Notes-04 2021-04-15

UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND, JOHANNESBURG
ELEN2021 : Microprocessors
Digital Logic and Design
Chabalala Chabalala
2021
Combinational Logic Design
Sections: 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.7
Page 2
In the previous lecture …
• Rules of combinational logic.
• Boolean equations.
• Boolean algebra.
Page 3
Summary of points from the previous lecture…
• Rules of combinational logic, whereby the output depends

only on the current values of inputs.
• Described how to derive Boolean equations for logic

functions from any truth table.
• Any Boolean function can be described by a truth table, or

equivalently, in terms of AND/OR/NOT operations.
• The Axioms and theorems of Boolean Algebra, which can

be applied to simplify digital circuits.
Page 4
In this lecture …
• Boolean Algebra of Several Variables.
• De Morgan’s Theorem.
• Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps).
Page 5
Boolean Theorems of Several Variables
Number Theorem Name

T6 B•C = C•B Commutativity
T7 (B•C) • D = B • (C • D) Associativity
T8 B • (C + D) = (B•C) + (B•D) Distributivity
T9 B• (B+C) = B Covering
T10 (B•C) + (B•C) = B Combining
T11 (B•C) + (B•D) + (C•D) = Consensus
(B•C) + (B•D)
Page 6
Boolean Theorems of Several Variables
Number Theorem Name

T6 B•C = C•B Commutativity
T7 (B•C) • D = B • (C • D) Associativity
T8 B • (C + D) = (B•C) + (B•D) Distributivity
T11 (B•C) + (B•D) + (C•D) = Consensus
(B•C) + (B•D)
How do we prove these are true?
Page 7
How to Prove
• Method 1 → Prove by Induction:
- This is also called: proof by exhaustion, check every
possible input value.
- If two expressions produce the same value for every
possible input combination, the expressions are equal.
• Method 2 → Theorems and Axioms:

- Use other theorems and axioms to simplify equations.
- Make one side of the equation look like the other.
Page 8
Example: Method 1 - Proof by Induction
Number Theorem Name

B C (B+C) B(B+C)
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Page 9
Number Theorem Name

B C (B+C) B(B+C)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
Page 10
Number Theorem Name

B C (B+C) B(B+C)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
Page 11
Example: Method 2 - Theorems and Axioms
Number Theorem Name

• Prove true using other axioms and theorems:

B•(B+C) = B•B + B•C T8: Distributivity
= B + B•C T3: Idempotency
= B•(1 + C) T8: Distributivity
= B•(1) T2: Null element
=B T1: Identity
Page 12
Example: Method 2 - Theorems and Axioms
Number Theorem Name

Prove true using other axioms and theorems:

B•C + B•C = B•(C+C) T8: Distributivity
= B•(1) T5’: Complements
=B T1: Identity
Page 13
Boolean Theorem of Several Variables: Dual
# Theorem Dual Name

T6 B•C = C•B B+C = C+B Commutativity
T7 (B•C) • D = B • (C•D) (B + C) + D = B + (C + D) Associativity
T8 B • (C + D) = (B•C) + (B•D) B + (C•D) = (B+C) (B+D) Distributivity
T9 B • (B+C) = B B + (B•C) = B Covering
T10 (B•C) + (B•C) = B (B+C) • (B+C) = B Combining
T11 (B•C) + (B•D) + (C•D) = (B+C) • (B+D) • (C+D) = Consensus
(B•C) + (B•D) (B+C) • (B+D)
Dual: Replace: • with +

0 with 1
Page 14
Simplifying Boolean Equations
• Axioms and theorems are useful for simplifying

Boolean functions/equations.
• Reducing an equation to the fewest number of
implicants, where each implicant has the fewest
literals. Recall:
– Literal: variable or its complement: A, A, B, B, C, C
– Implicant: product of literals: ABC, AC, BC
• This is also called minimizing the equation.
– Example: Y = PA + PA → P
Page 15
Simplifying Boolean Equations
• Example 1
Y= AB + AB
= A(B + B) T8: Distributivity
= A(1) T5’: Complements
= A T1: Identity
• Example 2
Y= A(AB + ABC)
= A(AB(1 + C)) T8: Distributivity
= A(AB(1)) T2’: Null Element
= A(AB) T1: Identity
= (AA)B T7: Associativity
= AB T3: Idempotency
Page 16
Review: SOP and POS Form

• SOP – sum-of-products
O C E minterm
0 0 0 O C
0 1 0 O C E = OC
1 0 1 O C = Σ(2)
1 1 0 O C
• POS – product-of-sums
O C E maxterm
0 0 0 O + C E = (O + C)(O + C)(O + C)
0 1 0 O + C
1 0 1 O + C = Π(0, 1, 3)
1 1 0 O + C
Page 17
SOP Form: Multiplying Out

• An expression is in sum-of-products (SOP) form
when all products contain literals only.
- SOP form: Y = AB + BC + DE
- NOT SOP form: Y = DF + E(A+B)
- SOP form: Z = A + BC + D E F
• Example: Y = (A + C + D + E)(A + B)
Y = AA+AB+AC+BC+AD+BD+AE+BE T8: Distributivity
= A+AB+AC+AD+AE+BC+BD+BE T3: Idempotency
= A + BC + BD + BE T9’: Covering
Page 18
POS Form: Factoring Out

• An expression is in product-of-sums (POS) form
when all sums contain literals only.
- POS form: Y = (A+B)(C+D)(E+F)
- NOT POS form: Y = (D+E)(F+GH)
- POS form: Z = A(B+C)(D+E)
• Example: Y = (A + BCDE)
Apply T8’ first when possible: W+XZ = (W+X)(W+Z)
Make: X = BC, Z = DE and rewrite equation
Y = (A+XZ) substitution (X= BC, Z=DE)
= (A+ BC)(A+DE) T8’: Distributivity
= (A+ B)(A+C)(A+D)(A+E) T8’: Distributivity
Page 19
De Morgan’s Theorem
Number Theorem Name

T12 B0 • B1 • B2 … = B0+B1+B2… DeMorgan’s
Theorem
The complement of the product

is the
sum of the complements
Page 20
De Morgan’s Theorem: Dual
# Theorem Dual Name

T12 B0 • B1 • B2… = B0 + B1 + B2… DeMorgan’s
B0+B1+B2… = B0•B1•B2… Theorem
The complement of the product

is the
sum of the complements.
Dual: The complement of the sum

is the
product of the complements.
Page 21
DeMorgan’s Theorem
• Y = AB = A + B → A
B
Y
A
Y
B
• Y=A+B=A B → A
B
Y
A
Y
B
Page 22
DeMorgan’s Theorem - Example
Y = (ACE+D) + B
= (ACE+D) • B
= (ACE•D) • B
= ((AC+E)•D) • B
= ((AC+E)•D) • B
= (ACD + DE) • B
= ABCD + BDE
Page 23
DeMorgan’s Theorem – Bubble Pushing

• Backward:
– Body changes
– Adds bubbles to inputs
A A
Y Y
B B
• Forward:
– Body changes
– Adds bubble to output
A A
Y Y
B B
Page 24
DeMorgan’s Theorem – Bubble Pushing Rules
• Begin at output, then work toward inputs.

• Push bubbles on final output back.
• Draw gates in a form so bubbles cancel.
A
B
C Y
D
Page 25
DeMorgan’s Theorem – Bubble Pushing Example
• What is the Boolean expression for this circuit?
A
B
C Y
D
Page 26

no output
A bubble
B
C Y
D
Page 27

no output
A bubble
B
C Y
D
bubble on
A input and output
B
C Y
D
Page 28

no output
A bubble
B
C Y
D
bubble on
A input and output
B
C Y
D
no bubble on
input and output
A
B
C Y
D
Y = ABC + D
Page 29
From Logic to Gates: Sum-of-Products Schematic
• Two-level logic: ANDs followed by ORs

• Example: Y = ABC + ABC + ABC
A B C
A B C
minterm: ABC
minterm: ABC
minterm: ABC
Page 30
Circuit Schematic Rules
• Inputs on the left (or top),
• Outputs on right (or bottom),
• Gates flow from left to right,
• Straight wires are best.
Page 31
Circuit Schematic Rules…

• Wires always connect at a T junction,
• A dot where wires cross indicates a connection
between the wires.
• Wires crossing without a dot make no connection.
wires crossing
wires connect wires connect without a dot do
at a T junction at a dot not connect
Page 32
Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps)
• Boolean expressions can be minimized by combining

terms, K-maps make the combination easy.
• K-maps minimize equations graphically.
• For example, eliminate A → Y = PA + PA = P
A B C Y Y Y
AB AB
0 0 0 1
00 01 11 10 C 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 1 C
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ABC ABC ABC ABC
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 ABC ABC ABC ABC
1 1 1 0
Page 33
K-Map
• Circle 1’s in adjacent squares
• In Boolean expression, include only literals
whose true and complement form are not in the
circle
Y
A B C Y AB
0 0 0 1 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 1 C
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0
Y = 𝑨𝑩
Page 34
Exercise: 3 Input K-Map

Y
AB
C 00 01 11 10
0 ABC ABC ABC ABC
1 ABC ABC ABC ABC
Truth Table K-Map

Y
A B C Y AB
0 0 0 0 C 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
Page 35
K-Map Definitions
• Complement: variable with a bar over it

A, B, C,
• Literal: variable or its complement
A, A, B, B, C, C
• Implicant: product of literals
ABC, AC, BC
• Prime implicant: implicant corresponding to the
largest circle in a K-map
Page 36
K-Map Rules
• Every 1 must be circled at least once,
• Each circle must span a power of 2 (i.e. 1, 2, 4)

squares in each direction,
• Each circle must be as large as possible,
• A circle may wrap around the edges,
• A “don't care” (X) is circled only if it helps minimize

the equation.
Page 37
4-Input K-Map
A B C D Y Y
0 0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 0 1 0 CD 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 00
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 01
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 11
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 10
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0
Page 38
4-Input K-Map
A B C D Y Y
0 0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 0 1 0 CD 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 00 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 01 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 11 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 10 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0
Page 39
4-Input K-Map
A B C D Y Y
0 0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 0 1 0 CD 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 00 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 01 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 11 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 10 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 Y = AC + ABD + ABC + BD
Page 40
Summary
• Boolean equations can be simplified using the rules of
Boolean algebra or K-maps.
• K-maps are a graphical tool for simplifying Boolean

equations, usually used with up to four variables.
• Logic simplification helps towards finding low-cost method

of implementing logic functions.
• With practice, designers can simplify functions with few

variables by inspection, and use computer–aided design
tools for more complicated logic functions.
Page 41
Next Lecture: Thursday 22 April 2021 @ 12h30
• K-maps with Don’t care States.
• Selected combinational logic circuits.
Page 42
Thank you!
Page 43

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UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND, JOHANNESBURG

Combinational Logic Design

Sections: 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.7

In the previous lecture …

• Rules of combinational logic.

Summary of points from the previous lecture…

• Rules of combinational logic, whereby the output depends

• Described how to derive Boolean equations for logic

• Any Boolean function can be described by a truth table, or

• The Axioms and theorems of Boolean Algebra, which can

• Boolean Algebra of Several Variables.

• Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps).

Boolean Theorems of Several Variables

Number Theorem Name

Boolean Theorems of Several Variables

Number Theorem Name

• Method 2 → Theorems and Axioms:

Example: Method 1 - Proof by Induction

Number Theorem Name

Example: Method 1 - Proof by Induction

Number Theorem Name

Example: Method 1 - Proof by Induction

Number Theorem Name

Example: Method 2 - Theorems and Axioms

Number Theorem Name

• Prove true using other axioms and theorems:

Example: Method 2 - Theorems and Axioms

Number Theorem Name

Prove true using other axioms and theorems:

Boolean Theorem of Several Variables: Dual

# Theorem Dual Name

Dual: Replace: • with +

Simplifying Boolean Equations

• Axioms and theorems are useful for simplifying

Simplifying Boolean Equations

Review: SOP and POS Form

SOP Form: Multiplying Out

POS Form: Factoring Out

Number Theorem Name

The complement of the product

De Morgan’s Theorem: Dual

# Theorem Dual Name

The complement of the product

Dual: The complement of the sum

DeMorgan’s Theorem - Example

DeMorgan’s Theorem – Bubble Pushing

DeMorgan’s Theorem – Bubble Pushing Rules

• Begin at output, then work toward inputs.

DeMorgan’s Theorem – Bubble Pushing Example

• What is the Boolean expression for this circuit?

DeMorgan’s Theorem – Bubble Pushing Example

DeMorgan’s Theorem – Bubble Pushing Example

DeMorgan’s Theorem – Bubble Pushing Example

From Logic to Gates: Sum-of-Products Schematic

• Two-level logic: ANDs followed by ORs

Circuit Schematic Rules

• Inputs on the left (or top),

• Outputs on right (or bottom),

• Gates flow from left to right,

• Straight wires are best.

Circuit Schematic Rules…

Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps)

• Boolean expressions can be minimized by combining