MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS

BALLASTIC GALVANOMETER
This is a sophisticated instrument. This works on the principle of PMMC meter. The only
difference is the type of suspension is used for this meter.

Lamp and glass scale method is used to obtain the deflection. A small mirror is attached to the
moving system. Phosphorous bronze wire is used for suspension.

When the D.C. voltage is applied to the terminals of moving coil, current flows through it.
When a current carrying coil kept in the magnetic field, produced by permanent magnet, it
experiences a force. The coil deflects and mirror deflects. This deflection is proportional to the
current through the coil.
Fig: Ballastic Galvanometer
Scale

Ballistic

Lamp

Damping key

Double tapping
coil key
Copper strip

Rheostat.
( small
resistance)

Fig: Morse key
It consists of a metal lever BCA and three
terminals ABC fixed on a wooden base.
A and B are connected to the metal studs
just below the end a and B of the metal
lever while C is connected to the metal
support at the middle of the metal lever,
connections between A and C is made on
the releasing , the connections between A
and C is made while A is cut off.
Fig : Double Tapping Key
The double tapping key has three strips XX’ , YY’ ,
ZZ’ mounted horizontally on ebonite rods . These
rods are finally fitted on an ebonite base MN having a
metal stud M. On depressing X, the contact is made
between X and Y ( secondary SS) and
between S and M ( primary PP). The strips Y and Z
remains insulated by the ebonite strips in between them
. When released the primary circuit is broken and then
the secondary . When the current in primary is first cut
off , current falls from maximum to zero , an
instantaneous induced emf is developed in the
secondary and a charge passes through the secondary
and the galvanometer . Immediately the secondary
circuit is broken , the suspended coil in the ballistic
galvanometer deflects . The magnitude f the first throw
depends on the quantity of charge that has passed
through it.
 FLUX METER
❖ An interesting form of ballistic galvanometer is the fluxmeter. In order to operate
correctly, the discharge time through the regular ballistic galvanometer must be shorter
than the period of oscillation. For some applications, especially those involving
inductors, this condition cannot be met. The fluxmeter solves this.

❖ Its construction is similar to that of a ballistic galvanometer, but its coil is suspended
without any restoring forces in the suspension thread or in the current leads. The core
(bobbin) of the coil is of a non-conductive material. When an electric charge is
connected to the instrument, the coil starts moving in the magnetic field of the
galvanometer's magnet, generating an opposing e.m.f. and coming to a stop regardless
of the time of the current flow.

❖ The change in the coil position is proportional only to the quantity of charge. The coil
is returned to the zero position by the reversing of the current or manually.
Fig : Calibaration
Fig: Flux meter
arrangement of Flux meter
 COMPARISION

Flux Meter:
Controlling torque is very small due to the absence of
controlling springs
High electromagnetic damping due to low controlling
torque
Less sensitive
Less accurate

Ballistic galvanometer:
Controlling torque is high
High electromagnetic damping is low
More sensitive
More accurate
Measurements of flux and flux density (Method of reversal)
D.C. voltage is applied to the electromagnet through a variable resistance R1 and a reversing
switch. The voltage applied to the toroid can be reversed by changing the switch from position 2
to position ‘1’. Let the switch be in position ‘2’ initially. A constant current flows through the
toroid and a constant flux is established in the core of the magnet.

A search coil of few turns is provided on the toroid. The B.G. is connected to the search coil
through a current limiting resistance. When it is required to measure the flux, the switch is
changed from position ‘2’ to position ‘1’. Hence the flux reduced to zero and it starts increasing
in the reverse direction. The flux goes from +ø to -ø , in time ‘t’ second. An emf is induced in
the search coil, science the flux changes with time. This emf circulates a current through R2 and
B.G. The meter deflects. The switch is normally closed. It is opened when it is required to take
the reading.
Plotting the BH curve
The curve drawn with the current on the X-axis and the flux on the Y-axis, is
called magnetization characteristics. The shape of B-H curve is similar to
shape of magnetization characteristics. The residual magnetism present in the
specimen can be removed as follows.

Fig: B-H Curve

 Fig : Magnetization characteristics

▪Close the switch ‘S2’ to protect the galvanometer, from high current. Change the
switch S1 from position ‘1’ to ‘2’ and vice versa for several times.
▪To start with the resistance ‘R1’ is kept at maximum resistance position. For a
particular value of current, the deflection of B.G. is noted. This process is repeated for
various value of current. For each deflection flux can be calculated.
▪Magnetic field intensity value for various current can be calculated.(B=ø/A)
▪The B-H curve can be plotted by using the value of ‘B’ and ‘H’.
 Hysteresis loop is a four quadrant B-H graph from where the hysteresis loss, coercive force
and retentively of s magnetic material are obtained.
To understand hysteresis loop, we suppose to take a magnetic material to use as a core around
which insulated wire is wound. The coils is connected to the supply (DC) through variable
resistor to vary the current I. We know that current I is directly proportional to the value of
magnetizing force (H) as

Where, N = no. of turn of coil and l is the effective length of the coil. The magnetic flux
density of this core is B which is directly proportional to magnetizing force H.
Hysteresis of a magnetic material is a property by virtue of which the flux density (B)
of this material lags behind the magnetizing force (H).

Coercive Force

Coercive force is defined as the negative value of magnetizing force (-H) that
reduces residual flux density of a material to zero.

Residual Flux Density

Residual flux density is the certain value of magnetic flux per unit area that
remains in the magnetic material without presence of magnetizing force (i.e. H =
0).

Definition of Retentivity

It is defined as the degree to which a magnetic material gains its magnetism after
magnetizing force (H) is reduced to zero.
Step 1:
When supply current I = 0, so no existence of flux density (B) and magnetizing
force (H). The corresponding point is ‘O’ in the graph above.
Step 2:
When current is increased from zero value to a certain value, magnetizing force
(H) and flux density (B) both are set up and increased following the path o – a.
Step 3:
For a certain value of current, flux density (B) becomes maximum (Bmax). The point
indicates the magnetic saturation or maximum flux density of this core material. All
element of core material get aligned perfectly. Hence Hmax is marked on H axis. So no
change of value of B with further increment of H occurs beyond point ‘a’.

Step 4:
When the value of current is decreased from its value of magnetic flux saturation, H is
decreased along with decrement of B not following the previous path rather following
the curve a – b.

Step 5:
The point ‘b’ indicates H = 0 for I = 0 with a certain value of B. This lagging of B
behind H is called hysteresis. The point ‘b’ explains that after removing of magnetizing
force (H), magnetism property with little value remains in this magnetic material and it
is known as residual magnetism (Br). Here o – b is the value of residual flux density due
to retentivity of the material.

Step 6:
If the direction of the current I is reversed, the direction of H also gets reversed. The
increment of H in reverse direction following path b – c decreases the value of residual
magnetism (Br) that gets zero at point ‘c’ with certain negative value of H. This
negative value of H is called coercive force (Hc)
Step 7:
H is increased more in negative direction further; B gets reverses following path c – d. At point‘d’,
again magnetic saturation takes place but in opposite direction with respect to previous case. At
point‘d’, B and H get maximum values in reverse direction, i.e. (-Bm and -Hm).

Step 8:
If we decrease the value of H in this direction, again B decreases following the path de. At point
‘e’, H gets zero valued but B is with finite value. The point ‘e’ stands for residual magnetism (-B r)
of the magnetic core material in opposite direction with respect to previous case.

Step 9: If the direction of H again reversed by reversing the current I, then residual magnetism or
residual flux density (-Br) again decreases and gets zero at point ‘f’ following the path e – f. Again
further increment of H, the value of B increases from zero to its maximum value or saturation level
at point a following path f – a.

The path a – b – c – d – e – f – a forms hysteresis loop.

Importance of Hysteresis Loop

The main advantages of hysteresis loop are given below. Smaller hysteresis loop area
symbolizes less hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis loop provides the value of retentivity and coercivity of a material. Thus the way to
choose perfect material to make permanent magnet, core of machines becomes easier.
From B-H graph, residual magnetism can be determined and thus choosing of material for
electromagnets is easy.
 IRON LOSS
RP= pressure coil resistance
RS = resistance of coil S1
E= voltage reading= Voltage induced in S2
I= current in the pressure coil
VP= Voltage applied to wattmeter pressure coil.
W= reading of wattmeter corresponding voltage V
W1= reading of wattmeter corresponding voltage E

W1=Total loss=Iron loss+ Copper loss.

In the case of no load test the reading of wattmeter is approximately equal to iron loss. Iron loss
depends on the emf induced in the winding. Science emf is directly proportional to flux. The
voltage applied to the pressure coil is V. The corresponding of wattmeter is ‘W’. The iron loss
corresponding E is E = WE/V

The reading of the wattmeter includes the losses in the pressure coil and copper loss of the
winding S1. These loses have to be subtracted to get the actual iron
loss.