Registers

 A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the
CPU (central processing unit).
 High speed temporary storage space for holding data, addresses and
instructions during processing the instruction.
 Register are the top of the memory hierarchy.
 A Register is a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of storing one
bit of information.

These are classified as given below. 

 Accumulator: 
This is the most frequently used register used to store data taken from memory. It is
in different numbers in different microprocessors. 
 
 Memory Address Registers (MAR): 
It holds the address of the location to be accessed from memory. MAR and MDR
(Memory Data Register) together facilitate the communication of the CPU and the
main memory. 
 
 Memory Data Registers (MDR): 
It contains data to be written into or to be read out from the addressed location. 
 Program Counter (PC): 
Program Counter (PC) is used to keep the track of execution of the program. It
contains the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched. 
 Instruction Register (IR): 
The IR holds the instruction which is just about to be executed. The instruction from
PC is fetched and stored in IR.
What is an Operating System?
• An operating system (OS) is a set of system programs that controls the overall operation
of the computer.
• Operating system is the master software of the computer system.
• An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
There are two types of Operating system:
• Single user.
• Multi user.

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Single user operating system
• This operating system can run only one program at a time and hence called
single user or single task system.
For example ; DOS(disk operating system)
• DOS(disk operating system)
• It is single user, single tasking operating system, it is CUI(Character user
interface) or CLI(Command line interface) based operating system.
Multi user operating system
• A multi user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same computer
at the same time.
• Also known as network operating system.
For example
Windows ;
• It is single user, multi tasking operating system for personal computer.
• It is GUL (graphical user interface) based operating system.

Function of an Operating System

Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and delete
processes. It also provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication among
processes.

Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task of allocation

and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this resources.

File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as organization

storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.

Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This module
also responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the task of
allocation and de-allocation of the devices.

I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the peculiarities
of that hardware devices from the user.

Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a computer system
against malware threat and authorized access.

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Computer Network:
A computer network is a group of computers connected with each other through a transmission
medium such as cable, wire etc. In this guide, we will discuss the types of computer networks in
detail.
Types of Computer Network

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
Local area network is a group of computers connected with each other in a small places such as
school, hospital, apartment etc.
LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area network thus the data
which is shared is safe on the local area network and can’t be accessed outside.
LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed can range anywhere from 100 to
100Mbps.
LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new evolution to the LANs that allows local
area network to work on a wireless connection.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

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MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a larger network of computers. In
Metropolitan area network various Local area networks are connected with each other through
telephone lines. The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs and smaller than
WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or town.
3. Wide area network (WAN)

Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data. The size of the WAN is larger
than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole world. Internet
connection is an example of WAN. Other examples of WAN are mobile broadband connections
such as 3G, 4G etc.

What is Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected
to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

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Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of
cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the
signals of both the nodes collide with each other.

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Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to
the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from
one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication
for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.

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Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to

the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to
the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in
the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive
coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT
is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the
connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of
routing is required.

Tree topology

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 o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with
each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are
the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore,
we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments
known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus
cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.

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Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication

between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a
router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain
and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link
failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.

Hybrid Topology
o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the
data.

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 o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of
the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices
without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that
the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the
Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs
are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network
requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

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What is Database?
A database is an organized collection of data, so that it can be easily accessed and
managed.
You can organize data into tables, rows, columns, and index it to make it easier to find
relevant information.
Database handlers create a database in such a way that only one set of software program
provides access of data to all the users.
The main purpose of the database is to operate a large amount of information by storing,
retrieving, and managing data.
There are many dynamic websites on the World Wide Web nowadays which are handled
through databases. For example, a model that checks the availability of rooms in a hotel. It
is an example of a dynamic website that uses a database.
There are many databases available like MySQL, Sybase, Oracle, MongoDB, Informix,
PostgreSQL, SQL Server, etc.

DBMS (Data Base Management System)

Database management System is software which is used to store and retrieve the database.
For example, Oracle, MySQL, etc.; these are some popular DBMS tools.
DBMS provides the interface to perform the various operations like creation, deletion,
modification, etc.
DBMS allows the user to create their databases as per their requirement.
DBMS accepts the request from the application and provides specific data through the
operating system.
DBMS contains the group of programs which acts according to the user instruction.
It provides security to the database.

Advantage of DBMS
Controls redundancy
It stores all the data in a single database file, so it can control data redundancy.
Data sharing
An authorized user can share the data among multiple users.
Backup
It provides Backup and recovery subsystem. This recovery system creates automatic data
from system failure and restores data if required.
Multiple user interfaces
It provides a different type of user interfaces like GUI, application interfaces.

Disadvantage of DBMS
Size
It occupies large disk space and large memory to run efficiently.
Cost
DBMS requires a high-speed data processor and larger memory to run DBMS software, so it
is costly.
Complexity
DBMS creates additional complexity and requirements.

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Data communication
Data communications means the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part
of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs).
Components of Data Communication:
The five components of data communication are:
1. Message - It is the information to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, pictures, audio, video etc.
2. Sender - It is the device which sends the data messages. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset etc.
3. Receiver - It is the device which receives the data messages. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset etc.
4. Transmission Medium - It is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, radio
waves etc.
5. Protocol - It is a set of rules that governs the data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices
may be connected but not communicating.

What is the internet?

Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the
web. However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:
 Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies
a computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP
Address so that user can locate a computer by a name.
 For example, a DNS server will resolve a
name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to uniquely
identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world

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Internet Applications
 On-line communication
 Software sharing
 Exchange of views on topics of common interest
 Posting of information of general interest
 Product promotion
 Feedback about product
 Customer support service
 On-line journals and magazines

How does the Internet Work?

The Internet works through a packet routing network in

accordance with the Internet Protocol (IP), the Transport Control
Protocol (TCP) and other protocols.
World Wide Web
WWW stands for World Wide Web. A technical definition of the World Wide Web is :
all the resources and users on the Internet that are using the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP).
A broader definition comes from the organization that Web inventor Tim Berners-
Lee helped found, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an
embodiment of human knowledge.
In simple terms, The World Wide Web is a way of exchanging information between
computers on the Internet, tying them together into a vast collection of interactive
multimedia resources.

web browser
A browser is software that is used to access the internet. A browser lets you
visit websites and do activities within them like login, view multimedia, link from one site
to another, visit one page from another, print, send and receive email, among many
other activities. The most common browser software titles on the market are:
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Google's Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Apple's Safari,
and Opera. Browser availability depends on the operating system your computer is
using (for example: Microsoft Windows, Linux, Ubuntu, Mac OS, among others).

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Search engine
Search Engine refers to a huge database of internet resources such as web pages,
newsgroups, programs, images etc. It helps to locate information on World Wide Web.
User can search for any information by passing query in form of keywords or phrase. It
then searches for relevant information in its database and return to the user.

Search Engine Components

Generally there are three basic components of a search engine as listed below:
1. Web Crawler
2. Database
3. Search Interfaces
Web crawler
It is also known as spider or bots. It is a software component that traverses the web to
gather information.
Database
All the information on the web is stored in database. It consists of huge web resources.
Search Interfaces
This component is an interface between user and the database. It helps the user to
search through the database.

Search Engine Working

Web crawler, database and the search interface are the major component of a search
engine that actually makes search engine to work. Search engines make use of
Boolean expression AND, OR, NOT to restrict and widen the results of a search.
Following are the steps that are performed by the search engine:
 The search engine looks for the keyword in the index for predefined database
instead of going directly to the web to search for the keyword.
 It then uses software to search for the information in the database. This software
component is known as web crawler.
 Once web crawler finds the pages, the search engine then shows the relevant
web pages as a result. These retrieved web pages generally include title of
page, size of text portion, first several sentences etc.

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Email (Electronic Mail)
Short for electronic mail,  email (or e-mail) is defined  as the transmission of messages
over communications networks. Typically the messages are notes entered from
the keyboard or electronic files stored on disk. Most mainframes, minicomputers,
and computer networks have an email system.

Some electronic mail systems are confined to a single computer system or network, but
others have gateways to other computer systems, enabling users to send electronic mail
anywhere in the world. Companies that are fully computerized make extensive use of e-mail
because it is fast, flexible, and reliable

E-mail System
E-mail system comprises of the following three components:
 Mailer
 Mail Server
 Mailbox
Mailer
It is also called mail program, mail application or mail client. It allows us to manage,
read and compose e-mail.
Mail Server
The function of mail server is to receive, store and deliver the email. It is must for mail
servers to be Running all the time because if it crashes or is down, email can be lost.
Mailboxes
Mailbox is generally a folder that contains emails and information about them.

Working of E-mail
Email working follows the client server approach. In this client is the mailer i.e. the mail
application or mail program and server is a device that manages emails.
Following example will take you through the basic steps involved in sending and
receiving emails and will give you a better understanding of working of email system:
 Suppose person A wants to send an email message to person B.
 Person A composes the messages using a mailer program i.e. mail client and
then select Send option.
 The message is routed to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol to person B’s mail
server.
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  The mail server stores the email message on disk in an area designated for
person B.
The disk space area on mail server is called mail spool.

 Now, suppose person B is running a POP client and knows how to communicate
with B’s mail server.
 It will periodically poll the POP server to check if any new email has arrived for
B.As in this case, person B has sent an email for person B, so email is
forwarded over the network to B’s PC. This is message is now stored on person
B’s PC.

collaborative computing and social

networking

Collaborative computing is a diverse collection of information technologies designed to

support work between individuals. Organizations implementing collaborative computing
technologies do so as a way to improve workforce productivity and creativity by
enabling individual workers to more readily access each other and the information they
need when they need it.

Collaborative computing arose from early generations of single stand-

alone applications, such as instant messaging and video conferencing, that were
intended to bridge geographic distances between individuals who working together. The
technologies initially were seen as a way to mimic or replace face-to-face interactions
while delivering the value that came with having individuals physically together to
collaborate.

Collaborative computing includes enterprise collaboration software and social media

tools that enable instant messaging and discussion groups. It also includes enterprise
workflow applications that automate work processes and help drive decision-making
with business intelligence and analytics tools. These kinds of technologies retrieve and
share data with the individuals working together, who can then update or annotate it as
needed.

16
Collaborative computing technologies can work across various operating systems and
devices, allowing individual workers to participate in work sessions from various
locations with different equipment. For example, two workers can collaborate if one is
using video conferencing equipment in an office and the other is using a laptop with
webcam.

What is Electronic Commerce?

Electronic commerce or simply ecommerce is normally a process that involves
facilitating the availability of products and services online. The users can search,
choose, sell, buy from a wide range of options through Internet.
The major activities of ecommerce are as follows −

 Selling products and services online (through internet)

 Buying products and services online
 Paying and accepting payment online
 Transaction of businesses and other services online
Features of E-Commerce
Following are the important features of ecommerce −

 It efficiently increases the business capability.

 It substantially reduces the cost.
 It perceptively increases the delivery services.
 It unbreakable solution of quick business transactions and office automation.
 It potentially increases the intra-business functionality.
 It competently increases the business communication.
Types of E-Commerce
Following are the major types of e-commerce businesses −
Business-to-Business (B2B)
It is conducted between two business firms.
Business-to-Consumer (B2C)
It is conducted between the business firm and the consumer.
Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)
Consumer-to-consumer business deals happen between two consumers; there are
certain websites that facilitate a common platform to both the consumers - one who
wants to buy and one who wants to sell.

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Benefits of E-Commerce
Let us now discuss the benefits of e-commerce −
 It facilitates free market.
 It is available 24×7.
 Its presence is global (there is no constrain of political boundary as such).
 Set up cost is substantially low.
 It provides user-friendly technology.
 It offers multiple opportunity parallel and simultaneously.
 It provides frugal facilities to promote and market businesses.

IT security and other issues

The protection of information and its elements including system, hardware that use,
store and transmit the information
PRIMARY GOALS
CIA triangle known as security triad tells the primary goals of IS Confidentiality
• Making sure that those who should not see information Integrity
• Making sure that the information has not been changed from its original Availability
• Making sure that the information is available for use when you need it.
 Information Security
• Known as InfoSec, which is the practice of defending information from
unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, perusal, inspection,
recording or destruction.
• It is a general term that can be used regardless of the form the data may take
(electronic, physical, etc...)
• I.T. Security: Sometimes referred to as computer security, Information Technology
Security is information security applied to technology (most often some form of
computer system).
• It is worthwhile to note that a computer does not necessarily mean a home
desktop. A computer is any device with a processor and some memory.
• IT security specialists: are almost always found in any major
enterprise/establishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger
businesses.
• Information assurance: The act of ensuring that data is not lost when critical issues
arise.
• These issues include but are not limited to: natural disasters, computer/server
malfunction, physical theft, or any other instance where data has the potential of
being lost.
• Since most information is stored on computers in our modern era, information
assurance is typically dealt with by IT security specialists.

18
• One of the most common methods of providing information assurance is to have
an off-site backup of the data in case one of the mentioned issues arise.

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