2019

LUMIGEA

IZVORI SVJETLA (ENG)

EDUKATIVNI MATERIJALI
RANKO SKANSI
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LIGHT SOURCES
LIGHT SOURCE TYPES
The transformation of electrical energy into visible radiation (light generation) takes place in light
sources. Basically, there are three different types of such energy transformation, namely light
generation

 by temperature increase (thermal radiator),

 by gas discharge (discharge lamps) and
 by electronic procedures in solid state bodies, electroluminescence (LED).

Traditional light sources such as thermal radiators and discharge lamps were always provided in the
form of lamps with sockets for replaceable operation. For the most part, this no longer applies to LED
light sources. Especially nowadays, luminaires with permanently integrated LED light sources are
used for many applications.

In industrial nations, the quantity percentage of incandescent and halogen lamps was about 3/4 of all
utilised lamps in the past, especially due to their wide distribution in residential lighting. Gas
discharge lamps with a quantity percentage of about 1/4 were used predominantly for technical
indoor and outdoor lighting in order to cover the great light requirements in this sector. Their main
advantage is their luminous efficacy, which is 6 to 8 times that of general-use incandescent lamps.

Figure 2.98: Overview of the most common light sources

Currently, both types are increasingly replaced by LED light sources. Regarding residential lighting,
this happens mainly due to the incremental prohibition of incandescent lamps. Regarding technical
lighting, the reason is also the increased energy efficiency, high light quality and long service life of
LED products compared to discharge lamps. Altogether, LED lamps represent the most economic
lighting solution for almost any application.

In the following, different types of light sources and their typical applications will be explained. In
addition to these light source types, there are specific light sources for medical, therapeutic and
other purposes as well as for projector technology and photographic technology.
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INCANDESCENT LAMPS
Incandescent lamps (general-use lamps) were favoured in residential lighting. With 12 lm/W and an
average service life of 1,000 hours, they were less appropriate for commercial and industrial
installations.

High-voltage halogen lamps for mains voltage operation and low-voltage halogen lamps with12 V or
24 V were traditionally used in sales spaces and representative installations. Their service life is at
least double that of incandescent lamps and their luminous efficacy is 50% higher.

Due to their instant luminous flux emission (no ignition time is needed as with discharge lamps), they
were also applied for object surveillance, for example in combination with motion detectors. Mostly,
they have been replaced by LED lamps or LED luminaires.

Figure 2.95: Luminous efficacy of several thermal radiators in comparison to heated tungsten W
(benchmarks, curve shows maximum luminous efficacy of tungsten)

1. incandescent lamp 15 W, 90 lm, 6 lm/W

2. incandescent lamp 100 W, 1 360 lm, 13,6 lm/W
3. halogen lamp12 V, 20 W, 320 lm, 16 lm/W
4. halogen lamp12 V, 100 W, 2 200 lm, 22 lm/W
5. halogen projector lamp 24 V, 250 W, 10 000 lm, 40 lm/W
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HIGH-PRESSURE DISCHARGE LAMPS
LED luminaires and luminaires for discharge lamps – the usage however is decreasing – are
predominantly used for technical lighting due to energy reasons. High-pressure discharge lamps are
either high-pressure mercury vapour lamps, metal halide lamps or high-pressure sodium vapour
lamps.

High-pressure mercury vapour lamps have not been used indoors due to their low colour rendering
quality (colour rendering index ≤ 70). Since April 2015, putting these lamps into circulation has been
prohibited in Europe according to Commission Regulation (EC) no. 245/2009 [177] of 18 March 2009
(ecodesign directive – see also chapter 1.3.5.10 “Environmentally sound product design”). They have
been almost completely replaced by the more efficient metal halide lamps.

High-pressure sodium vapour lamps are characterised by their high luminous efficacy. Therefore,
they were traditionally used for outdoor lighting and in high halls, for example in the steel industry
where their suboptimal colour rendering can be tolerated. By using LED luminaires, the disadvantage
of poor colour rendering can be avoided.

In general, high-pressure lamps need an ignitor, which generates the high ignition voltage, in addition
to the control gear unit. In some cases, it is also generated by the electronic control gear unit.

LOW-PRESSURE DISCHARGE LAMPS

Fluorescent lamps are low-pressure mercury discharge lamps. They have been used for many
decades due to their high luminous efficacy and service life and cover a high percentage of our light
requirement (ca. 70%) in existing installations. Regarding newer-generation tri-phosphor fluorescent
lamps, the drop in luminous flux is about 8% after 10,000 operating hours, and about 12% after
20,000 operating hours when using an electronic control gear unit ECG (see chapter “Discharge lamp
luminaire operation”). Since the late 1990s, more efficient tri-phosphor fluorescent lamps with a
diameter of 16 mm (T5 lamps) have also been used besides main-series 18 W, 36 W and 58 W
fluorescent lamps with a diameter of 26 mm (T8 lamps) in many applications. Their advantages are
higher luminous efficacy, a smaller drop in luminous flux during the operating period, their smaller
diameter and ideal luminous flux at ambient temperatures between 35°C and 38°C as they usually
occur in indoor luminaires. These lamps can only be operated with ECG.

Fluorescent substances convert the UV radiation generated through low-pressure mercury vapour
discharge into visible light. These substances consist of “rare-earth” group elements.

The fluorescent lamps’ luminous flux is highly dependent on the ambient temperature (see figure).
The maximum luminous flux of T5 lamps is achieved between 34°C to 38°C, meaning the
temperature range inside luminaires. Due to international standards, however, the (lower) lamp
luminous flux for 25°C is specified. Therefore, light output ratios turn out higher. Examples for
differences in luminous flux are shown in table for T5 lamps with light colour 840.

Compact fluorescent lamps are smaller-construction tri-phosphor fluorescent lamps. Lamps in lower
wattage ranges from 5 W to e.g. 23 W with integrated electronic control gear unit and base E14 or
compact fluorescent lamps with plug-in bases require a separate magnetic or electronic control gear
unit which is integrated in the luminaire.
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Instead of tubular fluorescent lamps, more powerful compact fluorescent lamps, e.g. 18 W, 24 W, 36
W, 40 W and 55 W, are operated in compact round, square or rectangular luminaires which provide
additional opportunities in terms of the lighting installation’s architectural design due to their design.

Low-pressure sodium lamps lamps create a monochromatic yellow light colour at very high luminous
efficacies (up to about 180 lm/W) at which colours are virtually no longer perceived. Therefore, it is
not permitted to use them for indoor lighting according to EN 12464-1 [48]. They were used e.g. for
illumination of locks, harbour installations, object protection and places where colour recognition is
not important.

Induction lamps are low-pressure mercury vapour lamps, similar to fluorescent lamps but without
electrodes. The UV radiation generated through the discharge is also converted into visible radiation
by fluorescent substances. Gas discharge is triggered by coupled-in high-frequency electric or
magnetic fields. Due to high frequencies, special protective measures are required regarding
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) which are defined in international standards.
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LED (LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES)

(a) Schematic construction of an LED

(b) Materials for generating coloured LED light

Figure 2.96: The LED

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Light generation in an LED (light-emitting diode) takes place in a very small range of the p-n-junction
of the crystalline, semi-conductive material where a part of the released energy is converted into
light (electroluminescence) during recombination of positive and negative charge carriers. This
generates monochromatic light of a specific colour (yellow, orange, red, green, blue) or wavelength.
The generated light is narrow-bandwidth and material-specific (see table in figure 2.96 b). A reflector
and lens with different visual properties (gathering, scattering etc.) improve light emission.

White light is generated either by mixing red, yellow and blue LED (RGB) or by coating a blue LED
with a fluorescent substance which partially converts the LED’s blue light into light of the green or
red spectral range.

RGB mixing is currently hardly used in general lighting applications. On one hand, neither colour
rendering, expressed by the colour rendering index Ra, nor luminous efficacy of the white light
generated by RGB mixing is satisfactory. On the other hand, its chromaticity coordinates change over
time due to the different degradation of the individual colour LEDs (see chapter 1.2.10). However,
RGB colour mixing has a broad use spectrum in decorative and well-being applications (see also
chapter 3.3.1), signalling equipment (e.g. in motor vehicles, traffic light installations) and for
guidance systems (in buildings or outdoor spaces).

In contrast, the conversion of blue LED light through fluorescent coating is a procedure used
wherever great amounts of high-quality white light are required. For example in for residential
lighting, work place lighting and road lighting. High colour stability, good to excellent colour
rendering properties as well as very high luminous efficacies are characteristics of this method.

Regarding luminous efficacy, values exceeding 200 lm/W are measured in the laboratory. However,
these lamp luminous flux figures cannot be used as technical data since the luminous efficacy is
highly dependent on specific luminaire operating conditions. LED power supply as well as thermal
management (see chapter 2.1.9.1) are important factors here which are closely related to the
expected service life of the luminaire.

Regarding residential lighting, so-called “retrofit” lamps with LED technology are widely used today.
These are integrated systems consisting of LEDs and electronic components (see chapter 5.8.4)
required for their operation (see chapter 2.1.9.4), often featuring E27 or E14 sockets for replacing the
former general-use incandescent lamp.

Retrofit lamps are rarely used in work place lighting. The reason is that luminaires in work places, in
contrast to individual household luminaires, are generally operated in larger groups as lighting
installations with long operating times. This leads to higher economic and safety-related
requirements (see also chapter 5.6.1 “Luminaire labelling, type plate”) regarding:

 energy efficiency of the luminaire,

 service life of the lamp/luminaire
 photometric characteristics of the lamp/luminaire for photometric planning,
 electromagnetic compatibility
 power factor (avoiding blind current), and
 avoidance of flicker.

Today, LED luminaires as optimised complete systems with built-in LED light sources and electronics
fulfil these requirements much better.
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LED light sources are dimmed using different methods. A common method is pulse-width modulation
(PWM) where, according to an adjustable ON/OFF ratio, direct current generated by the control gear
unit is turned on and off, thereby regulating the energy input. In contrast to dimming via trailing-
edge phase cutting in incandescent lamps, where the light of the slowly cooling filament is not
extinguished, the LED follows the pulse-width-modulation practically without delay. For applications
where stroboscopic effects would be disturbing, PWM dimming should be avoided. There are no
physiological effects on persons at PWM frequencies above 400 Hz. Switching with smaller PWM
frequencies should not be applied. To this end, appropriate control gear units (see chapter 2.1.9.4)
are required, e.g. with DALI interface (see chapter 2.4.4.5).

Further developments regarding the usage of electroluminescence concern organic LEDs, so-called
OLED, where light is generated in an organic substance. While crystalline LED are very small single
elements with a diameter of just a few millimetres, OLED can be used in particular to produce planar
light emitters. Currently, they are used predominantly in display technology. An economic usage of
OLED in general lighting is not expected to become reality for now.

Figure 2.97: White LED

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT SOURCES

The most important characteristics of light sources are
 power consumption
 generated luminous flux
 luminous efficacy
 light colour and colour rendering
 service life and
 shape as well as dimensions.
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(a) retrofit lamp with E14 or G9 base

(b) retrofit lamp (tube) with G13 base

Figure 2.106: Examples for retrofit lamps

LUMINOUS EFFICACY
LUMINOUS EFFICACY OF LAMPS
Light sources convert electrical power into visible radiation (light). A large portion of the electrical
power consumed by a light source is converted into heat. Incandescent lamps emit only 5% of their
electrical power as light; in fluorescent lamps the number ranges between 20% and 40%. Luminous
efficacy is a measure for the efficiency of light generation. It is measured in lumens per watt (lm/W).

Lamp luminous efficacy is the emitted amount of light in proportion to the electrical power
consumption of open-distribution lamps under standardised environmental conditions. Among
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traditional light sources, the energy efficiency of gas discharge lamps and particularly fluorescent
lamps with a diameter of 16 mm (so-called T5 lamps) is especially high.

Additionally, control gear units which also consume power are required to operate LEDs and
discharge lamps. The system luminous efficacy of a lamp circuit is defined as lamp luminous flux in
proportion to lamp and control gear unit power consumption. Thus, system luminous efficacy is
determined by the luminous efficacy of the lamp and the dissipation power of the required control
gear units. This often has a great impact, particularly on the cost efficiency of a planned
refurbishment project (see chapter 1.3.4 “Light and economic efficiency”).

An overview of the different luminous efficacies of light sources is provided in figure 9.6 (control gear
unit losses are not considered here).

Regarding LED light sources, information about lamp or system luminous efficacy is only available for
retrofit lamps. Only these can be operated with open distribution under defined conditions.

In addition, optical losses occur in the luminaire due to reflexion and absorption of optical materials
as well as thermal losses due to heating of the luminaire (see chapter 2.1.3.4 “Light output ratio”).

LUMINOUS EFFICACY OF LED LUMINAIRES

LED components built into luminaires must be considered separately. Lamp luminous flux and
consequently lamp luminous efficacy cannot be defined for them. Standardised operation of the
components is not possible since luminaire and lamp can not be separated from each other. A
luminaire’s construction characteristics in particular have a significant impact on thermal
management (see chapter 2.1.9.1 “Thermal management”). The choice of control gear unit used in
the luminaire and electrical operating conditions can also vary widely. Therefore, rated luminous flux
ΦB, rated output PB and resulting luminous efficacy ΦB/PB are defined for such LED luminaires.
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Figure 2.99: Luminous efficacy (approx. peak values without control gear units) and service life
(related to the applicable definition) of different lamp types.

Rated luminous flux:

ΦB = initial luminaire luminous flux, undimmed

Rated output:

PB = power consumption to generate ΦB

Luminous efficacy:

ΦB/PB = (initial luminaire luminous flux, undimmed) / (power consumption to generate ΦB)

Luminaire luminous efficacy refers to the luminaire luminous flux which emitted by the LED luminaire
in proportion to the electrical power consumed by the luminaire.

From this perspective, light output ratio is not applicable or it is represented by the value 1 in order
to ensure error-free operation of software programs for light calculation (see chapter 2.1.3.4 “Light
output ratio”).

The maximum achievable theoretical luminous efficacy at monochromatic radiation is 683 lm/W; for
white light in the visible spectral range between 380 nm and 780 nm, it is only 199 lm/W.
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Today, technically sophisticated LED luminaires reach a rated luminous efficacy of over 160 lm/W.

LIGHT COLOUR
The light colour of a light source is expressed by the closest colour temperature Tcp (température de
couleur proximale). The closest colour temperature is the temperature of heated platinum where its
colour is perceived to be the same as the respective light source (see figure 2.100). Low closest
colour temperatures express warm, yellow-red-white appearing light colours such as e.g. candles,
incandescent lamps and other thermal radiators. High temperatures express cool, rather white-blue
light colours such as e.g. daylight with ca. 6,500 K (overcast sky).

The European lighting standards give no recommendations on light colours of the used light source
since their preferential choice amongst other things highly depends on what people from different
regions in Europe perceive as natural light. Therefore, the choice of a suitable light colour strongly
depends on regional adaption, especially in terms of how daylight appears in indoor spaces. In
general, high colour temperatures, for example daylight white, are preferred in warm climate zones,
even at low levels of illuminance. In cold climate zones, low colour temperatures and therefore warm
white light colours are preferred.
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Figure 2.100: Extract from the standard colour table according to CIE 1931 with Planckian curve
representing the light colour of the heated platinum. The closest colour temperatures of e.g.
fluorescent lamps are marked. E is the white point.

Table 2.36: Light colour and closest colour temperature according to EN 12464-[48]
The choice of the light colour also depends on the application – meaning the visual task – and factors
concerning aesthetics and psychology, room and furniture colours as well as the spatial effect of the
environment. Based on recent findings, the daytime utilisation of a room also should not be
neglected. Especially for rooms with extended operating times compared to the common rhythm of
work, the circadian function of light is of utmost importance. Not only the light colour but also the
detailed spectral composition of light has an impact. Regarding areas with night shift operation, the
biological clock should not be excessively affected. In areas with early starts of work and minimal
daylight supply, artificial lighting should actively support the circadian rhythm (see chapter 3.3.1
“Human Centric Lighting (HCL)” ff). Table 9.4 shows the international labelling of light colours
independent of manufacturers. In addition, it provides the colour rendering of the light source, which
will be explained in the subsequent paragraph.

COLOUR RENDERING
For visual performance, comfort and well-being, it is important that the colours of the surroundings,
objects and human skin are rendered naturally and realistically. This makes people appear attractive
and healthy. Dependent on location and visual task, artificial light sources should ensure correct
colour rendering comparable to natural daylight (see also figure and figure).

Figure 2.102: Good colour rendering Figure 2.101: Insufficient colour rendering

Despite featuring identical light colour, light sources can have different colour rendering properties
due to different spectral compositions of their radiation. In order to express colour rendering
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properties of a light source objectively, the general colour rendering index Rα was established. The
colour rendering index is the measure of correspondence of the seen body colour and its appearance
under the respective reference light source. To determine the value of Rα, colour variations from 8
standardised test colours occurring when the test colours are illuminated using the light source to be
evaluated/the reference light source are identified. The smaller the variation, the better the colour
rendering characteristic of the tested light source. A light source with Rα = 100 renders all colours
ideally as under the reference light source. The lower the Rαvalue, the lower the quality of the colour
rendering. A categorisation of market-based light sources for the colour rendering levels can be
found in table 9.3. The reference light type for daylight white light sources is natural daylight with a
colour temperature of 6,500 K, corresponding to an overcast sky without direct sunlight. For light
sources with a colour temperature of < 5.000 K, the reference light type is the Planckian radiator.

Lamps with a colour rendering index below 80 should not be used indoors where persons work or
linger for extended periods of time. Exceptions are permissible for particular lighting tasks requiring
high luminous efficacy and therefore lower colour rendering for economic reasons, for example high-
pressure sodium vapour lamps. This applies e.g. for the lighting in high halls. However, appropriate
measures should be taken in these cases in order to ensure a higher colour rendering at stationary
and steadily occupied workstations and at locations where safety colours must be identified
correctly. As the use of LED luminaires becomes more widespread, this issue increasingly fades into
the background. High illuminance values can also be realised with these light sources, featuring good
colour rendering and at economically reasonable expenses. This has been already taken into account
in the current efforts of photometric standardisation.

Manufacturers have committed themselves to a simple, generally comprehensive international

labelling for light colour and colour rendering of lamps and LED luminaires in addition to
manufacturer-specific labelling. It consists of three digits as depicted in table. Regarding LED light
sources, colour rendering properties are expressed by the rated colour rendering index which refers
to the colour rendering at initial commissioning.

Table 2.37: Ranges for the general colour rendering index Ra

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Table 2.38: Colour labelling of lamps/luminaires with integrated light sources independent of
manufacturers.

LAMP SERVICE LIFE

The service life of lamps depends on several factors.

With incandescent lamps, e.g. for residential areas, specifying the statistic average service life is
sufficient. It is 1,000 hours for incandescent lamps and 2,000 to 4,000 hours for halogen lamps. After
this time, only 50% of lamps are still (statistically) functional. This service life is also called average
service life.

The same service life definition used for incandescent lamps is applied to compact fluorescent lamps
with integrated (mostly electronic) control gear units which mainly serve as replacements for
incandescent lamps.

Table 2.39: Benchmarks for the useful life of some lamp types
Useful life (also referred to as economic service life) is specified for fluorescent lamps and compact
fluorescent lamps with external control gear units as well as for high-pressure lamps and low-
pressure sodium lamps. Useful life is the length of time it takes for system luminous flux (the product
of the remaining functional portion of lamps and the remaining luminous flux after luminous flux
drop) to reach 70% or 80% of the initial value (see benchmarks in table 9.5). The useful life of
fluorescent lamps is based on a switching cycle of 3 hours (165 minutes ON and 15 minutes OFF). For
high-pressure lamps, the switching cycle is defined as 12 hours (11 hours ON and 1 hour OFF).
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Another distinct characteristic is nominal service life. This is the time period with a switching
frequency of 12 hours (11 hours ON, 1 hour OFF) after which 10% of lamps failed (abbreviation:
12B10). Benchmarks for this are also specified in table.

Figure shows the fundamental progress of operability A (amount lamps which are still functional)
and lamp luminous flux B dependent on operating duration. The product of both parameters is
system luminous flux. Chapter 1.3.1.6 “Lamp maintenance factor” contains realistic diagrams for
tubular fluorescent lamps and compact fluorescent lamps.

For fluorescent lamps, economic service life (useful life) relates to 80% of system luminous flux (see
also chapter 1.3.1.6“Lamp maintenance factor”).

Useful life depends on a series of influencing factors, e.g. switching frequencies, lamp wattage, types
of fluorescent substance and eventually product batch. Consequently, providing exact information on
service life can be challenging. However, exact information about service life is not always necessary
from a practical point of view since relamping usually does not occur at the end of the useful life but
at a time determined for business reasons. Relamping occurs e.g. due to new illuminance
measurements, in-company cost analysis for maintenance procedures and e.g. also depends on
access to the lighting installation.

These and other criteria are used in many cases to make a decision for group or individual lamp
replacement.

With tri-phosphor fluorescent lamps connected to magnetic control gear units, a useful life (average
service life) of 10,000 hours (13,000 hours) can be reached under rated conditions, and up to 18,000
hours (20,000 hours) with hot-start ECGs. These values apply to rated conditions and a decrease of
system luminous flux to 80% of the initial value. Derating and overloading can cause service life
reductions.
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Table 2.40: Benchmarks for the nominal useful life of some lamp types

Figure 2.103: Economic service life of fluorescent

lamps

SERVICE LIFE OF LED LIGHT SOURCES

The luminous flux of LED light sources also decreases with increasing operating duration. This
phenomenon is referred to as luminous flux degradation. However, total failures of LED light sources
only occur after a very long period of time when the degradation is far advanced. Therefore, total
failure plays only a minor role when considering the service life of this type of LED products. Total
failure is only recognizable for individual LEDs, e.g. as a defective pixel on an LED display.

Following the failure rate of incandescent lamps, the time of degradation to 50% of initial luminous
flux (rated luminous flux) is a common definition for household LED retrofit lamp service life.

Figure 2.104: Examples of drops in luminous flux for different rated service life values Lx.
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RATED SERVICE LIFE
For LED luminaires, there is no conventional definition of service life, be it “nominal service life” or
“economic service life”.

Instead, it is common to relate the service life specified by the manufacturer to the respective
specified level of luminous flux degradation. This procedure is suggested by the standards regarding
luminaire performance (DIN EN 62722-1; Luminaire performance – Part 1: General Requirements
[106], DIN EN 62722-2-1; Part 2-1: Particular requirements for LED luminaires [107] and LED modules
[DIN IEC/PAS 62717; LED modules for general lighting – Performance requirements [16]).

A more general definition of rated service life based on these standards leads to an expression in the
form of LxBy (e.g. L80B10= 50,000 h). The index x describes the percentage of residual luminous flux of a
luminaire due to degradation. The index y describes the percentage of a large number of luminaires
which statistically undercut this luminous flux, meaning the portion of luminaires with increased drop
in luminous flux (“gradual failure fraction”).

The definition of “average rated service life” Lx is common on the market, without specification of By.
In this case, it is assumed that the index y of the general definition is 50. Therefore, Lx refers to the
statistic average of the residual luminous flux remaining at the end of service life for a large number
of luminaires.

 Lx, the average rated service life

 Φ(Lx), the luminaire luminous flux at Lx,
 ΦB, the rated luminous flux (initial luminous flux), and
 x, the statistically averaged residual luminous flux of a luminaire at the end of service
life Lx, in %.

The service life specification

L80, 50,000 h for a given luminaire,

e.g. means that a large number of these luminaires in total after 50,000 operating hours still
generate at least 80% of their rated luminous flux (available initially and in total). Therefore, this is an
average value.

Until the rated service life is reached, the progress of the drop in luminous flux (degradation) can be
regarded as linear in simplification (see figure 2.104).

This means:
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(see symbols above)

In practice, this approximation can often be used beyond the scope of the rated service life specified
by the manufacturer, for a period of up to 1.5 Lx (see also tables in chapter 1.3.1.2 “The lamp
maintenance factor of an LED luminaire”).

Common average rated service life specifications refer to different degrees of degradation: L90-, L85-,
L80-, L70- and L50. These values can be converted into each other to a certain extent.

The choice of rated service life index has a significant impact on the maintenance factor to be
specified in the lighting planning stage. Further information can be found in the tables in chapter
1.3.1.2 “The lamp maintenance factor of an LED luminaire”.

The LED as a semiconductor in which electrical energy is converted is temperature-sensitive, similar

to a power transistor inside an amplifier or a processor inside a computer. The extent of the
luminous flux degradation – and therefore the rated service life – depends particularly on the
operating temperature of the LED inside the luminaire. Correct service life specifications therefore
require reliable thermal management of the LED luminaire (see also chapter 2.1.9.1 “Thermal
management”) and usually relate to an ambient temperature (rated temperature) of 25°C, unless
otherwise stated by the manufacturer. Based on the aforementioned standards, it is possible to
specify an ambient temperature tq other than 25°C in the data sheet at which specified technical
quality criteria are achieved (see also chapter 2.1.8.2 “Operating conditions” and chapter
2.1.7.5 “Performance labelling of LED luminaires”).

FAILURE RATE
Total failures of LED lamps or luminaires are expressed by the Cz value (catastrophic failure) with the
numeric value of z indicating the expected failure rate in per cent at a given time.1

Luminaire classification specification

C5 = 100,000 h at tq = 35° C

would therefore state e.g. that the LED luminaires in question feature a total failure rate of 5% at an
ambient temperature of 35°C and after 100,000 operating hours.

The value of a luminaire’s total failure rate at the end of the average rated service life Lx (B50, see
above) is referred to as AFV (“abrupt failure value”). In practice, significant failure rates in LED
products only occur with very advanced degradation. At average rated service life specifications x ≥
80 the AFV is therefore negligible.

When determining the maintenance factor, the total failure rate expressed by LSF (“lamp survival
factor”) must be considered (see also chapter 1.3.1.2 “The lamp maintenance factor of an LED
luminaire”).
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Therefore, the lamp survival factor [Symbol] only matters for the determination of the maintenance
factor after the end of the rated service life. In the tables in chapter 1.3.1.2 “The lamp maintenance
factor of an LED luminaire”, this factor is already considered.

RATED SERVICE LIFE WITH CONSTANT LIGHT OUTPUT (CLO)

With constant light output (CLO), the luminous flux of an LED product is constantly regulated to the
level corresponding to the residual luminous flux which is statistically expected at the end of the
rated service life. If luminous flux is used as the basis for lighting design, energy can be saved until
the end of the rated service life which would otherwise only lead to unnecessary excess lighting.

For a luminaire with rated service life Lx the following applies:

and

with

 Φ(t), the luminaire luminous flux at the time of t,

 Lx, the average rated service life,
 Φ'B, the rated luminous flux (initial luminous flux) of a luminaire with the same rated
service life without CLO, and
 x, the residual luminous flux percentage of Φ'B at the end of the rated service life.
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Figure 2.105: Examples of drops in luminous flux and power control with constant light output (CLO)
over a period of 1.5 Lx.

Upon expiration of the rated service life, degradation can no longer be compensated and the
luminaire luminous flux decreases at a rate corresponding to a luminaire without constant light
output (see figure above).

Generally, the power consumption of the luminaire in initial state Pnew required to provide constant
luminous flux Φnew is specified in the data sheet of such luminaires. In addition, the required power
consumption value Px at the end of the rated service life should be specified as well.

The result for a given average rated service life Lx is derived as follows:
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The power consumption is constant after the end of the rated service life, when the luminous flux
Φnew can no longer be maintained. It has reached its maximum value:

Over the course of the rated service life, the power consumption increases continuously (see figure):

The resulting time-dependent factor at which power consumption increases is defined as power
lifetime factor PLF:

The tables in chapter 1.3.1.2 “The lamp maintenance factor of an LED luminaire” list the resulting
PLF values.

The energy requirement Wnew(t) of a newly installed luminaire up to a point within the rated service
life is derived as a statistic average of:

The total failure rate index C is expressed by the letter “y” in some printed volumes. “z” is chosen as
the index to provide a better distinction from the “gradual failure fraction” index By.

The maintenance factor (MF) can be determined when LMF and RMF of the application are known.

LAMP REFERENCE
The multitude of lamp types, their performance, light colours, base designs and other properties are
impossible to manage. Company-specific references for similar and compatible lamps deviate from
each other. However, practical applications demand a consistent lamp reference system which
captures the most important cross-company lamp characteristics.

The German electric lighting trade association Zentralverband der Elektrotechnik- und
Elektronikindustrie (ZVEI) has developed a lamp reference system called LBS which predominantly
lists lamps according to their luminaire-relevant properties; it was last updated in 2010. This system
has been introduced widely in the German but also in the European luminaire industry since it
enables short references sufficient to identify lamp types. The LBS system – or parts of it – is often
used as a luminaire order code component, e.g. TC (tubeform compact) for compact fluorescent
lamp luminaires.
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The LBS consists of three system blocks. The first system block specifies the light generation type, e.g.
“H” for high pressure; the second system block indicates the medium used to generate light, e.g. “M”
for mercury. This leads to a classification in 7 groups:

1. General-use incandescent lamps

2. Halogen lamps
3. High-pressure discharge lamps HM (mercury vapour)
4. High-pressure discharge lamps HI (metal halide)
5. High-pressure discharge lamps HS (sodium vapour)
6. Low-pressure discharge lamps LM (mercury vapour)
7. Low-pressure discharge lamps LS (sodium vapour)

LED lamps as retrofits for incandescent lamps, halogen lamps or fluorescent lamps are not
considered in the LBS system.

The third system block fundamentally expresses the shape of the bulb, e.g. “T” (tube) for tubular
lamps. Additional reference amendments are determined in the LBS catalogue (see
www.zvei.org/en/press-media/publications/).

Fluorescent lamps are low-pressure mercury discharge lamps with reference “LM” (low pressure,
mercury), followed by the bulb shape specification.

EXAMPLES:

LM T26 refers to a fluorescent luminaire with 26 mm tube diameter which is also referred to as T8
internationally. According to LBS, T5 lamps are referred to as T16. Older T12 lamps with 38 mm
diameter are referred to as T38 according to LBS. For convenience, LM is mostly omitted.

Other information such as lamp wattage, light colour and base reference can be added to this
fundamental reference.

At international level, the lamp reference system ILCOS (International Lamp Code System) was
introduced, which is described in the international specification IEC 61231:2010 + A1:2013 and has
e.g. been published as German standard in DIN EN 61231 [91]. In the catalogues of internationally
operating lamp manufacturers, ILCOS references are contrasted with company-specific lamp
references in the form of a translation list.

ILCOS captures nearly all lamp properties. This leads to reference lengths which are very difficult to
handle in practice due to description clarity alone and can therefore not be used as an ordering
component for the luminaire in question. Therefore, short (ILCOS L), extended short (ILCOS LE) or
standard references (ILCOS D) are also possible as full lamp references.

The structure of ILCOS references is defined in DIN EN 61231 [91] for the following lamp types:

1. Incandescent lamps
2. Halogen lamps
3. Fluorescent lamps
4. High-pressure sodium vapour lamps
5. Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps
6. High-pressure mercury vapour lamps
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7. Metal halide lamps
8. LED modules and lamps
9. Lamps/starters for specific applications

EXAMPLE 1
According to ILCOS D, a tubular fluorescent lamp T8 58 W with light colour 840 is referenced as
follows: FD-58/40/1BE- G13-26/1500.

In which:

FD double ended fluorescent lamp

58 wattage 58 W
40 light colour 4,000 K
1B for Ra from 80 to 89
E starting behaviour: external starter, with pre-heating
G13 base reference
26 tube diameter 26 mm
1500 length 1,500 mm

EXAMPLE 2

According to ILCOS D, a drop-shaped E14 LED retrofit lamp with a power consumption of 6 W and
light colour 840 is referenced as follows: DRP-6/30/1B-E14-45.

In which:

DR retrofit LED lamp with integrated control gear unit

P drop-shaped (as the lamp requiring replacement)
6 wattage 6 W
30 light colour 3,000 K
1B for Ra from 80 to 89
E14 base reference
45 nominal diameter of the lamp’s construction (requiring replacement)
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Type (code) Common Colour rendering Colour Life

ratings (watts) temperature (K) (hours)
Compact fluorescent 5–55 good 2.700–5.000 5.000–
lamps (FS) 10.000
High-pressure mercury 80–750 fair 3.300–3.800 20.000
lamps (QE)
High-pressure sodium 50–1.000 poor to good 2.000–2.500 6.000–
lamps (S-) 24.000
Incandescent lamps (I) 5–500 good 2.700 1.000–
3.000
Induction lamps (XF) 23–85 good 3.000–4.000 10.000–
60.000
Low-pressure sodium 26–180 monochromatic 1.800 16.000
lamps (LS) yellow colour
Low-voltage tungsten 12–100 good 3.000 2.000–
halogen lamps (HS) 5.000
Metal halide lamps (M-) 35–2.000 good to excellent 3.000–5.000 6.000–
20.000
Tubular fluorescent 4–100 fair to good 2.700–6.500 10.000–
lamps (FD) 15.000
Tungsten halogen lamps 100–2.000 good 3.000 2.000–
(HS) 4.000
LED 0,1 - 500 good to excellent 2.200 – 6.500 >50.000