CLASSIC VERACRUZ GROTESQUES AND

SACRIFICIAL ICONOGRAPHY

M. E. KAMPEN

Arizona State University,Tempe

Stone sculpturesfromthe Gulf Coast of Mexico, known as Classic Veracruz works of art,
illustrate many themes and ideas relating to ball court rituals, including images of
antinaturalisticor supernaturalbeings conventionally known as gods. Three gods in
particular,a vampirebat, ghoulishvultureand pulque-rabbit,explain the religiousthinking
of the Classic Veracruz peoples. Visual evidence in the sculpturessuggeststhatthe vampire
bats drink blood spilled by sacrificialvictimswhile the vulturesconsume the bodies. The
rabbitsymbolisespulque, the intoxicatingdrinkprovided forparticipantsin the ritualsof
human sacrifice.While some parallels can be drawn between the gods at Tajin and other
Mesoamerican gods, an examinationof the sculpturaldetailsindicatesthatTajin and Classic
Veracruz civilisationas a whole developed theirown specialised lines of iconography.

I
Portableand monumentalstonesculpturesfromthe GulfCoast of Mexico
belonging to the Classic Veracruz stylerepresentthe only major lowland
Mesoamericansculpturestylein theClassicPeriod outsidetheMaya territory.
Proskouriakoff(1954) and Kampen (1972) have illustratedthe major
monuments but very little is known about the iconography of Classic
Veracruzart.Veracruzsculpturesillustratemanythemesand ideas relatingto
In additionto the
the ball courtrituals,includingscenesof human sacrifices.
ball players,priestsand otherperformersshown in ritualcontexts,Veracruz
art also representsantinaturalisticor supernaturalbeings conventionally
known as gods. Scroll-formedheads withor withoutbodies representbeings
with no counterpartson this earth. Some of these Veracruz grotesque
creaturesresemble other Mesoamerican gods. Their meanings,however,
cannot necessarilybe understoodby equation with gods from other time
periods and locations. Classic Veracruziconographyclearlyfollowsits own
patternsand can be best understoodby a visual analysisof the sculptures
themselves.
The single most importantgeneraltheme in Veracruz art is the ritualof
human sacrifice.A vast number of sub-themes,including gods and their
associated cults, play parts in this dramatic celebration. Three gods in
particular,a vampire bat, ghoulish vulture, and pulque-rabbit,are well
illustratedin thesculpturesand are studiedhereto show how theyexplainthe
religiousthinkingof Classic Veracruz peoples.
Man(N.S.) 13, II6-126.

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 M. E. KAMPEN 117

II
One of the most importantgods in the post-sacrificialceremoniesis the
vampirebat,presentedin itsnaturalistic form,by men in bat costumesand by
grotesqueheads representing profileviews of actorswearingbat masks.The
bat is a native American variety,Desmnodus the vampire bat, a
rotundus,
nocturnalcreaturethatliveson a dietof blood. Vampire batsdo not actually
suckblood fromtheirvictims:theybitethemwiththeirsharpincisorsand lap
blood fromthe wounds with theirlong tongue. Vampire bats sleep by day
and huntbynight,takingtheirblood mainlyfromsleepinganimals.They are,
however, not the sinister creatures that we associate with European
vampirism.Folklore literaturesince the end of the nineteenthcenturyand
filmshave populariseda vampire character,ultimatelybased in part on the
Desmtodus rotundus,
but with littlerelationshipto the Americanbat. Leaving
theirlairsat sundown,in searchof blood, thebats would have been attracted
to ritual centres where sacrificeshad taken place. Veracruz sacrifices,
documentedin Tajin art,show priestscuttingthejugular veinsof victimsas a
prelude to decapitation.A rarerformof sacrificewas by heartextraction.
Both methodswould have spilledample quantitiesof blood to attracta hostof
winged vampires.

FIGURE Ia. FIGURE ib.

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I8 M. E. KAMPEN

Vampiregrotesques havethefollowing features:

a supraorbitalscrollover
theeye,a prominent humannose,an elongatedtongueor scroll-form upper
lip symbolisingthevampirebattongue,concentric circlesplacedin various
contextsaroundthe faceand varietiesof an aberrant, meandering scroll
formation in theplaceof a bodythatsymbolises blood.
The identification of the bat grotesqueis ultimatelybased upon
decorations on a palmain the ClevelandMuseumof Art (fig.i). A man
wearinga bat maskand costumestandson a platform decoratedwitha
grotesquehead.A prominent humannoseappearswitha scroll-formed eye
andanelongated upperlip.The formation ofthisgrotesqueheadtypeappears
tobe basedonelements inmaskswornbypersons representingthebatdeityin
Classic Veracruzrituals.Additionalvariationsof thisgrotesquewith a
prominent humannose are illustrated aroundthe upperperimeter of the
stone.The roleof thevampireis explainedon thereversesideof thestone
wherea divingbatwithscallopedwingtipsswoopsdowntolickthescattered
piecesof a sacrificial
victim.
Aggressive vampirebatsareshownatworkon theHammondpalmafrom
New Orleanswherethreebatsinflight descenduponthebodyofa recumbent
sacrificial
victim(fig.2). Eachbatis illustrated
withspecialemphasis uponits

FIGURE 2.

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 M. E. KAMPEN I9

scalloped wing outlines,pointedearsand upturnednose. The lowermostbat

opens its mouth and licks the chin of the sacrificialvictim who places his
knuckles,as if in resignation,againstthe bat's wing. The victimis entwined
withina larger,aberrantscroll,similarto those behind grotesquebat heads:
the sign for blood. In the place of a tongue, a stringof beads (a common
symbolin Tajin) fallsfromthemouthof thebat on theupperright.
sacrificial
Some of the more positiveexamplesof bat symbolismin the architectural
sculpturesat Tajin are listedbelow. Bat grotesquesappear in the North Ball
Court friezeson theeastend of theplayingfield.The grotesqueon thesouth
wall has threeconcentriccirclesaround its eye and a body formedby the
aberrantblood scroll(fig.3). The guillocheto theleftis also providedwith a

FIGURE 3.

scalloped outlineto symbolisethe bat wing. The companion head acrossthe

courtis similarbut less detailed.Yet anotherbat grotesquein the Mound of
theBuildingColumns has a scrollloop below itseye,an elongatedtongue,not
lip, and an atypicalbody scroll.Two decapitatedheadsnear thefeetof a man
seated on a bench, Sculpture 5, Mound of the Building Columns, have
elongatedupper lips and eye scrolls.Details of the grotesquehead appear as
masked elementson actorsin Panels 5 and 6 of the South Ball Court (figs.4
and 5). The man performinga blood-lettingceremony,Panel 5, passesa rod
throughhispenis.This blood anointsthefaceof a sacrificial victimseatedin a
pool of pulque. This performerappearsagain in Panel 6, acrosstheCourt. In
both cases he can be recognisedby his elongated upper lip.
It would seemrelativelysafeto borrowa basicidea fromAztec thoughtand
assumethatsacrificesat Tajin were offeredto the gods, thatthe prieststhere
expressedno small concernover theproperpresentationof thoserituals,and
that they wanted the gods to accept the offerings.Smelling blood, the
vampireswould be almostcertainto appear at thesacrificial locationsshortly
aftersundown. The presenceof the thirstyvampires,lapping up the blood,
could have been equated withthegods' acceptanceof thesacrificial offerings.
The role of the bats,bat gods and human imitatorsis quite old in Tajin.
Representationsofbatsoccurat thebeginningoftheLate ClassicPeriodin the
Temple of theNiches. Since vampirebatswould almostcertainlybe attracted
to blood-lettingceremonies,the cult surroundingthe veneration of the
vampire bat might be extremely ancient, as old as the blood-letting
ceremoniesthemselves.

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I20 M. E. KAMPEN

FIGURE 4.

;~

FIGURE 5.

III
A closelyrelatedvulturecultcoexistedwiththevampirebats.Illustrations
at Tajin and on portableClassic Veracruzsculpturesshow large birds
consumingsacrificialvictims.They are actingas representatives of the

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 M. E. KAMPEN I2I

Veracruzgods,acceptingritualofferings.Thesescavengers of theskypatrol
above thelandscapein searchof food,mainlyfallenanimals.The sightand
smellofa deadrodentwillattracta flockofvultures-aplatform coveredby
victimswould exciteeveryvultureformanymiles.
decapitatedsacrificial
Eventhesightof crowdsgathered in theritualcentresmighthavebrought
greatnumbers oftheblackbirdstothetreesaroundthecitywheretheywould
waitinthehotsunforthevictims to be felled.Togetherthevulturesandbats
consumedthebodyand theblood of thecorpses,thegiftsto thegods,to
symbolise offerings.
thegods' acceptanceof thesesacrificial

IV
In additionto thevampireand ghoulsymbolism, iconog-
thesacrificial
anothervery
raphyofClassicVeracruzartalsoillustrates importantassociated
cult: the venerationof a holy intoxicant,pulque. Pulque is made by
fermenting juice takenfrommagueyplants.The cultis bestrepresented in
Panels5 and6 oftheSouthBall CourtandSculptures I and6 in theBuilding
Columns.Aspectsof the pulque iconographyin thesereliefshave been
discussedby GarciaPayon(I973) and Wilkerson(I976). In theartpulque
was consumedby priestsand otherpersonsrepresented thatare associated
withthiscult.Certainritualattendants and thegod of pulqueappearto be
heavilyintoxicated. Iconography of thepulque cultcan taketheformof
hieroglyphic rabbit-headed
rabbits,
dates,naturalistic creatureswithanthro-
pomorphic bodies,flyinggodswithhumanbodiesandritualactorswearing
costumeelementsof therabbitpulquesymbolism.
Sculpturesi and6 oftheBuilding Columnsrepresent scenesfromthelifeof
figure
I 3 Rabbit,an historical thatmayhavebeena rulerofTajinaroundA.D.
6, 13 Rabbitwearsa longplumedstaff
goo(figs6 and7). In sculpture secured

4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~-N

ofIGR 6..

FIGURE 6.

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I22 M. E. KAMPEN

FIGURE 7.

inhisheadband.A hieroglyphic signforhisname,a naturalisticrabbitprofile

overtwobars(eachsignifying 5),andthreedots,aresetdirectly overhishead.
The mannexttohim,8 Maguey,wearsa tallhatdecorated withsmallmaguey
plants.Theyarebothpresent at ballgameritualsthatincludethesacrifice of
theplayers showntotheright.Inthefrieze above13 Rabbitisanother
directly
seminaturalisticrabbitwitha grotesqueon historso.This grotesquehas a
scallopedupperoutlineof feathers and a longbentscrollthattrailsthehind
quarters oftherabbit.Thegrotesque mayhavea multitude ofassociations,
but
forthepresent it willbe identified onlywithrespectto itsrabbitconnexion.
ThirteenRabbit,recognisable by hishieroglyphic nameand plumedstaff,
appearsagaininSculpture i. Hisnameisrepeated totheleft,abovea sacrificial
platform decoratedwithmagueyplants.The nameof thisTajin leaderas a
calendricdatein the260 ritualyearwas a namewell takenforhis roleas
pageantmasterin thesacrificial rituals.
Magueyplantsin variousstagesofgrowth,Panel5, SouthBall Court,fill
theentireleftsideof thecomplexscene.A rabbitbearinga scrollequipped
withmagueysignsonitstips,issuspended intheairwithitslegsbenttosignify
theideaofflight. A twisted cordconnects thescrollin thehandoftherabbit
withan identical scrollcounterpart in thelefthandofthemanseatedon the
roofofthebuilding. The grotesque headon thetorsooftheflying rabbithasa
crown of saw-toothmotifsthatare repeatedin the otherabbreviated
grotesques attachedto theupperborderofthissceneandon theperimeter of
theshieldheldbythemanseatedon thetopof thebuilding.The scrolland
saw-toothmotifsidentify thismanwiththerabbitand pulqueassociations.
The long-hairedman with fangsand a protractedupper lip wears
concentric ovalsoverhischestanda cylinder boundwitha sashandtiedtohis
back.He lacksa skirt ora loincloth:butthisnakedness doesnotbrandhimasa
lowlycaptive because he is to
exposed performvery a dramatic bloodletting.
He is in theactofpassinga stiff rodthrough hispenis.Thismaybe a spindle
rod,thetypeusedto spinfibresfromthemagueyplantleafintocordsfor
weavingfabrics andmakingnets.A thickflowofbloodgushesforth fromthis
largepuncture andanointsthefaceofthesacrificial victimseatedwithfolded
arms,in thepool ofpulqueto theleft.The bloodassociation ofthispriestis
signified by thevampirebatelementon hisface.
In thecompanionpieceacrossthecourt,we see themirrorimageof this

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 M. E. KAMPEN I23

ritualstage resetwith the actors in new locations (fig. 5). The man who
received the scroll from the flyingrabbit is seated to the upper right.A
conventionalrabbit grotesque with exteriorsaw-tooth motif decorations,
replacestheshield.He hashandedhisscrollgiftfromtheskyrabbitto thelong-
hairedman who hasfinishedhisblood-lettingceremony.The sacrificial priest
is seated directlyabove the victimwho is in the proper supine position for
sacrifice.The mutilatedpriest,stilllackinga skirt,now holds therabbitscroll
and the cylinderwhich was tied behind his back during the ritualblood-
lettingscene. He has removed his sash thatbound the cylinderand looped it
aroundhisforearm.The sashmay be a naturalcounterpartto thescrolltrailing
therabbitgrotesquein Panel 5 counterparts. The sashfallsdown on thefaceof
theanointedsacrificialvictimwho is now provided withan elongatedupper
lip and a scroll-formed eye like therabbitrepresentative above him. This lip
formationis not a rabbitsign, but part of the vampire bat symbolismthat
plays a major role in post-sacrificialceremonies. A performerwith a
pronounced squint,who may be intoxicated,holds a globular pulque vase
similarto thoserepresentedin Maya and Aztec art.He also touchesthe sash
with his fingerto underscorethe importanceof thismotif.Similar pulque
vases fromwhich skeletonsrisesetin pools of pulque, are foundin the four
cornerpanels of thisball court.
A thirdrepresentation of the naked, long-hairedpriestof the pulque cult
appearsin Sculpture6 of theBuilding Columns. Here thepriestcarriesa sash,
a stringof beads and urinateson thebase of a magueyplant.He will place the
beads on theshoulderof thesmall,squintingvictimstandingbeforehim who
appearsto have been well plied with pulque in preparationforthissacrifice.
The complex pulque-rabbit symbolism continues outside the picture
framesof Panels 5 and 6 of the South Ball Court. Pairs of grotesqueheads
flankingthe panels incorporatea scroll repeatingthe elevated formof the
rabbitear in Panel 5. Their designis roughlysimilarto therecognisedrabbit
grotesquesas are thepairsof grotesquessetin thefriezesover thefourcorner
panelsin theSouth Ball Court (fig.8). Grotesquesabove thecornerpanelsare
separatedwith crossedbands, common sky signsin much of Mesoamerica.
The skeletonsrisingfromglobular pulque pots, set in pools of pulque, are
directlybelow therabbitgrotesques,two ofwhich(Panels i and 4) arefrontal,
open jaws of rabbitsrelatingto the facesof pulque gods over Panels 5 and 6.
The bordersover Panels 5 and 6 illustratean anthropomorphicaspect of
therabbit-pulquegod. The rightbody of thegod in Panel 5 is directlyover his
representative,the rabbit deity in a similar pose. A broad laughing or
yawningfacewithhumanfeaturesjoinstwo identicalprofilebodies. The god
carriesa sash wrapped around eitherwrist,counterpartsto the sashescarried
by priestsin Tajin rituals.Crossed scrollsat the sidesof thisupper friezeare
common Mesoamericanskysigns.The skyaspectof the rabbit-pulquegod,
withbentlegsto symbolisetheidea offlight, is in theskyover theTajin rituals.
His open mouth,a gleefulgrin or drunkenyawn, and squintingeyes,may
representan advanced stateof intoxication.
The single head and double body compositionresemblesthe schema of
mostyoke carvings.A figureon a yoke fromtheMinneapolisInstituteof Art

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124 M. E. KAMPEN

A B C E F

FIGURE 8.

hasa broadfaceandtwobodiesfollowing theexterior

surfaceoftheU-shaped
stone.Thismanalso holdssashesand mayrepresent anotherversionof the
pulque sky god. It is also possibletherefore
thatotheryokesrepresent
additionalaspectsof thepulquegod.
Fourmorevarieties of theanthropomorphic pulquegod appearoverthe
cornerpanelsoftheNorthBall Court.Threeofthegodshavelongextended
tonguesandareshownas iftheywerein flight. The fourthgod hasupraised
arms,no bodyand an open mouthliketheexamplesfromtheSouthBall
Court (fig.9). An unidentified
numberof rabbitgrotesques appearin the
friezesconnectingthepanels,includingone grotesqueovera centralpanel
representinga pool of pulqueand anotherrabbitgrotesqueis adjacentto a
vampirebatgrotesque.The relationship of therabbitand batsymbolism is
suggestedagainon thereversesideof a palmain theClevelandMuseumof
Art.A rabbit,deerand two otheranimalsappearveryneara dismembered
corpseof a sacrificial
victimbeingattackedby a vampirebat.
Rabbitsymbolism in AztecandClassicVeracruzartrepresentsone ofthe
many thematicconnexionsbetweenthesetwo Mexican art styles.The
anthropomorphic aspectoftherabbit-pulque godcorrespondswiththeAztec
god, Ometochtli(Two Rabbit), who was constantlyintoxicatedand
notoriousforhisbad behaviourwhenundertheinfluence of pulque.The
Aztecgodisoneofthe400children ofMayauel,goddessofthemagueyplant.

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 M. E. KAMPEN 125

FIGURE 9.

While it is usuallydangerousto borrow ideas fromAztec civilisationand use

them to explain earlierones, thereis a special relationshipbetween Aztec
iconographyand earlierMesoamericantraditionsthatmay make thispractice
permissiblein thiscontext.Ometochtliand his siblingsare pulque gods and
many of them may correspondto regional pulque gods taken over by the
expanding networkof Aztec authority.Deities fromoutside the Valley of
Mexico were importedintoTenochtitlanto become partsof theinternational
potpourribeing synthesised into theemergingand eclecticconceptof Aztec
religion.Ometochtli'scharacteris appropriatelybacchanalianforhis role as
champion of the potent pulque: and like his Mediterraneancounterpart,
Bacchus, Ometochtli may have come fromthe East.

R E FE R E N C E S

de El Tajin (Col. cient. arqueol.). Mexico: Instituto

Garcia Payon, Jose 1973. Los enigmnas
Nacional de Antropologia e Historia.

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126 M. E. KAMPEN

Kampen, M. E. 1972. The sculptures ofEl Tajin, Veracruz,Mexico. Gainesville: Univ. of Florida
Press.
Proskouriakoff, T. 1954. VarietiesofClassic CentralVeracruzsculpture (Contrib. Am. Anthrop.
Hist. 58). Cambridge, Mass.
Wilkerson,Jeffrey K. 1976. El Tajin: an introductionto a specialexhibitionof photographsand
drawings. UniversityGallery. Gainesville: Univ. of Florida.

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