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A CFD Study on the Prediction of Cyclone Collection Efficiency

Article  in  International Journal for Computational Methods in Engineering Science and Mechanics · May 2005
DOI: 10.1080/15502280590923649

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 International Journal for Computational Methods in Engineering Science and Mechanics, 6(3): 161–168, 2005
Copyright
c Taylor & Francis Inc.
ISSN: 1550–2287 print / 1550–2295 online
DOI: 10.1080/15502280590923649
A CFD Study on the Prediction of Cyclone
Collection Efficiency
Jolius Gimbun1, Thomas S. Y. Choong2, T. G. Chuah2, and A. Fakhru’l-Razi2
1
Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, University College of Engineering and
Technology Malaysia, KUKTEM, MEC Town, 25200 Kuantan, Pahang D. M., Malaysia.
2
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Selangor D. E., Malaysia.
This work presents a Computational Fluid Dynamics calcula-
tion to predict and to evaluate the effects of temperature, operat-
ing pressure and inlet velocity on the collection efficiency of gas
10 cyclones. The numerical solutions were carried out using spread-
sheet and commercial CFD code FLUENT 6.0. This paper also
reviews four empirical models for the prediction of cyclone col-
lection efficiency, namely Lapple [1], Koch and Licht [2], Li and
Wang [3], and Iozia and Leith [4]. All the predictions proved to be
15 satisfactory when compared with the presented experimental data.
The CFD simulations predict the cyclone cut-off size for all oper-
ating conditions with a deviation of 3.7% from the experimental
data. Specifically, results obtained from the computer modelling
exercise have demonstrated that CFD model is the best method of
20 modelling the cyclones collection efficiency.
Keywords Cyclone, CFD, Efficiency, Temperature, Inlet Velocity,
Cut-Off Size
1. INTRODUCTION
25 Cyclones are devices that employ a centrifugal force gen-
erated by a spinning gas stream to separate particles from the
carrier gas. Their simple design, low capital cost and nearly
maintenance-free operation make them ideal for use as pre-
cleaners for more expensive final control devices such as bag-
30 houses or electrostatic precipitators. Cyclones are particularly
well suited for high temperature and pressure conditions be-
cause of their rugged design and flexible component materials.
Cyclone collection efficiencies can reach 99% for particles big-
ger than 5 µm [5], and can be operated at very high dust loading.
35 Cyclones are used for the removal of large particles for both air
pollution control and process use. Application in extreme con-
Received 6 January 2004; in accepted 25 May 2004.
Address correspondence to Jolius Gimbun, Faculty of Chemical
& Natural Resources Engineering, University College of Engineering
& Technology Malaysia, MEC Town, 25200 Kuantan, Pahang D.M.,
Malaysia. E-mail: jolius@kuktem.edu.my
161
ditions includes the removal of coal dust in a power plant and
the use as a spray dryer or gasification reactor.
Engineers are generally interested in two parameters in order
to carry out an assessment of the design and performance of a cy- 40
clone. These parameters are the collection efficiency of particle
and pressure drop through the cyclone. An accurate prediction
of cyclone efficiency is very important because an inaccuracy in
the efficiency prediction may result in an inefficient design of
the cyclone separator. CFD has a great potential to predict the 45
flow field characteristics and particle trajectories inside the cy-
clone as well as the pressure drop [6]. The complicated swirling
turbulent flow in a cyclone places great demands on the numeri-
cal techniques and the turbulence models employed in the CFD
codes when modelling the cyclone pressure drop. 50
This study presents an application of computational fluid dy-
namics, in the prediction of cyclone efficiency. This study also
reviews the prediction of four different empirical models for cy-
clone efficiency, namely Lapple [1], Koch and Licht [2], Li and
Wang [3], and Iozia and Leith [4]. The simulation results are 55
then compared with experimental data found in the literature
for different inlet flow rates, pressures and temperatures. In this
study, the CFD calculations are carried out using a commercial
finite volume code, FLUENT 6.0, and the empirical models are
performed in Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. 60
2. CYCLONE DESIGN
Many different types of cyclones have been built but the re-
verse flow cyclone with tangential inlet in Fig. 1 is most often
used for industrial gas cleaning [3, 7]. In this study, the numerical
simulation deals with the standard case of reverse flow cyclone 65
with a tangential rectangular inlet. Cyclone dimensions used in
this simulation are as shown in Table 1.
3. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS APPROACH
FLUENT is a commercially available CFD code that utilizes
the finite volume formulation to carry out coupled or segregated 70
 162 J. GIMBUN ET AL.
FIG. 1. Tangential cyclone configuration.
calculations (with reference to the conservation of mass, mo-
mentum and energy equations). It is ideally suited for incom-
pressible to mildly compressible flows. The conservation of
mass, momentum and energy in a fluid flow are expressed in
75 terms of non-linear partial differential equations that generally
defy solution by analytical means. The solution of these equa-
tions has been made possible by the advent of powerful worksta-
tions, opening avenues towards the calculation of complicated
flow fields with relative ease.
80 For the turbulent flow in a cyclone the key to the success of
CFD lies with the accurate description of the turbulent behavior
of the flow [6]. To model the swirling turbulent flow in a cyclone
separator, there are a number of turbulence models available in
FLUENT. These range from the standard k-
model to the more
85 complicated Reynolds stress model (RSM). The comparison of
the different RANS-based turbulence models available in FLU-
ENT 6.0 is presented in Table 2. The k-
model involves the so-
lution of transport equations for the kinetic energy of turbulence
and its dissipation rate and the calculation of a turbulent contri-
90 bution to the viscosity at each computational cell. The standard
k-
, RNG k-
and Realizable k-
models were not optimized for
the strongly swirling flows typically found in cyclones [8, 9].
Turbulence may be stabilized or destabilized in the parts of flow
domain where strong streamline curvature is present. However,
95 to reduce the computational effort, the RNG k-
model can be
used with about 12% deviation on experimental data [6]. The
numerical studies carried out by Fredriksson [10] reveal that the
TABLE 1
Cyclone geometry used in this simulation
Geometry a/D b/D De /D S/D h/D H/D B/D
Stairmand High 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.5 1.5 4 0.375
Efficiency
Kim and Lee 0.33 0.225 0.257 1.157 1.447 3.05 0.482
(1990) cyclone I
Bohnet (1995) 0.533 0.133 0.333 0.733 0.693 2.58 0.333
RNG k-
model underestimates the variation of the axial veloc-
ity profile across the radial direction and also overestimates the
magnitude of the tangential velocity and the cyclone pressure 100
drop.
The Reynolds stress model requires the solution of transport
equations for each of the Reynolds stress components as well
as for dissipation transport without the necessity to calculate an
isotropic turbulent viscosity field. The Reynolds Stress turbu- 105
lence model yields an accurate prediction of swirl flow pattern,
axial velocity, tangential velocity and pressure drop on cyclone
simulations [8–10].
The finite volume method has been used to discretize the
partial differential equations of the model using the SIMPLE 110
method for pressure-velocity coupling and the Second Order
Upwind scheme to interpolate the variables on the surface of
the control volume. The segregated solution algorithm was se-
lected. The Reynolds stress (RSM) turbulence model was used
in this model due to the anisotropic nature of the turbulence in 115
cyclones. Standard Fluent wall functions were applied and high
order discretization schemes were also used.
Under the RSM second order upwind for discretization there
is a difficulty to reach the convergence in simulation [11].
The residuals may exhibit cyclic tendencies, which means that 120
the transient pattern occurs. In this instance, the solver must
be changed to a transient solver and this makes the time step
something in the region of 0.025 seconds or a tiny fraction of
the residence time of the cyclone. The simulation is then solved
with a coupling of unsteady and steady state solvers in FLUENT. 125
For the simulation using RNG k-
model the steady state solver
is sufficient to reach convergence.
To calculate the trajectories of particles in the flow, the dis-
crete phase model (DPM) was used to track individual particles
through the continuum fluid. The particle loading in a cyclone 130
separator is typically small (3–5%), and therefore it can be safely
assumed that the presence of the particles does not affect the
flow field (one-way coupling). The equation of motion for an
individual particle can be written as Crowe et al., [12]
dv f
= (u − v) + g [1]
dt τv
where the other contributions to the force on the particle (buoy- 135
ancy, virtual mass and Basset term) are negligible because of
the small fluid-to-particle density ratio. The response time of
the particle, τv is defined in terms of the particle density, particle
diameter and the viscosity of the air as:
ρ p d 2p
τv = [2]
18µ
The drag factor f is defined as: 140
C D Rer
f = [3]
24
Q A CFD STUDY ON THE PREDICTION OF CYCLONE 163

TABLE 2
Comparison of the different turbulence models in FLUENT 6.0

Model Strength Weaknesses

Standard k-ε Robust, economical and reasonably accurate
Many sub-models available, i.e. combustion,
buoyancy, compressibility, etc.
RNG k-ε Good for moderately complex behavior like jet
impingement, separating flows, swirling flows, and
secondary flows.
Realizable k-ε Offers largely the same benefits as RNG; resolves
round jet anomaly.
RSM Physically most complete model (history, transport and
anisotropy of turbulent stresses are all accounted
for). Most suitable for complex 3D flows with strong
streamline curvature, swirl and rotation.
Mediocre results for complex flow involving severe
pressure gradients, strong streamline curvature,
swirl and rotation.
Subjected to limitations due to isotropic eddy
viscosity assumption.
Subjected to limitations due to isotropic eddy
viscosity assumption.
Requires more CPU effort (2–3 times); limited near
wall modelling options; tightly coupled momentum
and turbulence equations.

with Pentium IV 2.8 GHz HP workstation XW8000 with 512 cache-

memory, 1 GB RAM-memory, and 110 GB hard-disc memory. 160
ρg d p |u − v|
Rer = [4]
µg 4. CYCLONE EFFICIENCY EMPIRICAL MODELS
where Rer is the relative Reynolds number and C D is the drag co- 4.1. Iozia and Leith Model
efficient. In FLUENT, the drag coefficient for spherical particles Iozia and Leith [4] logistic model is a modified version of
is calculated by using the correlations developed by Morsi and Barth [15] Model, which is developed based on force balance.
145 Alexander [13]. For non-spherical particles, the correlation was The model assumes that a particle carried by the vortex endures 165
developed by Haider and Levenspiel [14]. The ordinary differ- the influence of two forces: a centrifugal force, Z and a flow
ential equation (Eq. (1)) was integrated along the trajectory of an resistance, W . The collection efficiency ηi of particle diameter
individual particle. Collection efficiency statistics were obtained d pi can be calculated from
by releasing a specified number of monodispersed particles at
1
150 the inlet of the cyclone and by monitoring the number escap- ηi = [5]
ing through the underflow. Collisions between particles and the 1 + (d pc /d pi )β
walls of the cyclone were assumed to be perfectly elastic (coef- β is an expression for slope parameter derived based on the
ficient of restitution is equal to 1). statistical analysis of experimental data of a cyclone with D = 170
The numerical calculation was made with a fine numerical 0.25 m given as
155 grid as shown in Fig. 2. The numerical grid of cyclone A, B

d pc


ab

2
ab
and C contains 28871, 33056, and 18045 nodes respectively, to β = 0.62 − 0.87 ln + 5.21 ln + 1.05 ln
yield a reasonable prediction. The details of the CFD setting are 100 D2 D2
presented in Table 3. The CFD simulation was performed with a [6]

FIG. 2. CFD surface mesh of cyclone used in the simulations.

 164 J. GIMBUN ET AL.

TABLE 3 • The tangential velocity is related to the radius of cy-

Detail on CFD setting clone by: u R n = constant.

Boundary condition The concentration distribution in a cyclone is given as:

Inlet Velocity inlet  
1

Outlet Outflow c0 (rw − rn ) exp −λ K (1+n) r 1+n

c(r, θ ) = [12]
Cyclone wall Standard wall function  rw 

1 1+n dr
Viscous rn exp K (1+n) r

Turbulence Reynolds stress model (RSM) where 190

RNG k-

Discretization (1 − n)(ρ p − ρg )d 2 Q
K = [13]
18 µb rw1−n − rn1−n

Pressure Presto!
Pressure-velocity coupling SIMPLE
Momentum 2nd order upwind and
Turbulence kinetic energy 2nd order upwind
(1 − α)K ww
Turbulence dissipation rate 2nd order upwind λ= [14]
Reynolds stresses 2nd order upwind Dr rwn
Discrete phase modelling The resultant expression of the collection efficiency for particle
Assumption Spherical particle of any size is given as
Maximum number of step
(phase integration) 20000
ηi = 1 − exp{−λθ1 } [15]

where
and d pc is the 50% cut size given by Barth [15]

 0.5 θ1 = 2π(S + L)/a [16] 195

9 µQ
d pc = [7]
πρ p z c vt2max
4.3. Koch and Licht Model
where core length, z c , and core diameter, dc , are given as Koch and Licht [2] collection theory recognized the inher-
ently turbulent nature of cyclones and the distribution of gas
 
H−S residence times within the cyclone. Koch and Licht described
z c = (H − S) − [(dc /B) − 1] for dc > B [8a] particle motion in the entry and collection regions with the ad- 200
(D/B) − 1
zc = H − S for dc < B [8b] ditional following assumptions:

−0.25
1.4 • The tangential velocity of a particle is equal to the tan-

ab De gential velocity of the gas flow, i.e. there is no slip in the
dc = 0.47D [9]
D2 D tangential direction between the particle and the gas.
• The tangential velocity is related to the radius of cy- 205
175 4.2. Li and Wang Model clone by: u R n = constant.
The Li and Wang [3] model includes particle bounce or re-
entrainment and turbulent diffusion at the cyclone wall. A two- A force balance and an equation on the particles collection yields
dimensional analytical expression of particle distribution in the the grade efficiency ηi
cyclone is obtained. Li and Wang model was developed based  0.5/(n+1) 
180 on the following assumptions: Gτi Q
ηi = 1 − exp −2 (n + 1) [17]
D3
• The radial particle velocity and the radial concentration
profile are not constant for uncollected particles within where
the cyclone.
8K c
• Boundary conditions with the consideration of turbu- G= [18]
185 lent diffusion coefficient and particle bounce re- K a2 K b2
entrainment on the cyclone wall are: (12D)0.14 T + 460 0.3
  
n = 1− 1− [19]
c = c0 , at θ = 0 [10] 2.5 530
2
∂c ρ p d pi
Dr = (1 − α)wc, at r = D/2 [11] τi = [20]
∂r 18µ
 A CFD STUDY ON THE PREDICTION OF CYCLONE 165

FIG. 3. Particle trajectories from CFD simulation of different particle size in the Bohnet cyclone at T = 1073 K.

210 G is a factor related to the configuration of the cyclone, n is The efficiency of collection of any size of particle is given by
related to the vortex and τ is the relaxation term.
1
ηi = [23]
4.4. Lapple Model 1 + (d pc /d¯ pi )2
Lapple [1] model was developed based on force balance with-
out considering the flow resistance. Lapple assumed that a par-
215 ticle entering the cyclone is evenly distributed across the inlet 5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
opening. The particle that travels from inlet half width to the
wall in the cyclone is collected with 50% efficiency. The semi 5.1. Grade Efficiency Prediction under Ambient
empirical relationship developed by Lapple [1] to calculate a Temperature and Pressure
50% cut diameter, d pc , is An accurate prediction of cyclone efficiency under ambi- 225
ent temperature and pressure is important since there are a lot
  12 of applications of cyclone under these conditions. Application
9 µb of the cyclone under room temperature includes the removal
d pc = [21]
2π Ne vi (ρ p − ρg ) of sawdust, grain dust and rock dust. Kim and Lee [16] and
Dirgo and Leith [17] presented experimental data obtained at 230
220 where Ne is the number of revolutions room temperature. The calculated trajectories of 1, 2, 2.5 and
  6 µm particles in the Bohnet cyclone are shown in Fig. 3.
1 H −h While, the CFD flow field simulation on Bohnet cyclone is
Ne = h+ [22]
a 2 presented in Fig. 4. The comparisons between the presented

FIG. 4. CFD flow field simulation on Bohnet cyclone (vi = 8 m/s, T = 293 K).
 166 J. GIMBUN ET AL.
FIG. 5. Calculated and measured collection efficiencies for Kim and Lee [16]
cyclone (P = 1 Bar, T = 293 K, vi = 4.25 m/s, D = 0.311 m). Data point
from Kim and Lee (1990).
experimental data, empirical models and CFD prediction are
235 shown in Figs. 5 to 7.
The Li and Wang empirical model prediction is found to
agree much better with the data from Kim and Lee, and Dirgo
and Leith, compared to the other models developed by Koch and
Licht, Iozia and Leith, and Lapple (Figs. 5 to 7). Lapple’s model
240 yields less accurate fitting to the experimental data (curves are
flatter at higher particle size), as does the Koch and Licht model.
Both models considerably underestimate efficiency for large par-
ticles and overestimate efficiency for small particles. The Lapple
model is unable to fit well with any experimental data. This is
245 possibly because the Lapple model simply assumes that parti-
cles that enter the cyclone are evenly distributed across the inlet
opening and a particle that travels from the inlet half width to
the cyclone wall is collected with 50% efficiency. Unjustified as-
sumptions of complete and uniform mixing of uncollected dust
250 at any height in the cyclones may also contribute to the dis-
crepancy between the experimental data and the Koch and Licht
predictions. Mothes and Loffler [18] experimental findings fur-
ther support the fact that there is indeed a concentration gradient
in the radial direction of the cyclones.
Iozia and Leith logistic model predicted the efficiency satis-
255
factory for cyclone of diameter 0.305 m as shown in Fig. 6 and
7. For smaller cyclone diameters, the prediction of the Iozia and
Leith model is not satisfactory. It considerably overestimates
FIG. 6. Calculated and measured collection efficiencies for Stairmand high
efficiency cyclone (P = 1 Bar, T = 293 K, vi = 15 m/s, D = 0.305 m). Data
point from Dirgo and Leith [17].
FIG. 7. Calculated and measured collection efficiencies for Stairmand high
efficiency cyclone (P = 1 Bar, T = 293 K, vi = 5 m/s, D = 0.305 m). Data
point from Dirgo and Leith [17].
the grade efficiency for D = 0.0311 m, as shown in Fig. 5. The
reason for this disagreement may be caused by the generalized 260
form of core length, z c in the Iozia and Leith model, which is de-
veloped based on the statistical analysis of experimental cyclone
data from cyclone of D = 0.25 m. Therefore, the prediction of
the model is only satisfactory for cyclone diameter around this
range. 265
The CFD simulations yielded very good predictions on cy-
clone collection efficiency under ambient temperature and pres-
sure operating condition, as shown in Figs. 5 to 7. The accu-
racy of the CFD prediction on cyclone collection efficiency is
comparable to the Li and Wang model in all types and size of 270
cyclones evaluated in this study. There is a slight discrepancy
on the CFD prediction as shown in Fig. 5. However, the CFD
result still yielded an accurate prediction on cut size diameter,
D pc , of each cyclone under ambient temperature and pressure
condition (Table 4). 275
5.2. Grade Efficiency Prediction under Different
Operating Conditions
Ray et al. [19] and Bohnet [20] have done an experiment
under high temperature and pressure operating conditions. The
comparison between the experimental data, CFD and the four 280
selected empirical model predictions is shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
The prediction of the Li and Wang model under high pressure
FIG. 8. Calculated and measured collection efficiencies for Stairmand high
efficiency cyclone (P = 1.7 Bar, T = 293 K, vi = 11 m/s, D = 0.4 m). Data
point from Ray et al. [19].
 A CFD STUDY ON THE PREDICTION OF CYCLONE 167

TABLE 4
Comparison of measured and predicted cut-off size of different cyclones

Models

Cyclone type and experiment value CFD Li and Wang Iozia and Leith Koch and Licht Lapple
Kim and Lee [16] 2.86 2.91 3.05 1.7 0.82 2.52
Dirgo and Leith [17] 5 m/s 6.24 6.14 5.91 6.73 4.72 8.22
Dirgo and Leith [17] 15 m/s 3.06 3.27 3.06 3.34 2.43 4.19
Ray et al. [19] 2.61 2.54 2.67 2.84 2.46 3.57
Bohnet [20] 873 K 2.52 2.75 3.38 1.85 1.54 2.48
Bohnet [20] 1073 K 3.12 3.12 3.83 1.96 1.91 2.48
Average deviation (%) 0 3.67 11.85 21.69 33.28 23.24

operating conditions is good compared to the experimental data
as shown in Fig. 8. CFD results and the Iozia and Leith model
285 also yield a reasonably good prediction on cyclone efficiency
under this operating condition.
The data presented by Bohnet [20] concerns experiments at
temperatures above 1000 K. It appears that the CFD code shows
good prediction of cyclone efficiency under extremely high tem-
290 peratures, as shown in Fig. 9. The model of Dirgo is found to
overestimate the cyclone collection efficiency under the high
temperature operating condition (Fig. 9). The models of Koch
and Licht, and Lapple still show a reasonably good prediction
under this extreme condition. Meanwhile, Li and Wang model is
295 found to underestimate the cyclone collection efficiency under
the extreme operating temperatures.
5.3. Cut-Off Size Prediction
Cyclones have been characterized by a cut size (d50 ), which
defines the particle size for which the cyclone collection effi-
300 ciency is 50%. It is important to know the cyclone cut-off di-
ameter under certain operational conditions and geometry. The
comparison between the experimental data, CFD and the four
selected empirical models prediction is shown in Table 4.
The simulation results obtained from the computer modelling
305 exercise have demonstrated that CFD code is the best method of
modelling the cyclones cut-off size with the average deviation of
3.7% to the measured value. The Li and Wang, Lapple, Iozia and
Leith, and Koch and Licht models were found to be inconsistent
in the cut-off size prediction with the deviation ranging from 310
11.9 to 33.3% from the measured value.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The Li and Wang model and CFD code both predict very
well the cyclone efficiency and cut-off size for any operational
conditions. The Li and Wang model and FLUENT CFD code
produce a better fit to the Ray, Dirgo and Leith, and Kim and 315
Lee experimental data respectively. In all operating conditions
and cyclone types the FLUENT CFD and Li and Wang model
were found to be much closer to the experimental measurement.
However, only the FLUENT CFD code is consistently predicts
the cyclone cut-off size. Therefore, both the Li and Wang model 320
and FLUENT CFD code can be used to evaluate the collection
efficiency in the cyclone design except for the extreme operat-
ing temperatures, which is Li and Wang model is less accurate.
The Lapple and Koch and Lich models considerably underesti-
mate the efficiency for large particles and overestimate efficiency 325
for small particles. Iozia and Leith logistic model show a good
agreement with an experimental data for the cyclone size range
of D = 0.25–0.4 m, but it is unable to predict correctly the ef-
ficiency for small cyclone (D < 0.1 m). Iozia and Leith model
is only suitable for efficiency prediction of cyclone diameter 330
around 0.25 m.

FIG. 9. Separation efficiency of Bohnet (1995) cyclone at high temperature (P = 1 Bar, vi = 8.61 m/s, D = 0.15 m). Data point from Bohnet [20].
 168 J. GIMBUN ET AL.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT u, v Velocity magnitude (m/s)

The authors would like to thank Dr. Tom Fraser, Fluent India Rer relative Reynolds number
and Fluent Europe UK for their guidance and support. CD drag coefficient
RANS Reynolds Average Navier Stokes

NOMENCLATURE Greek Letters 375

τv particle response time (s)
335 L natural length (m)
a cyclone inlet height (m)
µg gas viscosity (m2 /s)
β slope parameter
b cyclone inlet width (m)
D cyclone body diameter (m) τ relaxation time (s)
cyclone gas outlet diameter (m) θ angular coordinate 380
De
340 H cyclone height (m) α particle bounce or re-entrainment coefficient
h cyclone cylinder height (m) λ characteristic value
ηi grade efficiency of particle size at mid-point of in-
S cyclone gas outlet duct length (m)
ternal i (%)
B cyclone dust outlet diameter (m)
c0 , c1 particle inlet and outlet concentration (kg/m3 )
ρg gas density (kg/m3 ) 385
ρp particle mass density (kg/m3 )
345 d p particle diameter (m)
Dr radial turbulent diffusion coefficient
d pc cut particle diameter collected with 50% efficiency REFERENCES
1. Lapple, C. E., Chem. Eng. 58, 144 (1951).
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zc core length (m) 19. Ray, M. B., Hoffmann, A. C., and Postma, R. S., J. Aerosol Sci. 31, 563
dc core diameter (m) (2000).
370 vt max maximum tangential velocity (m/s) 20. Bohnet, M., Chem. Eng. Process 34, 151 (1995). 415

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