LAB MANUAL

ME-332 Heat & Mass Transfer Lab (0-1)

Name of Student:
Registration Number:
Degree & Syndicate:

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NUST College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering
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Table of Contents
Safety Guidelines .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Experiment # 1: An actual refrigeration plant ............................................................................................... 4
Experiment # 2: Discharging and charging of a refrigeration system ........................................................... 6
Experiment # 3: Refrigeration cycle ............................................................................................................. 8
Experiment # 4: Motor windings of a Compressor ..................................................................................... 10
Experiment # 5: Shell & tube heat exchanger ............................................................................................. 11
Experiment # 6: Concentric tube heat exchanger ........................................................................................ 13
Experiment # 7: Capacitors ......................................................................................................................... 14
Experiment # 8: Stefan-Boltzmanns law ..................................................................................................... 15
Experiment # 9: Radiation error in temperature measurements.................................................................. 18
Experiment # 10: Thermal conductivity of a rod ........................................................................................ 22
Experiment # 11: Temperature distribution along an extended surface...................................................... 23
Experiment # 12: Heat transfer from an extended surface .......................................................................... 25
Experiment # 13: Thermal conductivity of building materials ................................................................... 26
Experiment # 14: Free convection .............................................................................................................. 30
Experiment # 15: Forced convection .......................................................................................................... 31

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Safety Guidelines
To ensure safe practices in our laboratories, the Department of Mechanical Engineering has adopted the
following guidelines. These guidelines will be consistently enforced, and non-compliance will result in
suspension from the laboratory. We believe that having an understanding of inherent hazards and learning
how to be safe should be an integral and important part of the education processes. All Students must
understand and adhere to the information below:
• Shoes must completely cover the foot.
• Dress properly during all laboratory activities.
• Never work in the laboratory alone, always have a qualified person in the area.
• Wearing devices interfering with hearing are not allowed.
• Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your instructor or
staff. Ask questions if you are unsure of how to operate something.
• Perform only those experiments authorized by the instructor. Never do anything in the laboratory
that is not called for in the laboratory procedures or by your instructor. Carefully follow all
instructions, both written and oral. Unauthorized experiments are prohibited.
• Don’t eat, drink or smoke in the laboratory.
• Please don’t yell, scream, or make any sudden loud noises that could startle others who are
concentrating on their work.
• If any laboratory equipment is malfunctioning, making strange noises, sparking, or smoking, get
an instructor or staff immediately. It is imperative that the instructor or staff knows of any
equipment problems.
• All accidents, no matter how minor, should be reported to the faculty/staff member supervising
the laboratory immediately.
• Avoid using extension cords whenever possible.
• Exercise care when working with or near hydraulically or pneumatically driven equipment.
Sudden or unexpected motion can inflict serious injury.
• Please report any unsafe behavior or condition to the instructor or staff.
• Students are expected to demonstrate mature judgement and common sense in their work and
conduct while working in the laboratory.

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Experiment # 1: An actual refrigeration plant

Objectives:

• To have a basic understanding of the working principle of a Refrigeration cycle.

• Demonstrate Air-Conditioning with an actual large-scale refrigeration plant.

Apparatus:

The E&ME college auditorium and the associated Air-Conditioning plant

Overview:

The chilling stations have a capacity of a 100 Tons. It comprises of 4 x 25 Ton compressors. The
refrigerant used is R-22. The purpose of the refrigeration cycle in the chilling unit is to provide chilled
water. There are 4 important circuits in this setup as per Figure 1:

Figure 1: Schematic of the large-scale Air-Conditioning unit

1. Refrigerant circuit:

It is shown in the blue box in this Figure 1. In the system for the EME auditorium it consists of four huge
compressors of 25 ton each which increase the temperature and pressure of R-22. After which it flows to
the water-cooled condenser where R-22 is cooled to change into liquid form. Then it expands via the
throttling valve after which it finally reaches the evaporator where it absorbs heat and vaporizes.
Simultaneously in the evaporator heat exchanger the water in the third circuit is chilled below its freezing

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temperature. The circuit is completed when the R-22 flows back to the compressor.

2. Cooling circuit:

This circuit is illustrated with the orange color in Figure 1. Its function is to cool the refrigerant R-22 in
the condenser. It extracts heat from the condenser and ejects it into the atmosphere using a big cooling
tower which is of the air-cooled type having huge blowers.

3. Chilled water circuit:

This circuit is illustrated with the blue color in Figure 1. After expanding through the throttling valve, the
refrigerant R-22 enters the evaporators of the chillers. In this heat exchanger it gains heat whilst on the
other side of the heat exchanger it cools water below its freezing temperature. This chilled water is then
driven to the climate changer where it circulates so as to cool the air that is flown across with it.
Eventually the chilled water gains heat and its temperature rises. For re-cooling it then re-circulates into
the evaporators of the chiller unit.

4. Cooled air circuit:

The cooled air that is flown in the ducts is responsible for cooling the auditorium. Cold air is produced
after it is flown across the chilled water tubes in the climate changer by means of a heavy blower. The
cooled air is then distributed via ducts to the desired place in the building. It is then sucked back to the
climate changer via filters which clean this exhaust air.

Procedure:

The following major components along with the four different circuits are to be observed:

1. Chilling unit
2. Compressors
3. Condenser heat exchangers
4. Evaporator heat exchanger
5. Cooling tower
6. Climate changer
7. Pumps/blowers
8. Flow control valves
9. Ducting & piping etc.
10. Fans and motors

Results:

Write a one-page report in your own words about both the technical and physical aspects of the chiller
unit you have witnessed, in your own words. Also sketch by hand a schematic of the setup.

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Experiment # 2: Discharging and charging of a refrigeration

system

Objectives:

• To discharge the refrigerant from a refrigeration system.

• To charge the refrigerant from a refrigeration system.

Apparatus:

Portable charging station, refrigerant cylinder, system to be charged, gauge manifold set, spanner set, leak
detector/soapy water

Overview:

This system can be used to fully service any short a refrigeration system or a leak in it. Firstly, the
refrigeration system is discharged or evacuated in order to get rid of any air or any unwanted fluid in the
system. Then refrigerant is transferred from the cylinder to the refrigerant tube in the charging station and
finally charged into the required system.

Procedure:

Precautions
1. Before starting ensures all service valves of the compressor are open.
2. During the evacuation and filling process disconnect the electrical supply of the system to be
charged.

Firstly, connect one line of the gauge manifold with the charging port of the refrigeration system and the
other line with the cylinder. Open the gauge valve and pressurize the system for leak testing. Test the
joints of the system with the leak detector or soapy water. Keep the pressure between 50 psi to 100 psi for
one or two hours to ensure there is no leakage in the system. Disconnect the line from the cylinder and
open the gauge valve to release the pressure from the system. Connect one side of the gauge with the
system and the other line to the vacuum pump. Use the lower side of the gauge for the vacuum pump.
Start the vacuum pump. When the compound gauge reading is 29.92 Hg the vacuum process is complete.
Turn the vacuum pump "Off" and disconnect the line. Connect the line with refrigerant cylinder for
charging of the refrigerant. Open the cylinder valve and purge down the line with gas pressure. Open the
gauge valve slowly and push in the refrigerant into the system. When the pressure is between 0 psi to 25
psi keep charging the refrigeration system. Check the full load ampere of the system, cooling temperature
and site glass. Ensure that the site glass completely shows liquid form the refrigerant in the system,
required cooling temperature is achieved and the rating current of the system is normal. When charging is
complete and the system is in working condition, turn "Off" the system and disconnect the gauge
manifold from the system. Close the charging port with the service valve or punching tools.

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Results:

Please answer the following questions:

1. What are the indications of a full charged system?
2. What will happen if some atmospheric air is left in the system?
3. What will be the position of the sustain service valve after charging is complete?
4. Why is the system drawing more current than its rated value?
5. Explain the different positions of the suction service valve.

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Experiment # 3: Refrigeration cycle

Objectives:

• To demonstrate and develop an understanding of a refrigeration cycle and its major components.
• To draw a P vs h diagram of a vapor compression refrigeration cycle with different types of
throttling valves (TEV, Capillary tube).

Apparatus:

Refrigeration cycle demonstration unit.

Overview:

Air-Conditioning is described as the control of indoor air so that a desired temperature, humidity,
distribution and movement is achieved. The Refrigeration Cycle Demonstration Unit demonstrates and
investigates a refrigeration cycle used in different residential and industrial applications for Air-
Conditioning. Large-scale Air-Conditioning plants usually consist of a number of separate components
(e.g. fans, filters, heat exchangers. humidifiers, etc.) enclosed in different units. Intake to these plants is
usually from a clean external atmosphere (plus, in some cases, air recalculated from the building) and
delivery from the plant is via ducting to suitable distribution points. Alternatively, small self-contained
packaged units are for individual rooms or enclosures with the following components enclosed in a single
or two units:

• Evaporator
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Expansion Valve
• Refrigerant

A typical refrigeration cycle is shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2: A typical vapor-compression refrigeration cycle

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The cycle begins with the refrigerant in the evaporator which is in liquid form and is used to absorb heat
from the surroundings. When leaving the evaporator, the refrigerant has absorbed a quantity of heat at a
low-pressure and is in vapor form. This low-pressure vapor is then drawn from the evaporator by the
compressor where its pressure rises. This high-temperature, high-pressure vapor then flows from the
compressor to the condenser, where it is cooled by the surrounding air or in some cases by fan assistance.
The vapor within the condenser is cooled only to the point where it becomes a liquid once more. The heat,
which has been absorbed from the refrigerant is then conducted to the outside air. At this stage the liquid
refrigerant is passed through the expansion valve which reduces the pressure of the liquid refrigerant. The
cycle is complete when the refrigerant flows back into the evaporator, from the expansion valve, as a low-
pressure, low-temperature liquid.

Procedure:

1. The refrigeration circuit is charged with refrigerant R134a.

2. A refrigeration cycle is executed in which the vapor formed in the evaporator is drawn into a
hermetic compressor which discharges it into an air-cooled condenser. The R134a liquid then
passes through a flow meter, then enters the receiver and filter. From the filter it is sent back to
the evaporator via an expansion valve or through three capillary tubes of different lengths using
control valves.
3. Pressure at the exit of the evaporator and condenser can directly be found by pressure gauges.
4. Moreover, k-type thermocouples are provided for temperature sensing as well.
5. The flowmeter provides the flow rate in liters or gallons per minute (LPM/GPM). The two fans
with the evaporator and condenser heat exchanges have a fixed sped.

Results:

Complete Table 1 for both types of throttling valves:

Table 1: Results for the analysis of the refrigeration cycle

Evaporator inlet temperature T1/°C

Evaporator outlet temperature T2/°C
Condenser inlet temperature T3/°C
Condenser outlet temperature T4/°C
Evaporator outlet pressure P1/bar
Condenser outlet pressure P3/bar
Evaporator air temperature T5/°C
Condenser air temperature T6/°C
Ambient air temperature T7/°C
R-134a volume flow rate VRef/LPM

Find the COP of the refrigeration cycle and plot the P-h diagram as well.

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Experiment # 4: Motor windings of a compressor

Objectives:

• To check for ground or short motor windings in a compressor using an insulation tester.

Apparatus:

Compressor analyzer, compressor motor, connecting leads, step-down transformer, Ohmmeter.

Overview:

The Air servo M. 8500 hermetic compressor analyzer and electrical tester consist of 7 sections mounted
on a single cabinet, with neck jacks and test cords. Usage of a section alone or together can be done. In
case there is a ground or short motor winding both visual and buzzer indications occur.

Procedure:

Precautions:

a) The compressor should remain off during experiment.

b) While the electrical panel is 'on', avoid touching the ends of the leads as the voltage is high.

1. Remove all the wires from the compressor terminals.

2. Take a step-down transformer and connect it to the mains.
3. Connect the other end of the transformer to the analyzer.
4. If it is a 220 V compressor select the 1000 V range.
5. With the main supply switched off, attach the flexible cord to the panel.
6. Now switch on the mains.
7. Turn the panel switch to 'on' position and note that the pilot light comes ' on'.
8. Now connect one end of the lead to the motor body and the other to any one of the compressor
terminals. If the light glows or buzzer beeps, that winding is short.
9. Repeat this procedure for the remaining two terminals.

Continuity test:

a) Take an ohmmeter, note its zero adjustment, and correct it if required.

b) Connect the leads of the ohmmeter to the two ends of the windings to check for a deflection.
c) If the ohmmeter does not give any deflection, there is a discontinuity in that specific winding.

Results:

a) Which voltage range should be selected to carry a similar test for a domestic refrigerator?
b) Why are high voltages required for insulation testing?
c) How can you detect the three different terminals of the windings?

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Experiment # 5: Shell & tube heat exchanger

Objectives:

• To understand the basics of a shell & tube heat exchanger. Then to study the heat exchanger
under different flowrates and analyze both the hot and cold-water streams at steady states.

Apparatus:

Multi heat exchanger demonstration unit with shell & tube type mounted on it.

Overview:

A heat exchanger is one the most basic components in thermodynamic systems and is used to transfer
heat between two streams of fluid. Primarily there are five types of heat exchangers in this demonstration
unit including:

a) Shell and tube heat exchanger

b) Concentric double pipe heat exchanger
c) Jacketed vessel with coil & stirrer heat exchanger
d) Plate heat exchanger
e) Coil heat exchanger

The shell and tube type are the most common used in the industry in which in this experiment, cold water
enters the shell at room temperature while hot water enters the tubes in co-current directions.

Procedure:

1. Perform the general start-up procedure.

2. Check that all the valves are in co-current position
3. Switch all the valve position in shell & tube type heat exchanger
4. Switch on pump P1 and P2.
5. Adjust the desired flow rate for hot water and cold water with the help of the control valve
6. Allow the system to reach a steady state condition.
7. Note down both flow rate (Q1, Q2) and all the temperature readings.
8. Repeat the experiment with different flowrates.

Results:

Complete Table 2 for three different flowrates:

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Table 2: Results for the analysis of the shell and tube heat exchanger

Hot water Cold water Hot tank Hot water Hot water Cold water Cold water
Q1 in LPM Q2 in LPM T1 °C inlet T2 °C outlet T3 inlet T4 °C outlet
°C T5°C
1
2
3

Find the heat gain of the cold-water stream, heat loss from the hot water stream and the thermal efficiency
of the heat exchanger.

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Experiment # 6: Concentric tube heat exchanger

Objectives:

• To understand the basics of a concentric tube heat exchanger. Then to study the heat exchanger
under different flowrates and analyze both the hot and cold-water streams at steady states.

Apparatus:

Multi heat exchanger demonstration unit with the concentric type mounted on it.

Overview:

A concentric (double pipe) heat exchanger is the simplest form of shell and tube heat exchanger. The
correlation for forced convective heat transfer in conduits can be used to predict the heat transfer
coefficient in the tube.

Procedure:

1. Perform the general start-up procedure as mention in the last experiment

2. Check that all the valves are in co-current position.
3. Switch the valve position to concentric heat exchanger.
4. Switch on pumps P1 and P2.
5. Adjust the desired flowrate for hot the and cold-water streams with the help of the control valve.
6. Allow the system to reach a steady state condition.
7. Note down both flowrates (Q1, Q2) and all the temperature readings.
8. Repeat the experiment with different flowrates.

Results:

Complete Table 3 for three different flowrates:

Table 3: Results for the analysis of the shell and tube heat exchanger

Hot Cold Hot Hot Hot Hot Cold Cold Cold

water water tank T1 water water water water water water
Q1 in Q2 in °C inlet T2 mild T7 outlet inlet T4 mild outlet
LPM LPM °C °C T3 °C °C T6 °C T5°C
1
2
3

Find the heat gain of the cold-water stream, heat loss from the hot water stream and the thermal efficiency
of the heat exchanger. Also determine the heat transfer coefficient of the heat transfer between the
streams.

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Experiment # 7: Capacitors
Objectives:

• Performing a ground / short test of a capacitor.

• Checking the capacitance rating in microfarad (MFD).

Apparatus:

Capacitor analyzer, capacitor to be checked, testing leads, step-down transformer

Overview:

Heat transfer is in many ways similar to electric circuits. This analogy is commonly used in both fields of
study and to comprehend phenomena’s in heat transfer it is easier to visualize the electrical analogy. A
summary of the most important analogies is in Table 4:

Table 4: Analogies between heat transfer and electric circuits

Heat flow Thermal Thermal

Heat transfer Heat flow Temperature
rate capacitance resistance
Electric Electric Electric
Electric circuits Current Voltage
charge capacitance resistance

The thermal capacitance of an object is a measure of how much heat it can store. If an object has thermal
capacitance its temperature will rise as heat flows into the object, and the temperature will lower as heat
flows out. In the thermal analogy, one end of the capacitor is always connected to the constant ambient
temperature. It is much easier to visualize this concept using electric capacitance.

Procedure:

1. Connect the main leads of the analyzer to the 110 v AC supply. Power may be checked by
flashing on the pilot light. Connect the capacitor terminals to the input jacks of the analyzer with
the help of the testing leads. Place the selector switch of the analyzer (which is initially at the
center) to its left position and watch the light.
2. If it does not flash, the capacitor is open. If it flashes brightly and dims down after a few seconds,
the capacitor is functioning and is being charged. If the capacitor is open / short it should be
discarded immediately without carrying further tests.
3. For checking the capacitance of a charged capacitor, select the appropriate scale and place the
selector switch to the right most position and note the MFD rating. Now compare the noted value
with the rated one and if the noted is 20% less than the rated one, discard the capacitor.

Results:

Explain the difference between starting and running a capacitor. What will be the result?
a) If the area of the dielectric is increased.
b) If the area of the plates is increased.

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Experiment # 8: Stefan-Boltzmann’s law

Objectives:

• To verify that the intensity of radiation varies to the fourth power of the source temperature (to
demonstrate the Stefan Boltzmann law).

Apparatus:

Radiant heat transfer unit, radiant heat exchange accessory and heat transfer service unit.

Overview:

The Stefan-Boltzmanns law governs the radiative heat transfer from a black body by the following law:

𝑄𝑏 = 𝜎(𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑎4 )

Where

𝑄𝑏 = Energy emitted by unit area of a black body surface in Wm-2

𝜎 = Stefan Boltzmann constant with a value of 56.7 × 10-9 Wm-2K-4
𝑇𝑠 = Surface temperature of the heated plate in K
𝑇𝑎 = Temperature of the ambient in K

If the distance between the heat source and the radiometer is fixed, then the reading on the radiometer will
be related to the radiation emitted from the plate by a constant factor defined as:

𝑄𝑟
𝐹=
𝑄𝑏

Where

𝑄𝑟 = Radiation received by the radiometer in Wm-2

This factor F should remain constant if the Stefan Boltzmann relation is satisfied that is 𝑄𝑏 is related to
the fourth power of the temperatures.

Procedure:

Precautions:

Before proceeding ensure that the equipment has been prepared as follows:

a) Locate the radiant heat transfer and radiant heat exchange accessory alongside the heat transfer
service unit on a suitable bench.
b) Attach the heated plate to the left and end of the track.
c) Ensure the bracket is located on the dowels then secure it using the thumb screw. Attach the

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radiometer to the right-hand carriage and then fasten it using the thumb screw.
d) Position the carriage with the radiometer at a distance of 900mm from the heated plate.
e) Connect the lead from the radiometer to the socket marked R on the front of the HT10X service
unit.
f) Allow the radiometer to stabilize at room temperature then adjust the zero potentiometer until the
reading on HT10X is zero.
g) Connect the thermocouple on the heated plate to the socket marked T10 on the front of the service
unit.
h) Connect the thermocouple on the polished plate to the socket marked T9 on the front of the
service unit and place it in a suitable location adjacent to the equipment where it will not be
subjected to sources of radiation. The plate will tell us the ambient temperature of the surrounding
𝑇𝑎 .
i) Set the ‘VOLTAGE CONTROL’ potentiometer to minimum (anticlockwise) and the selector
switch to MANUAL then connect the power lead from the heated plate on the HT13 to the socket
marked output 2 at the rear of the service unit.
j) Ensure that the service unit is connected to an electrical supply.

CAUTION: The heat source in this exercise will become extremely hot in operation. Take care not to
burn yourself with the hot surfaces. Then the following steps are to be followed:

1. Switch on the front main switch (if the panel meter does not illuminate check the RCD at the rear
of the service unit, the switch should be up).
2. If operating the equipment remotely from a PC, check that the PC is connected to the
HT10X/HT10XC console via the USB socket. Set the manual/remote selector switch to
REMOTE. Check that the USB indicator lights on the console are both lit and run the HT13
software (if operating the equipment manually using the HT10X/HT10XC console then leave the
selector switch set to manual).
3. Set the Heater Voltage to 4 V. If operating remotely using a PC, then set the heater voltage using
the control box on the software mimic diagram screen. If operating manually from the
HT10X/HT10XC console, adjust the VOLTAGE CONTROL to give a reading of 4 V on the top
meter with the selector switch set to position V.
4. Allow the HT13 to stabilize and monitor the temperature T10 using the lower selector switch.
5. When the temperature of the plate is stable, move the radiometer to a position of 300mm away
from the plate.
6. Allow the radiometer to stabilize for approximately 90 seconds.
7. Monitor the temperature T10 using the lower selector switch and radiometer using the upper
selector switch.
8. Move the radiometer away from the heated plate to the far end of the track (to avoid heating of the
radiometer body).
9. Set the heater voltage to 10 V. Wait for the temperature of the plate T10 to stabilize then move the
radiometer back to the 300mm position.
10. Move the radiometer away from the heated plate to the far end of the track.
11. Repeat the procedure increasing the voltage to the heated plate in steps of 4 V until the heater
voltage is set to 24 V.(the radiometer must be moved away from the heat source and returned to
the 300mm position for each reading to avoid heating of the radiometer body).
12. After taking the last reading move the radiometer to the far end of the track away from the heated
plate and set the heater voltage to zero.

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Results:

Allowing for the experimental error in the measurements and the fact that a small error becomes
significant when raised to the fourth power, this lab should show that the power emitted by the heated
black plate is related to the forth power of the temperature involved and the Stefan Boltzmann Law is
valid. The radiometer correction factor is C which is dimensionless. The visual reading of the radiometer
can simply be multiplied by C to achieve the corrected reading. A calibration factor is supplied with the
radiometer to give improved accuracy of results. After converting the temperature into K Table 5 must be
completed:

Table 5: Radiometer and thermocouple readings

Distance
Temperatur Temperatur Corrected
Heater Heater from the
e of Heated e of radiometer
Voltage Current heated
plate T10 in surrounding reading in
in V in A plate in
K s T9 in K Wm-2
m
1
2
3
4
5
6

Also compute the values of 𝑇𝑠 , 𝑇𝑎 , 𝑄𝑏 and then F. Then answer the following questions:

1. Discuss the cumulative influence of the experimental errors on your calculated values for𝑇𝑠4 , 𝑇𝑎4 ,
𝑄𝑏 and then F.
2. Compare the value obtained for F at different surface temperatures of the heated
black plate and comment on the validity of the Stefan Boltzmann relationship

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Experiment # 9: Radiation error in temperature measurements

Objectives:

• To demonstrate methods for reducing the errors in temperature measurement due to radiation
from a source that is visible to the measurement sensor

Apparatus:

Radiation error equipment as per Figure 3:

Figure 3: Equipment to minimize radiation errors in measurements

Overview:

Radiation heat transfer is concerned with the exchange of thermal radiation energy between two or more
bodies. Thermal radiation is defined as electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of 0.1 to 100
microns (which encompasses the visible light regime) and arises as a result of a temperature difference
between two bodies. No medium needs to exist between the two bodies for heat transfer to take place (as
is needed by conduction and convection). Rather, the intermediaries are photons, which travel at the speed
of light.

The heat transferred into or out of an object by thermal radiation is a function of several components.
These include its surface reflectivity, emissivity, surface area, temperature, and geometric orientation with
respect to other thermally participating objects. In turn, an object's surface reflectivity and emissivity are a
function of its surface conditions (roughness, finish, etc.) and composition.

Temperature is the most commonly measured parameter, yet in many respects it is the least understood. It
is a surprisingly difficult parameter to measure with the precision that one might reasonably expect. In

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this experiment, a temperature sensor is used to accurately measure the temperature of an air stream. In
order to do this, the sensor must stabilize at the same temperature as that of the air stream.

When measuring temperature, errors occur due to temperature gradients, drafts, sensor nonlinearities,
poor thermal contact, calibration drifts, radiant energy, and sensor self-heating. All these factors will
affect the temperature reading giving an imprecise value as highlighted in Figure 4:

Radiation

Conduction to air

Sensor
Figure 4: Illustration on how radiation and other errors affect a temperature sensor

If a source of thermal radiation is visible to the sensor, more or less energy may be absorbed by the sensor
hence the sensor may stabilize at a temperature above or below the temperature of the air depending upon
the temperature of the radiant source.

The magnitude of the difference in the sensor temperature relative to the air stream is based on several
factors:

• The difference in temperature between the sensor and the ambient.

• The air velocity passing the sensor.
• The sensor size.
• The emissivity of the sensor, the surrounding and surrounding radiant source.
• The thermal conductivity of the sensor material and its connecting lead.
• Impurities in the air such as water vapor and dust.

If a suitable shield can be placed between the sensor and possible radiation sources, the error in the
temperature measurement can be reduced. Although the shield will be heated up or cooled down by the
radiation, the temperature achieved by the shield will have less effect on the temperature reading.

Procedure:

The following is a list of the main components of the apparatus:

• Sensor Connections: All sensors are numbered according to their range and type. Make sure that
all sensors used are plugged in the right connection according to the label attached of the
terminal.

• Temperature Selection: To select a particular temperature reading, use the temperature selector
knob and turn it clockwise. The reading should vary from T1 until T12.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• Heater Setting: The heating value is controlled by the Programmable Power Supply that comes
together with the Heat Transfer service Unit HE111-SU. The voltage and current values can be
observed on the digital display of this programmable power supply, and hence power can be
calculated

• Radiation Shield: The shield can be moved upward and downward only. To do that, carefully
loosen the jam screw at the side of the radiation holder, and move it to the desired position, then
tighten the jam screw. At the maximum upward position, the shield is at the top, the sensors are
exposed to the radiation. At the most downward position, the shield will cover the sensors from
radiation.

• Air Velocity: The air velocity can be controlled by adjusting the throttle plate at the blower inlet.

The procedure to start the apparatus is as follows:

1. Ensure that the main switch is off.

2. Connect the heater power lead to the output socket of the Programmable Power Supply and
follow the general operating procedures for the Programmable Power Supply.
3. Ensure that the sensors and the blower have been connected to the service unit.
4. Ensure that the top assembly part has been installed properly.
5. Turn on the main switch. Set the temperature selector knob to T10 to read the surface temperature
of the heated cylinder.
6. If forced convection is to be undertaken, the fan should be turned on. Set the common selector
knob to read the air velocity measurement and adjust the blower throttle plate until the display
shows the desired velocity in the experimental procedures.

The procedure to stop the apparatus is as follows:

1. Follow the general shut down procedure for the Programmable Power Supply and the Heat
Transfer Service Unit HE111-SU.
2. Turn off the electrical supply to the equipment.
3. Disconnect all the wires from the service unit carefully.
4. Store the unit in a safe place.

The procedure to conduct this experiment is as follows:

1. Follow the basic procedure as written in the general startup procedure section.
2. Lift the radiation shield up so that the thermocouples are exposed.
3. Set the velocity as 0.5 m/s.
4. Set T10 as 100 ˚C.
5. When the reading has stabilized, record the temperature readings for T6, T7, T8, and T9.
6. Lower the radiation shield and observe the temperature changes. Record the temperature readings
for T6, T7, T8, and T9 when the readings are stable.
7. Repeat the experiment with the conditions as outlined in Table 6.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Results:

Complete Table 6 for different combinations:

Table 6: Results for the radiation error in temperature sensors

Test Shielding Velocity(m/s) T6 (oC) T7 (oC) T8 (oC) T9 (oC) T10 (oC)

1 0.5 100
Shield
2 3 100
3 0.5 100
4 No shield 3 100
5 0.5 200
Shield
6 3 200
7 0.5 200
No shield
8 3 200
9 0.5 300
10 Shield 3 300
11 0.5 300
12 No shield 3 300

Complete the following tests

• Plot Temperature (°C) vs. Test Number for all temperature readings
• Plot Temperature (°C) vs different velocities for shielding
• Discuss your results and quantify the radiation error

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 NUST COLLEGE OF ELECTRICAL & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment # 10: Thermal conductivity of a rod

Objectives:

• To determine the constant of proportionality (thermal conductivity K) of a rod of a specific

material

Apparatus:

Unit assembly of an extended surface.

Overview:

Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat through solids. The thermal conductivity of a material
determines its ability to transmit heat. It is an essential property of a material in heat transfer analysis.

Procedure:

1. Follow the basic instructions as stated in the standard operating conditions module.
2. Set the supply power of the heater by the Programmable Power Supply to 40 W.
3. Select the temperature selector to T1 and monitor the temperature regularly until the T1 reading
reaches approximately 80°C then reduce the power of the heater to 5 W. This procedure is
required to reduce the time required for the system to reach a stable operating condition.
4. When all readings are stabilized, record T1, T2, T3, T4, T4, T6, T7, T8 and T9.
5. After finishing the experiment, follow the general shut down procedure as stated in the standard
operating conditions module.

Results:

Based on your results fill out Table 7:

Table 7: Results for temperature profile of extended surfaces

Distance
Experiment
1 from T1
number
(m)
Power (W) 5 -
T1 (°C) 0.00
T2 (°C) 0.05
T3 (°C) 0.10
T4 (°C) 0.15
T5 (°C) 0.20
T6 (°C) 0.25
T7 (°C) 0.30
T8 (°C) 0.35
T9 (°C) -

Now calculate the thermal conductivity of the material based on Fourier's law of conduction.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment # 11: Temperature distribution along an extended

surface
Objectives:

• To measure the temperature distribution along an extended surface and comparing the result with
theoretical values

Apparatus:

Unit assembly of an extended surface as per Figure 5:

Figure 5: Unit assembly for an extended surface

Overview:

An extended surface is commonly used in reference to a solid that experiences energy transfer by
conduction within its boundaries, as well as energy transfer by convection between its boundaries and its
surroundings. The extended surface is most often utilized in the removal of heat from a body. In this case,
the extended surface is often referred to as a “fin''. A fin with a cylindrical shape and a high aspect ratio
(length/diameter) is called a pin. Fins are often seen in effective cooling of electrical appliances such as in
a computer power supply or substation transformers. Fins are also used for engine cooling in Internal
Combustion engines.

A pin of length ‘l’, diameter ‘d’, cross sectional ‘a’ and thermal conductivity ‘k’ is heated at one end. It
has a total surface area of ‘As’ and is at ambient temperature ‘Ta’. The analysis of an extended surface
heat transfer assumes steady state, one-dimensional heat conduction (temperature varies only axially and
not radial), uniform convective heat transfer coefficient ‘h’, and constant thermal conductivity, ‘k’.

Procedure:

1. Follow the basic instruction as stated in the standard operating conditions module.
2. Set the supply power to the heater by the Programmable Power Supply to 40 W.
3. Select the temperature selector to read T1 and monitor the temperature regularly until the T1
reading reaches approximately 80oC then reduce the heater voltage to 5 W. This procedure is to
reduce the time required for the system to reach a stable operating condition.
4. When all readings are stabilized, record T1, T2, T3, T4, T4, T6, T7, T8 and T9.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

5. Increase the power control to give 10 W reading. Repeat the monitoring and record the readings
of T1, T2, T3, T4, T4, T6, T7, T8 and T9.
6. After finishing this experiment, follow the general shut down procedure as stated in the standard
operating conditions module.

Results:

Based on your results fill out Table 8:

Table 8: Results for temperature profile of extended surfaces

Distance
Experiment
1 2 from T1
number
(m)
Power (W) 5 10 -
T1 (°C) 0.00
T2 (°C) 0.05
T3 (°C) 0.10
T4 (°C) 0.15
T5 (°C) 0.20
T6 (°C) 0.25
T7 (°C) 0.30
T8 (°C) 0.35
T9 (°C) -

Now calculate the theoretical temperature values and compare them with these experimental results. Find
the percentage error and discuss your results.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment # 12: Heat transfer from an extended surface

Objectives:

• Calculating the heat transfer from an extended surface resulting from the combined modes of
conduction, free convection and radiation heat transfer

Apparatus:

Unit assembly of an extended surface.

Overview:

As per the last experiment the heat transfer from an extended surface is calculated instead of the
temperature profile.

Procedure:

1. Follow the basic instructions as stated in the standard operating conditions.

2. Set the supply power to the heater by the Programmable Power Supply to 40 W.
3. Select the temperature selector to read T1 and monitor the temperature regularly until the T1
reading reaches approximately 80oC then reduce the heater power to 5 W. This procedure is to
reduce the time required for the system to reach a stable operating condition.
4. When all readings are stabilized, record the T1, T2, T3, T4, T4, T6, T7, T8 and T9.
5. After finishing the experiment, follow the general shut down procedure as stated in the standard
operating conditions module.

Results:

Based on your results fill out Table 9:

Table 9: Results for temperature profile of extended surfaces

Distance
Experiment
1 from T1
number
(m)
Power (W) 5 -
T1 (°C) 0.00
T2 (°C) 0.05
T3 (°C) 0.10
T4 (°C) 0.15
T5 (°C) 0.20
T6 (°C) 0.25
T7 (°C) 0.30
T8 (°C) 0.35
T9 (°C) -

Now calculate the heat loss from the fin and compare the results with the experimental heat input.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment # 13: Thermal conductivity of building materials

Objectives:

• To determine the thermal conductivity of different building materials

• To determine the efficiency of an insulating material.

Apparatus:

Building material properties investigation apparatus as per Figure 6:

Figure 6: Apparatus to characterize properties of building materials

Overview:

Energy conservation is becoming increasingly important, and as a consequence, the enhancement of the
thermal efficiency of industrial furnaces used in the production of steel and in other industries is
becoming essential. Heat loss through furnace walls can be effectively reduced by lowering the thermal
conductivity of the refractoriness and the heat insulating materials used for lining the inside of the
furnaces.

This apparatus is capable of finding the thermal conductivity of non-metallic, insulation materials used in
buildings. Thermal conductivity of materials is found to depend on the chemical composition of the
substance or substances of which it is a composed, the phase (i.e. gas, liquid or solid) in which it exists,
its crystalline structure if a solid, the temperature and pressure to which it is subjected, and whether or not
it is a homogeneous material. Thermal energy may be conducted in solids by two modes:

• Lattice Vibration.
• Transport by free electrons

Thermal insulation is also one of the major requirements for various buildings. Ceramic materials having
low thermal conductivity are pervasive as a thermal insulation for an elevated temperature environment.
However, there are generally two types of insulation materials which are to be tested for evaluation of
thermal conductivity; ceramic materials and non-metallic materials (Alumina and ceramic based porous
insulating materials, thermo pore, jumbo lawn, Bakelite, acrylic etc.) These materials can be tested from

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

room temperature to 60°C using a hot wire thermal conductivity measurement equipment. A correlation
has also been developed for the effect of temperature on the thermal conductivity of the above materials.
Thermal conductivity increases with increasing temperature for all insulating materials. Evaluation of the
thermal conductivity value at elevated temperatures defines the use of these materials for various types of
building insulation applications.

The thermal conductivity k is defined as the proportionality constant in the relationship between the
∆𝑄
thermal flux ∆𝑇 that crosses the sample and the temperature difference between the sample's two sides.
The apparatus in this experiment determines the thermal conductivity k of a building material sample of
thickness x and surface A by measuring the temperature difference ∆T and the thermal flux directly as per
the following equation:

∆𝑄 𝐴 ∆𝑄 𝑥 1
= 𝑘 ∆𝑇 ==> 𝑘 =
∆𝑇 𝑥 ∆𝑇 𝐴 ∆𝑇

It is important for the measurement that the thermal flux crosses the building material sample
homogenously and that no heat disappears by other ways. To ensure this for the heat flux through the
building material sample, the apparatus is electrically heated from the inside and cooling water is
circulating continuously on the other side.

In the thermal equilibrium, i.e. in stationary condition, in which the temperature is constant over time at
every point, the electric power P exactly matches the thermal flux as follows:

∆𝑄
= 𝑃 ==> 𝑃. 𝑡 = 𝑊 = 𝑄
∆𝑇

i.e. the inserted electrical energy W is equal to the thermal energy Q flowing through the building
material sample. The thermal conductivity k of the sample's material thus results in:

𝑥 1
𝑘= 𝑃
𝐴 ∆𝑇

Carefully perform the experiment, as it needs sone time to stabilize, with the cooling water. If the
experiment does not achieve the steady state condition then the correct thermal conductivity can be
calculated as follows:
𝑥 1
𝑘̃ = 𝑃 𝑜𝑟 𝑘̃ = 𝑘
𝐴 ∆𝑇

Then,
𝐴 𝑃
𝑄̃ = 𝑘̃ ∆𝑇 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘̃ = 𝑘
𝑥 𝑄

To determine the thermal efficiency of the insulating material, the heat loss, has to be calculated as
follows:

𝐴
𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 ∆𝑇
𝑥
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃 − 𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
%𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝑃
𝑃
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 =
𝐴

Procedure:

A heat flux sensor is installed to measure the direct flux passing through the insulating material. Details
about the sensor are as follows:

Thickness of the sensor plate = 0.3mm

Width of the sensor plate = 100mm
Breadth of the sensor plate = 100mm

To calculate the heat flux, the following points are to be followed:

1. Note down the heat flux reading.

2. Divide the reading with 0.002; this is the calibration factor of the sensor plate.
3. The result is the heat flux, but it is in watts per square meter.
4. Multiply the answer with the surface area of the sensor plate to get the required W/m2 for the
sensor plate

Following this the following procedure is needed to execute this experiment:

1. Connect the equipment to the power supply

2. Connect the cooling water supply
3. Connect the air compressor to the up/down valve
4. Turn ON the main power button
5. Remove the cover from the front of the test section
6. Insert the heat flux sensor into the test chamber
7. Insert the required insulating material
8. Move the valve towards the UP position
9. Turn On the heater power button.
10. Adjust the power input to the required value
11. Allow sufficient time to attain steady state
12. Note down all the temperatures
13. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs and different materials

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Results:

Note down the material, measure its dimensions and fill in Table 10:

Table 10: Measurements for the thermal conductivity of insulation materials

Cooling Cooling
water inlet water
Hot plate Cold plate outlet
temperatur temperatur temperatur
e temperatu Heat Flux Power
e TH e TC re
Tin
Tout
1
2
3
4
5

Compute the thermal conductivity, Qabsorbed, Qlost, percentage insulation, sensor plate reading and heat flux
for all the different materials and complete the following tasks:

1. Draw a graph between Thermal conductivity k vs the heat input

2. Draw a graph between Thermal conductivity k vs ΔT
3. Discuss the results and compare the theoretical answers with actual values from the
manufacturers datasheet

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment # 14: Free convection

Objectives:

• To find the coefficient of heat transfer for free convection in fins, pins & flat surfaces.

Apparatus:

Free convection apparatus, pins specimen, fins specimen & flat plate specimen.

Overview:

A heated surface dissipates heat primarily through a process called convection. Heat is also dissipated by
conduction and radiation; however, these effects are not considered in this experiment. Air in contact with
the hot surface is heated by the surface and rises due to a reduction in density. The heated air is replaced
by cooler air which is in turn is also heated by the surface and rises. This process repeats and is called free
convection heat transfer. The hotter the temperature of the surface, the greater the convective currents and
more heat (power) will be dissipated. If more power is supplied to a surface, the temperature of the
surface must rise to dissipate this power.

Procedure:

1. Connect the mains input power supply plug to the nearest single-phase electrical supply of
240VAC/50Hz.
2. Turn the heat power control knob and fan speed control knob fully in the anti-clockwise direction.
3. Connect the fan supply lead to the socket at the side of the control panel.
4. Connect the temperature probe lead to the socket beneath the control panel.
5. Connect the plate temperature connector to the socket on the heat exchanger.
6. Ensure that the sensor hole is aligned with the direction of the airflow when inserting the probe
through the wall of the duct.
7. Measure the ambient temperature denoted by TA in °C.

Results:

Based on your results fill out Table 11:

Table 11: Results for temperature profile for free convection

Input power/W Plate temperature TH-TA/°C

(TH)/°C
20
40
60
80

Plot Input Power vs TH-TA and compute the heat transfer coefficient.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Experiment # 15: Forced convection

Objectives:

• To find the coefficient of heat transfer for forced convection in fins, pins & flat surfaces.

Apparatus:

Forced convection apparatus, pins specimen, fins specimen & flat plate specimen.

Overview:

In free convection the heat transfer rate from the surface is limited by the small movements of air
generated by this heat. More heat is transferred if the air velocity is increased over the heated surface.
This process of assisting the movement of air over the heated surface is called forced convection.
Therefore, a heated surface experiencing forced convection will have a lower surface temperature than
that of the same surface in free convection, for the same power input.

Procedure:

1. Place the fan assembly on to the top of the duct.

2. Place the finned heat exchanger into the duct.
3. Note the ambient air temperature (TA).
4. Set the heater power control to 50 W (clockwise direction). Allow sufficient time to achieve
steady state conditions before noting the heated plate temperature (TH).
5. Set the fan speed control to give a reading of 0.5m/s on the thermal anemometer, allow sufficient
time to achieve steady state conditions. Record heated plate temperature.
6. Repeat this procedure for fan speeds of 1.0m/s, 1.5 and 2m/s.

Results

Fill out Table 12 with two power input values:

Table 12: Results for temperature profile for free convection

Air velocity/ms-1 Plate temperature (TH)/°C TH-TA/°C

Input power __ W Input power __ W Input power __ W Input power __ W
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0

Plot for both input powers the Air Velocity vs TH-TA and compute the heat transfer coefficient.

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