3, in water and waste water.
Potentiometric titrations
For determining the equivalence point of an acid base
titration possible for redox, precipitation, acid-base,
complexation as well as for all titrations in aqueous and non
aqueous solvents.
APPLICATIONS
Agriculture
NO3, NH4, I, Ca, K, CN, Cl in soils, plant materials, feed stuffs,
fertilizers.
Detergent manufacturing
Ca, Ba, F for studying effects in water quality.
Food processing
Salt content of meat fish dairy products
Fruit juices brewing solutions
Ca in dairy products and beer
K in fruit juice and wine making
Corrosive effects of NO3 in canned foods
F in drinking water and other drinks
NO3 and NO2 in meat preservatives
Polarography
By Ali Abbas
Introduction
It is an electroanalytical method of analysis
where time dependent potential is applied to
an electrochemical cell and the current
flowing through the cell is measured as a
function of total potential.
History
The earliest voltammetric method,
polarographic method of analysis was first
developed by Jaroslav Heyrovsky in 1922, for
that, he received Nobel Prize in 1952 for
developing this technique using dropping
mercury electrode as the working electrode.
Potentiometry vs Polarography
In potentiometry, zero current is
maintained. But in polarography, limited
current is produced by limited electrolysis.
Hence, it is based on the measurement of
current resulting from reduction or
oxidation of an electro active species, at
a given electrode potential under
controlled condition.
Electrodes
Asin potentiometry, there is a reference
electrode, saturated calomel electrode
(SCE) and an indicator electrode or
microelectrode in this technique.
Indicator Electrode
Themicroelectrode or indicator electrode
assumes the potential impressed upon in.
The indicator electrodes may be made
from quite a large number of materials.
Example
For instance, mercury, platinum, gold and
graphite, having varying shapes and
construction can be used.
Mostly, DME (Dropping mercury electrode) is
used as indicator electrode. The apparatus is
designed in such a manner that electrolysis of
electroactive species take place at the
indicator electrode and the potential of
micro electrode is always measured relative
to reference electrode.
Reference Electrode
The SCE consists of large surface area so
that current density (current per unit area)
is small at this electrode. Its potential will
then essentially constant and unaffected
by applied potential (emf).
Definition
The electrode potential of growing
mercury electrode in electrolyte
containing electroactive species is varied
as a function of time and resulting current
is measured.
Theoretical Concept
The principle of polarography can be
explained with help of simplified
polarographic apparatus which contain a
reducible species (RS) such as nitrofurantoin
and supporting electrolyte (KCI) in a
electrolysis cell. When the movable contact
‘m’ is placed at the extreme left position (say
zero), the potential in the voltmeter ‘V’ will be
zero and the current measured in microamp
(m amp) on the ammeter ‘A’ will also register
zero.
Diagram
Theoretical Concept
If the contact ‘m’ is now moved to the
light, say to 0.5, a certain voltage will be
impressed across the electrode (readable
in Voltmeter V). Since the microelectrode
is negative, ions (impurities in the salt and
H2O) capable of picking up electrons at
this low potential and will be reduced and
the current flowing through the cell will be
registered.
Theoretical Concept
Ifthe movable contact is advanced to 1,
a greater voltage will be impressed it
across the electrode (more ions will be
reduced) and increase in current flowing
through the cell will be observed. If we
continue moving the contact, we will
eventually reach a potential, which will
reduce electroactive species.
Theoretical Concept
This effect will be reflected in a relatively
large increase in the current flowing through
the cell on increasing the voltage shows an
increase in the current flowing through the
cell because a greater number of reducible
species RS (nitro-furantoin) are reduced in
the vicinity of electrode. As there is
decrease in the concentration of ion in the
vicinity of microelectrode, the potential of
this electrode will decrease. This is called
concentration polarization.
Theoretical Concept
However, increasing the potential does
not bring about an increase in the
current. In other words, the current, which
is measured in this region, is diffusion
controlled and depends on the rates at
which the reducible species
(nitrofurantion) Move (diffuse) from the
bulk of solution to the surface of
electrode. The diffusion controlled current
(diffusion current of limiting current) is a
function of concentration.
Instrumentation
Cathode
It is a dropping mercury electrode.
It carries negative charge.
The diameter of capillary tube is 20-50 µm.
The droplet time is 2-12 seconds so 5-30
drops per minute can be produced.
Applied voltage range is + 0.4 to – 1.8 V.
Instrumentation
Advantages of DME
The surface area is always renewable and
eliminate toxic effects.
The surface is smooth.
Disadvantages of DME
Capillary can be blocked easily
Potential range is only + 0.4 to – 1.8 V.
Instrumentation
Anode
Mercury pool act as a anode.
It has high surface area.
No change in potential occur.
It is a non-polarizable electrode.
It carries positive charge.
Instrumentation
Solution
Solution contains electroactive species and
supporting electrolyte.
Electroactive species
The species which are under investigation are
electroactive species. For instance Pb+2.
Supporting electrolyte
As we want ions should be transferred by
diffusion only, we have to avoid the transfer of
ion (migration) due to potential gradient.
Instrumentation
Supporting electrolyte (Continued)
A potential gradient exists between the
electrodes with the microelectrode (usually,
dropping mercury electrod, DME) negative
relative to reference electrode (usually
saturated calomel electrode, SCE). Cations
will move towards the DME under the
influence of this potential and their reduction
give rise to the migration current
(undesirable). Therefore, to reduce the
current carried by the reducible ion, a large
concentration of non-reducible electrolyte is
added to the solution.
Instrumentation
Supporting electrolyte (Continued)
This substance, the indifferent electrolyte
(or supporting electrolyte) then carries
essentially all of the current and migration
current is eliminated. Commonly used
supporting electrolytes are potassium or
sodium salts. The potassium ions cannot
be discharged at cathode until the
impressed voltage becomes large.
Instrumentation
Supporting electrolyte (Continued)
The large number of potassium ions therefore
remains as a crowd around cathode and
restrict the potential gradient to a region so
very close to the electrode surface. So there is
no longer an electrostatic attraction
operative to attract other reducible ions from
the bulk of the solution. Under these
circumstances the limiting current is solely
controlled by the diffusion of the
electroactive speies through the
concentration gradient adjacent to the
electrode.
Diagram
Polarogram
The data in polarography are best
expressed graphically in which current
flow (in amperes) versus potential
variation is plotted along the ordinate. This
graph is called polarogram. A
polarogram has the S shape. The
polarogram is conveniently divided into
three regions as A, B and C.
Diagram
Polarogram
Residual current
Region A results from the charging current of
the electrode and reduction of traces of
impurities present in the solution. This current is
referred to as residual current. It include
Faradic current, the current due to impurities
Non-faradic current or capacitive current, the
current due to electrical double layer
(Helmholtz double layer)
ir = if + ic
ir = Residual current
if = Faradic current
ic = Capacitive current
Polarogram
Migration current
This current is due to migration of ions.
By increasing the concentration of
supporting electrolyte, we can reduce
the migration current.
Polarogram
Diffusion current
Region B results from the reduction of the
electro active species in solution. The
shape of the curve in the region indicates
that there are more reducible species in
the vicinity of electrode that can be
reduced.
Polarogram
As the potential of the electrode is increased,
more and more of the reducible species are
reduced (indicated by the sharp rise in the
current) until that point in the curve is
reached where an increase in the potential
does not give an increase in the current. This
indicates that the area in the vicinity of
electrode is depleted of reducible species
and the reduction is then controlled by the
rate at which the species diffuse into this
area. It is directly proportional to the
concentration of electro active species.
Polarogram
Limiting current
Beyond the certain potential, the current
the steady value called as the limiting
current.
Half wave potential, E1/2
The electro-active material in polarography is
characterized by its half-wave potential, E1/2.Under
any defined set of experimental conditions, each
substance has its own characteristic E1/2 and this is
the basis of qualitative polarographic analysis. The
half-wave potential is defined as the potential at
which the current due to the reduction or
oxidation of the substance responsible for the
wave is half as large as on the plateau. The half-
wave potential is also independent of the
electrode characteristics and concentration of
the electroactive substance, therefore serves for
the qualitative identification of an unknown
substance.
IIkovic equation
In the presence of excess supporting electrolyte, the
electrical force on the reducible/oxidizable ions is
nullified and therefore, the limiting current is solely a
diffusion current. Ilkovic (1934) examined the various
factors which govern the diffusion current and
deduced a theoretical equation as:
iD = 607 n cD1/2 m2/3 t1/6
Where
id = average diffusion current in microamperes
during the life of the drop
n = the number of electrons consumed in the
reduction or oxidation of one mole of the
electroactive species
D = diffusion coefficient of the reducible or
oxidizable substance expressed as cm2/second
IIkovic equation
c = concentration of electroactive species in
millimoles per dm3
m = the rate of flow of mercury from the dropping
mercury electrode expressed in mg/second
t = drop time of mercury in seconds
The constant 607 is a combination of natural
constants, including the Faraday. This is an
important equation because it accounts for the
linear dependence of id upon c keeping all other
factors constant. It is useful in quantitative
polarographic analysis.
Polarographic maxima:
Maxima suppressors
Current-voltage curves obtained with electro-
reducible ions at DME are frequently distorted
by increasing the current beyond the diffusion
current value and rapidly decrease to the
normal diffusion plateau after a critical value
is reached as the applied potential is
increased. This abnormal increase in current is
referred as maxima which vary in shape from
sharp peaks to rounded humps.
Polarographic maxima:
Maxima suppressors
To measure the true diffusion currents, the
maximum must be eliminated. This can be
done by adding small amount of surface-
active agents such as gelatin, dye stuff,
Triton X-100 etc. which are likely to form
an adsorbed layer on the mercury-
solution interface to prevent streaming
movement of the diffusion layer at the
interface.
Polarographic maxima:
Maxima suppressors
Gelatin is widely used in the
concentration range of 0.002 to 0.01%.
Higher concentration will suppress the
diffusion currents also. Others frequently
used are, Trition X-100 (a non-ionic
detergent) in the range of 0.002 to 0.004%
and methyl cellulose (0.005%).
Applications of Polarography
Polarography is used predominantly for
trace metal analysis of alloys, ulta-pure
metals, minerals/metallurgy,
environmental analysis (air, water, soil and
sea water contaminations), food stuffs,
beverages and body-fluids, toxicology
and clinical analysis.
Applications of Polarography
Itis also useful in the analysis of vitamins,
alkaloids, hormones, terpenoid
substances and natural coloring
substances, analysis of drugs and
pharmaceutical preparations,
determination of pesticide or herbicide
residues in the foods, in the structure
determination of many organic
compounds etc.
Applications of Polarography
Thistechnique is used in organic chemistry
for qualitative and quantitative analysis
and structure determinations. Most of the
organic compounds are insoluble in pure
aqueous medium and also in mercury
amalgam. Therefore, the solvent in which
the organic compounds and its electrode
product is soluble is added to the
supporting electrolyte.
Applications of Polarography
These solvents include various alcohols
and ketones, dimethyl formamide,
acetonitrile, ethylene diamine and others.
The commonly used supporting
electrolytes which are easily mixed with
organic solvents are various quaternary
ammonium salts such as tetrabutyl
ammonium iodide.
Thank You
Q&A
RADIOANALYTI
CAL
TECHNIQUES
ALI ABBAS
M.Phil PharmaceuticAL
CHEMISTRY
Introduction
The phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered by a
French Physicist Henary Becqueral in 1896. He
observed that a photographic plate wrapped in a
black paper placed near the uranium salt had
become affected. It indicate that uranium salt
emitted certain rays which had penetrating properties.
Becquerel called these rays as radioactive rays and
the property itself called radioactivity. In other words
“The phenomenon of emission of active radiations
from certain substance is called radioactivity and the
substance which emit such radiation are called
radioactive substances”.
Types of Radiochemical
Methods
Radiochemical methods are characterized by
good accuracy and their ability to adapt to a
wide number of applications. Another
advantage to this method is that they minimize or
even eliminate the need for separations that are
required in other analytical methods.
Radiochemical methods are divided into three
types:
(A) Activation analysis: Activity is induced in one
or more elements of the sample by radiation or
with suitable particles. Most commonly, thermal
neutrons from a nuclear reactor source is used.
Types of Radiochemical
Methods
(B) In the second method, the radioactivity is physically
introduced into the sample by adding a measured amount
of radioactive species, called a tracer. The most important
class of quantitative methods is based upon this procedure
(Isotope dilution method) in which a weighed quantity of
radioactivity tagged analyte is added to the sample. After
through mixing to assure homogenicity, a fraction of the
component of interest is isolated and purified. The analysis
is then based upon the determination of this isolated
fraction.
(C) The third class of method involves the measurement of
naturally occurring radioactivity present in the sample. For
example, measurement of radon in household air and
uranium in pottery and ceramic materials.
Aspects of Nuclear Physics
Atomic Structure
The atom consist of small heavy nucleus (containing most of the
mass), surrounded by planetary electrons. The nucleus consist of
two fundamental particles (1) Proton – carry a singly positive
charge, (2) Neutron-uncharged.
Atomic number
It is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It always
remain constant for particular element e.g. C-6, P-15, Na-11
(represented as 6C, 15P, 11Na respectively). It is represented by Z
which is based on the German word zahl meaning number.
Mass number
It is the number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus. The
atoms of particular element can have different mass number
because the number of neutrons may vary. Mass number is
represented by A which is based on the German word
atomgewicht meaning atomic weight.
Aspects of Nuclear Physics
Nuclide
A nuclide is a particular nucleus species
characterized by its atomic number and mass
number. For example, 6C12 and 11Na22 are the
nuclides.
Isotopes
These are nucleus with the same atomic number
but different mass numbers. E.g. 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 are
isotopes of hydrogen. Isotopes may be stable or
unstable. The unstable isotope shows radioactivity
(Radioactive decay) and so called radioactive
isotopes or radio-nuclide.
Stable and unstable Nuclei
The nuclei of elements of low atomic
number are most stable if the number of
neutron is equal to or slightly greater (1
more) than number of protons. If the
neutron number is less or slightly greater (2
Protons Neutrons
6 4 Unstable
6 7 Stable
6 8 Unstable
Stable and unstable Nuclei
For element of higher atomic number, the
most stable neutron: proton ratio
approximates to 1.5:1.
The unstable (Radioactive) isotopes undergo
spontaneous disintegration to form the stable
isotopes. The disintegration or radioactive
decay of isotopes occurs with the emission of
X-rays or gamma rays; with the formation of
elementary particles such as electrons,
positrons and helium nucleus or by fission in
which a nucleus breaks up into smaller nuclei.
Type of Radiation
Alpha particles
These have the following characteristics:
They are equivalent to the nuclei of helium atoms,
2He .
4
90 Th + 2He
234 4
1H + 1H2 → 2He4
2