DC Chopper

Prepared by
Dr. Mohammad Abdul Mannan
Assistant Professor, Department of EEE
American International University - Bangladesh
Definitions:
The power electronic circuit which converts directly from dc to dc is
called
ll d dc-to-dc
d t d converter
t or dc-chopper.
d h

Chopper is a dc to dc transformer:
Th input
The i t dc
d voltage
lt can be
b increased
i d (step-up)
(t ) or decreased
d d (step-down)
(t d )
in output side so a dc chopper circuit can be considered as dc equivalent
to an transformer.

Applications of Chopper:
Traction motor control in electrical automobiles; Battery operated
vehicles; Control of dc motors; Control of induction motors; Trolley cars;
Marine hoists; Forklift trucks; Mine haulers; Switching mode regulator

Using Semiconductor Devices in Chopper:

(1) Power BJT,
(2) Power MOSFET,
(3) GTO, or
(4) Forced-commutated thyristor.
Principle of Step-Down Operation with Resistive Load
W e sw
When switch
c SW iss cclosed
osed for
o a timee t1 (o
(or ton), thee input
pu vo
voltage
ge Vs appears
ppe s
across the load.
If the switch remains off for a time t2 (or toff), the voltage across the load is
zero.
Let, vch (in ideal this value is zero) is the voltage drop across the switch when
the switch remains on.
The average output voltage is given by:
t t
1 1
Va = ∫ vodt = 1(Vs −v ) = ft (Vs −v ) = k(Vs −v )
T0 T ch 1 ch ch
 Va k (Vs − vch)
The average output voltage is given by:
Ia = =
R R
Where, T is the chopping period, t1 (or ton) is on-time, t2 (or toff) is off-time, k
= t1/T =f/T is duty-cycle, and f = 1/T is the chopping frequency.
Thus,, t1 ((or ton) = kT;; and t2 ((or toff) = ((1- k)T;
) ;

k is varied from 0 to 1. Therefore, the output voltage Vo can be varied from 0

to Vs by controlling k, and the power flow can be controlled.

The average t t
1 1 2
output voltage is Vo = T ∫ vo dt = T1 (Vs − vch) = ft (Vs − v ) = k (Vs − v )
1 ch ch
given by: 0
kT kT v 2 (V s − v )2
The output power is given by : Po = 1 ∫ voidt = 1 ∫ o idt = k ch
T 0 T 0 R R

1 kT 1 kT vo Vs (Vs − v )
The input power is given by : P = ∫ Vsidt = Vs ∫ dt = k ch
i T T 0 R R
0
If the chopper is lossless then Pi is equal to Po [i.e. Pi = Po] and vch = 0.
 Po ⎡⎢ vch ⎤⎥
The efficiency is given by : η = = ⎢1− ⎥
P ⎢⎣ Vs ⎥⎦
i
The effective input resistance is given R = (Vs − vch) = (Vs − vch) = R
by : i Ia k (Vs − v ) / R k
ch

Control of Duty Cycle of Step-Down Chopper

The duty cycle k can be controlled by the following two ways: (i) Constant-
Constant
Frequency Operation, and (ii) Variable-Frequency Operation

Constant-Frequency Operation: The

chopping frequency f (or chopping period
T) is kept constant and the on on-time
time t1 is
varied. The width of the pulse is varied
and this type of control is known as pulse-
width-modulation (PWM) control.
 Variable-Frequency Operation: The chopping frequency f (or chopping
period T) is variable and the on-time t1 or off-time t2 is kept constant. This
is called frequency modulation.
modulation
Disadvantages of frequency modulation control strategy compared to pulse-
width modulation control:
(i) Filter design for wide frequency variation is quite difficult.
difficult
(ii) There is a possibility of interference with signaling and telephone lines in
frequency modulation techniques due to the wide variation of frequency.
((iii)) The large
g off time in frequency
q y modulation technique
q may y make the load
current discontinuous, which is undesirable.
Thus, the Pulse Width Modulation (constant frequency) system is the preferred
scheme for chopper drives.
 Principle of Step-UP Operation
When switch
Wh it h SW is
i closed
l d for
f a time
ti t1, the
th inductor
i d t currentt rises
i and
d energy
is stored in inductor L.
If switch is opened for a time t2, the energy stored in the inductor is
transferred to load through D1 and the inductor current falls.

When the chopper is turned-on, the voltage across the inductor is: v = L di
L dt
Assuming that the load current rises linearly from I1 to I2, and V
this gives the peak-to-peak ripple current [∆I= I2-I1] in the ∆I = s t
L 1
inductor as:
⎛ t1 ⎞⎟
The instantaneous output voltage is: ∆
vo =Vs + L t =Vs ⎜1+t ⎟ =Vs 1
I ⎜

2 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 1−k
If a large capacitor CL is connected across the load as shown by dashed lines
in Fig. 9-4(a), the output voltage will be continuous and vo would become the
average value Va.
It is seen from above equation that the voltage across the load can be stepped
up varying the duty cycle k, and the minimum output voltage is Vs when k = 0.
However the chopper cannot be switched on continuously such that k
However, k=11.
For values of k tending to unity, the output voltage becomes very large and is
very sensitive to changes in k, as shown in Fig. 9-4(c).

⎛ t1 ⎞⎟
∆
vo =Vs + L t =Vs ⎜1+t ⎟ =Vs 1
I ⎜

2 ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 1−k

Fig.
g 9-4(c).
( )
Energy Transfer Between Two Sources Using Chopper
The step-up principle can be applied to transfer energy from one voltage
source to
t another
th as shown
h i Fig.
in Fi 9-5(a).
9 5( )
The equivalent circuits for the mode of operation are shown in Fig. 9-5(b)
and the current waveforms in Fig. 9-5(c).
di
The inductor voltage for mode 1 is given by: Vs = L 1
dt
V
The current expression
p is g
given as: i (t) = s t + I (9.25)
1 L 1
Where I1 is the initial current for mode 1.
During mode 1, the current must rise and the di
necessary condition:
1 > 0 or V > 0
dt s
di
The current for mode 2 is given by: Vs = L 2 + E
dt
 V −E
The solution of the above equation is: i (t) = s t+I
2 L 2
Where I2 is the initial current for mode 2.
2
For the stable system, the current must fall di
2 <0 or Vs < E
and the condition is: dt
If this
hi condition
di i isi not satisfied,
i fi d the
h inductor
i d current would
ld continue
i to
rise and an unstable situation would occur.
The conditions for controllable power transfer are : 0 <Vs < E (9.27)
Eq. (9.27) indicates that the source voltage Vs must be less than the voltage
E to permit transfer of power from a fixed (or variable) source to a fixed dc
voltage.
When the chopper is turned on, the energy is transferred from the voltage
source Vs to inductor L.
If the chopper is then turned off, a magnitude of the energy stored in the
inductor is forced to battery E.

Without the chopping action,

Vs must be greater than E
for transfer power from Vs to
E.
 Performance Parameters
The power semiconductor devices require a minimum time to turn on and
turn off. Therefore, the duty cycle k can only be controlled between a
minimum value kmin and a maximum value kmax thereby limiting the
minimum and maximum value of output p voltage.
g
The switching frequency of the chopper is also limited. The load ripple
current depends inversely on the chopping frequency.
The frequency should be as high as possible to reduce the load ripple current
and to minimize the size of any additional series inductor in the load circuit.

Switchingg Mode Regulators

g [[Flyback
y Converters]]
The dc chopper which is used to control a unregulated dc voltage to a
regulated output voltage is called switching mode regulator.
Th regulation
The l i i normally
is ll achieved
hi d by b pulse-width-modulation
l id h d l i at a fixed
fi d
frequency and the switching device is normally a power BJT or IGBT.
The output of dc choppers with resistive load is discontinuous and contains
harmonics The ripple content is normally reduced by an LC filter.
harmonics. filter
The elements of switching-mode regulator are shown in Fig. 9-11(a).
An oscillator consisting of R, C and L is needed to generate the reference
voltage vr. The frequency is selected by choosing R and C. The core loss of
inductors limits the high-frequency operation.
The transistor switching loss increases with the switching frequency and as a
result the efficiency
y decreases.
As rule of thumb, to maximize the efficiency, the minimum oscillator period
should be about 100 times longer than the transistor switching time.
Control voltage ve is obtained by comparing the output voltage with its
desired value.
vc can be compared with a sawtooth voltage vr to generate the PWM control
signal as shown in Fig. 9.11 (b) for the dc chopper.
 Classification of Switching Mode Regulators
There are four basic topologies of switching regulators:
1 Buck regulators,
1. regulators
2. Boost regulators,
3. Buck-Boost regulators, and
4. Cuk regulators
Buck Regulators
In a buck regulator, the average output voltage Va, is less than the input
voltage Vs ⎯ hence the name “buck,” a very popular regulator.
The circuit diagram of a buck regulator using a power BJT is shown in Fig.
9-12(a), and this is like a step-down chopper.

Fig. 9-12 (a) Circuit Diagram of Buck

Regulator.
 Circuit Operation of a Buck Regulator
The circuit operation can be divided into two modes.
M d 1 begins
Mode b i when h Q1 is i switched
it h d on att t = 0.0 The
Th input
i t current,
t which
hi h
rises, flows through the filter inductor L, filter capacitor C, and load
resistor R.
M d 2 begins
Mode b i when h Q1 is i switched
it h d off
ff att t = t2.
The freewheeling diode Dm conducts due to
energy stored in the inductor and the
inductor current continues to flow through
the filter inductor L, filter capacitor C, load
resistor R and diode Dm.

The inductor current falls until Q1 is switched on

again in the next cycle.
The waveforms for the voltages and currents are shown in Fig. 9-12(c) for a
continuous current flow in the inductor L.
Depending on the switching frequency,
frequency filter inductance,
inductance filter capacitance,
capacitance
the inductor current could be discontinuous.

The voltage across the inductor L is:

e = L di
L dt

Assuming that the load current rises

linearly from I1 to I2, in time t1:
I −I
Vs −Va = L 2t 1 = L ∆t I (9.30)
1 1

Where ∆I= I2-I1 is the peak-to-peak ripple

current.
I −I
t = L 2 1 = L∆I (9.31)
1 Vs −Va Vs −Va
Assuming that the load current falls linearly from I2 to I1, in time t2:
I −I
−Va = L 1t 2 = −L ∆ I (9.32) t = L∆I (9.33)
t 2 Va
2 2
Equation Eqs. (9.30) and (9.32) and
t
substituting t1=kT
kT and t2=(1-k)T
(1 k)T , the average Va = 1Vs = kVs (9.34)
output voltage is obtain as follows: T

Assuming a lossless circuit, VsIs = VaIa = kVsIa and the

average input current : I s = kIa (9.35)

The switching period T can be expressed as [(9.31)+(9.33)]:

LVs∆I
T = t + t = L∆I + L∆I = (9.36)
1 2 Vs −Va Va (Vs −Va )Va

The peak-to-peak ripple current of inductor is.

(Vs −Va )Va Vsk (1− k )

∆I = = (9.38)
fLVs fL
 Using KCL, we can write the inductor current iL as: iL = ic + io

pp ∆io is very
If we assume that the load ripple y small and negligible,
g g , ∆iL =
∆ic. The average capacitor current, which flows into for (T/2)=(t1/2)+(t2/2)
is Ic = ∆I/4

The capacitor
Th i voltage
l and
d the
h peak-to-peak
k k ripple
i l voltage
l off the
h capacitor
i
are expressed as: 1
vc = ∫ icdt + vc (t = 0)
C
∆Vc = vc − vc (t = 0) = 1 ∫0T / 2 ∆I dt = ∆IT = ∆I (9.39)
C 4 8C 8Cf
The buck regulator requires only one BJT, is simple, and has high efficiency
greater than 90%.
The di/dt of the load current is limited by inductor L. However, the input
current is discontinuous and a smoothing input filter is normally required.
It provides one polarity of output voltage and unidirectional output current.
It requires a protection circuit in case of possible short-circuit across the
diode path.

Example
E l 9.4
94
Example 5.5
 Boost Regulators
In a boost regulator, the average output voltage Va, is greater than the
i
inputt voltage
lt Vs, hence
h th name “boost,”.
the “b t ”
The circuit diagram of a buck regulator using a power MOSFET is shown
in Fig. 9-13(a), and this is like a step-up chopper.
The circuit operation can be divided into two modes.
modes
Mode 1 begins when M1 is switched on at t = 0. The input current, which
rises, flows through the inductor L, and M1.
Mode 2 begins when M1 is switched off at t = t2. The freewheeling diode Dm
conducts due to energy stored in the inductor and the inductor current
continues to flow through the filter inductor L, filter capacitor C, load and
diode Dm. The inductor current falls until M1 is switched on again in the
next cycle. The energy stored in the inductor L is transferred to the load.
The waveforms for the voltages and currents are shown in Fig. 9-13(c) for a
continuous current flow in the inductor L.
D
Depending
di on the
th switching
it hi frequency,
f filt inductance,
filter i d t filt capacitance,
filter it
the inductor current could be discontinuous.

Assuming that the load current rises linearly from I1 to I2, in time t1:
I −I
Vs = L 2t 1 = L ∆t I (9.42)
1 1
I − I L∆I
t =L 2 1= (9.43)
1 Vs Vs

Assuming that the load current falls Vs −Va = −L ∆

t
I (9.44)
linearly from I2 to I1, in time t2: 2
Vs −Va = −L ∆
t
I (9.44)
t = L∆I (9.45)
2 2 Va −Vs
t = L∆I (9.45)
2 Va −Vs
Equation Eqs. (9.42) and (9.44) and substituting t1=kT and t2=(1-k)T , the
average output voltage is obtain as follows: V
Va = tT Vs = s (9.46)
2 1− k
Assuming a lossless circuit, VsIs = VaIa = (VsIa)/(1-k) and I
th average input
the i t currentt :
Is = a (9.47)
1− k
LVa∆I
The switching period T can T = t + t = L∆I + L∆I = (9.48)
be expressed as:
1 2 Vs Vs −Va (Vs −Va )Vs

The peak-to-peak ripple current of (Va −Vs )Vs Vsk

inductor is:
∆I = = (9 − 50)
fLVa fL
When the MOSFET is on, the capacitor supplies the load current for t = t1.
The average capacitor current during time t1 is Ic = Ia and the peak-to-peak
ripple voltage of the capacitor is
1 t 1 t Iat
∆Vc = vc − vc (t = 0) = ∫ 1Icdt = ∫ 1Iadt = 1 (9.51)
C0 C0 C
Eq. (9.46) gives t1 = (Va-Vs)/(Vaf) and substituting t1 in Eq. (9.51) gives

∆Vc = Ia (Va −Vs ) = kIa (9.52)

Va fC fC
A boost regulator can be step up output voltage without a transformer.
Due to single MOSFET, it has high efficiency.
The input current is continuous. However, a high peak current has to
flow through the MOSFET. The output voltage is very sensitive to
changes in duty cycle k and it might be difficult to stabilize the regulator.
Th average output
The t t currentt is
i less
l th the
than th average inductor
i d t currentt by b
a factor of (1-k), and a much higher rms current would flow through the
filter capacitor, resulting in the use of a larger filter capacitor and a
larger inductor than those of a buck regulator.
regulator

Example 9.5
Example
p 5.6
 Buck-Boost Regulators
In a buck-boost regulator, provides the average output voltage Va, which may
is less than or greater than the input voltage Vs ⎯ hence the name “buck-
boost,”.
The output voltage polarity is opposite to that of the input voltage. This
regulator
l t isi also
l known
k as an inverting
i ti regulator.
l t
The circuit diagram of a buck-boost regulator using a power BJT is shown in
Fig. 9-14(a), and this is like a step-up/down chopper.
The circuit operation can be divided into two
modes.
Mode 1 begins when Q1 is switched on at t = 0.
The input current,
current which rises,
rises flows through the
inductor L, and Q1.
Mode 2 begins when Q1 is switched off at t = t2. The freewheeling diode Dm
conducts due to energy stored in the inductor and the inductor current
continues to flow through the filter inductor L,L filter capacitor C,
C load and
diode Dm. The inductor current falls until Q1 is switched on again in the next
cycle. The energy stored in the inductor L is transferred to the load.
Depending on the switching frequency,
frequency filter inductance,
inductance filter capacitance,
capacitance
the inductor current could be discontinuous.
Assuming that the load current rises linearly from I1 to I2, in time t1:
I −I I − I L∆I
Vs = L 2t 1 = L ∆t I (9.54) t =L 2 1= (9.55)
1 1 1 Vs Vs

Assuming that the load current falls linearly from I2 to I1, in time t2:
Va = −L ∆ I (9.56) t = − L∆I (9.57)
t 2 Va
2
Equation Eqs. (9.54) and (9.56) and substituting t1=kT
kT and t2=(1-k)T
(1 k)T , the
average output voltage is obtain as follows: − kV
Va = s (9.58)
1− k
Buck
B k Regulator:
R l when
h k > 0 to k < 0.5
05
Boost Regulator: when k > 0.5 and k < 1.0

Assuming a lossless circuit, VsIs = -VaIa =

(kVsIa)/(1-k) and the average input current :
kI
Is = a (9.59)
1− k
The switching period T can be expressed as:
L(Va −Vs )∆I
T = t + t = L∆I − L∆I = (9.60)
1 2 Vs Va VsVa
The peak-to-peak ripple current of VsVa Vs k
∆I = = (9 − 62)
inductor is: fL(Va −Vs ) fL
When the transistor Q1 is on, the capacitor supplies the load current for t = t1.
The average discharge capacitor current is Ic = Ia and the peak-to-peak
ripple voltage of the capacitor is

1 t 1 t Iat
∆Vc = vc − vc (t = 0) = ∫ 1Icdt = ∫ 1Iadt = 1 (9.63)
C0 C0 C
Eq. (9.58) gives t1 = Va/[(Va-Vs)f) and substituting t1 in Eq. (9.63) gives

∆Vc = IaVa = kIa (9.65)

(Va −Vs ) fC fC
A buck-boost regulator provides output voltage polarity reversal
without a transformer. It has high efficiency. Under a fault
condition
diti off the
th transistor,
t i t the
th di/dt
di/d off the
th fault
f lt currentt is
i limited
li it d
by the inductor L and will be Vs/L.
Output short-circuit protection would be easyy to implement.
However, the input current is discontinuous and a high peak
current flows through transistor Q1.

Example 9.6
Example 5.7