Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ultson

Review

Application of ultrasound technology in the drying of food products T

a,⁎ a a a a b b
Dan Huang , Kaiyang Men , Dapeng Li , Tao Wen , Zhongliang Gong , Bengt Sunden , Zan Wu
a
Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South University of Forestry and Technology University, Changsha 410004, China
b
Department of Energy Sciences, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, Lund SE-22100, Sweden

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study presents a state-of-the-art overview on the application of ultrasound technology in the drying of food
Ultrasound pre-treatment products, including the ultrasound pre-treatment and ultrasound assisted drying. The effect of main parameters
Ultrasound assisted drying and ultrasound technology on the drying kinetics and food quality were discussed. Inconsistencies were pointed
Parametric effects out and analyzed in detail. Results showed that for ultrasound pre-treatment, the food products may lose or gain
Drying kinetics
water and increase of ultrasonic parameters (sonication time, amplitude and ultrasound power) promoted the
Food quality
water loss or water gain. When ultrasound technology was applied prior to drying, an increase in drying kinetics
was always observed, though some different results were also presented. For ultrasound assisted drying, the
ultrasound power always gave a positive effect on the drying process, however, the magnitude of ultrasound
improvement was largely dependent on the process variables, such as air velocity, air temperature, microwave
power and vacuum pressure, etc. The application of ultrasound technology will somehow affect the food quality,
including the physical and chemical ones. Generally, the ultrasound application can decrease the water activity,
improve the product color and reduce the nutrient loss.

1. Introduction quality of dried products has improved to a large extent. Recently,

Freshly harvested food products (e.g., fruits and vegetables) usually
have high water contents. The water provides conditions to grow and
reproduce microorganisms, leading to irreversible damage to food
products. Thus it is necessary to reduce the moisture content and nu-
trient loss by using appropriate preservation methods. Drying is widely
used to preserve food products. The removal of moisture can not only
inhibit the microbial growth, but also decrease the total weight of the
product, shorten the packaging space and thus minimize the packaging
and transportation cost [1].
Sun drying is the most traditional and simple method to dry food
products. However, sun drying depends entirely on natural environ-
mental conditions. Besides, the slowness of the drying process, high
labour requirement and the exposure to the surrounding environment
during the drying process limit its application. With increased re-
quirement for food nutrition and health among consumers, researchers
are challenged to explore innovative ways to develop high-quality dried
products [2]. Nowadays, most works are dealt with the relationships
between drying factors (e.g., drying temperature and air velocity, etc.)
and quality aspects (e.g. retention of nutritional content, colour change,
rehydration capacity, texture and sensory quality, etc.). Using in-
novative technologies to improve and optimize existing techniques, the
various new drying methods such as hot-air, microwave, freeze drying,
vacuum, and hybrid techniques (e.g. hot air-vacuum, hot air-micro-
wave, microwave-freeze, microwave-vacuum, etc.) have invariably
been adopted instead of sun drying [3–6].
However, several disadvantages of these dehydration methods have
been identified, such as the relatively large energy consumption and
quality deterioration of the final product for hot-air drying, uneven
drying or overheated for microwave drying and high cost expenditure
for freeze and hybrid drying, etc. Thus, pre-treatment is often employed
before drying. Pre-treatment prior to drying is a well-explored area, and
many methods have been developed. The chemical and physical pre-
treatments of fruits and vegetables have been reviewed by Deng et al.
[7]. They found that although chemical pre-treatment can speed the
drying process, it causes soluble nutrients losses and triggers food safety
problems by chemical residuals. Thermal pre-treatment can destroy
microorganisms, soft the texture and increase the drying rate. However,
it induces undesirable quality of products.
On the other hand, non-thermal technologies (e.g., ultrasound and
pulsed electrical field, etc.) can be a better alternative to overcome
these drawbacks. Ultrasound pre-treatment of food products before
drying has been a hotspot in recent years and has shown potential in
greatly decreasing the drying time. Wiktor et al. [8] investigated the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hiwactb@163.com (D. Huang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2019.104950
Received 7 November 2019; Received in revised form 19 December 2019; Accepted 26 December 2019
Available online 27 December 2019
1350-4177/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
D. Huang, et al.
Nomenclature
A amplitude, μm
AA antioxidant activity
AFD atmospheric freeze-drying
CV convective drying
CVMW convective-microwave drying
CVMWinter convective drying with intermittent microwave
CVMWUS ultrasound and microwave assisted convective drying
CVUS ultrasound assisted convective drying
D distance, m
De effective moisture diffusivity
EP electroplasmolysis
f frequency, Hz
FD freeze drying
I intensity, W/m2, W/m3
IR irraditive drying
k mass transfer coefficient
combined effect of pulsed electric field and ultrasound pre-treatments
on the drying characteristics of carrots. They showed that the pre-
treatments contributed to a shorter drying time by up to 40% and a
higher retention of carotenoid content. Tao et al. [9] also applied ul-
trasound pre-treatment on the drying of mulberry leaves. The drying
time and accordingly the energy consumption were significantly re-
duced.
The ultrasound technology was also used to assist the above drying
methods. For example, the ultrasound assisted convective drying en-
ables the drying temperature to be a low value and thus can be applied
in drying heat-sensitive materials. Szadzinska et al. [10] investigated
the drying characteristics of red beetroot by a hybrid drying technology
(ultrasound + microwave + convective drying). The utilization of
ultrasound not only reduced the total drying time and energy con-
sumption but also enhanced the product quality. Tao et al. [11] de-
veloped a hot-air convective dryer coupled with a contacting ultra-
sound system to the dehydration of garlic slices. The drying process was
significantly accelerated. The retention of organosulfur compounds was
higher and the browning problem was also alleviated. Baslar et al. [12]
compared three different drying methods (ultrasonic-vacuum drying
(USV), vacuum drying (VD) and oven drying (OD)). The beef and
chicken meats dried faster with USV than with VD and OD techniques.
The aim of the present study is to assess the ultrasound technology
used in food drying including ultrasound pre-treatment and ultrasound
assisted drying in the last decade. The effect of ultrasound technology
on the drying process (such as drying rate, effective moisture diffusivity
and energy consumption, etc.) and quality aspects of the dried products
are reviewed in detail.
2. Mechanism of ultrasound technology
Ultrasound is a kind of mechanical waves with a frequency between
20 kHz and 1 MHz. When it is applied to food drying, there are com-
monly three different ways, namely ultrasound pre-treatment (Fig. 1),
airborne ultrasound assisted drying (Fig. 2) and contacting ultrasound
assisted drying (Fig. 3).
For ultrasound pre-treatment, the ultrasound is usually applied ei-
ther by an ultrasonic bath or by a probe to transmit ultrasound waves
into the aqueous media, e.g., distilled water. The acoustic waves induce
compression and expansion of the samples (sponge effect), create mi-
croscopic channels in the sample, and thus lead to the leakage of in-
tracellular liquid to the surroundings. When the ultrasound power is
sufficiently high, the rarefaction cycle may exceed the attractive forces
of the liquid molecules and then cavitation bubbles are produced. These
bubbles gradually grow to a critical size until they become unstable and
2
Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950
MWVD microwave-vacuum drying
OD oven drying
P power, W
Pm microwave power, W
Pv vacuum pressure, Pa
PEF pulsed electric field
SD sun drying
T temperature, °C
t time, min
Total phenolic content TPC
Total flavonoid content TFC
US ultrasound technology
USODIT convective intermittent drying by ultrasound assisted os-
motic solution
USV ultrasonic-vacuum drying
UVP ultrasonic combined vacuum pre-treatment
VD vacuum drying
violently collapse. The collapse of cavitation bubbles induces very high
and quick changes in local pressure and temperature, leading to the
break-down of water molecules into highly reactive free radicals, such
as H+ and OH−. These free radicals may accelerate certain chemical
reactions and modify other molecules. For example, the hydroxyl ra-
dicals can react with easily oxidable food compounds [13]. Chemat
et al. [14] found that the flavor and composition of sunflower oil were
deteriorated due to the oxidation produced during the ultrasound
treatment. Thus, the formation of free radicals is not good for preser-
ving bioactive compounds such as phenols. However, it may enhance
the antioxidant activity of other components, such as flavonoids. With
the bubble size variation and subsequent collapse of bubbles, strong
micro-streaming can be created. The micro-streaming will induce dra-
matic agitation and thus enhance the heat and mass transfer during
food processing. Moreover, a micro-jet into the bubble can be also
generated with the implosion of cavitation bubbles close to the so-
lid–liquid interface. The micro-jet also enhances the mass and heat
transfer between the liquid and the solid by breaking the respective
diffusion boundary layer [15].
For ultrasound assisted drying, the influence of airborne ultrasound
on the food drying, especially the convective drying, has been widely
investigated. The pressure at gas/liquid interfaces oscillates under high-
Fig. 1. Experimental set-up: (1) ultrasound transducer, (2) ultrasonic generator,
(3) ultrasound probe (19 mm), (4) data logger, (5) temperature probe, (6)
jacketed glass beaker, (7) computer and (h) depth of probe into the water
(2.5 cm) [16].
D. Huang, et al.
Fig. 2. A. Sketch of the ultrasonic system placement on the through flow convective drier; B. Detail of the metallic frame used to place the carrot cubes during drying
experiments [17].
Fig. 3. Scheme of hybrid drying system (a) and vibrating plate image (b). 1:
ultrasound generator; 2: ultrasound transducer; 3: hot-air convective dryer; 4:
fan; 5: stainless steel vibrating plate; 6: air outlet [11].
intensity airborne ultrasound. During the negative phase of the pressure
cycle, the moisture moves out and it does not re-enter into the sample
during the positive pressure phase, which accelerates the evaporation
rate of moisture. In convective drying, the acoustic energy induces an
oscillating-velocity effect and this will also speed up the drying process.
Besides, high-intensity airborne ultrasound produces micro-streaming
3
Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950
at the interfaces. The diffusion boundary layer is reduced and the water
diffusion is enhanced. Therefore, the utilization of airborne ultrasound
technology can effectively accelerate the drying process.
However, the high attenuation of acoustic energy by a gas medium
and the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and the applied
system limit the utilization of airborne ultrasound. If the ultrasonic
energy can be directly in contact with the food materials, the problem
of energy loss will be solved theoretically. When the vibrating system is
directly attached to the food material, a good acoustic impedance
matching allows the ultrasonic energy to deeply penetrate into the
product. A rapid series of alternative contractions and expansions are
created, in a similar way to a sponge when it is squeezed and released
repeatedly. The alternating stress makes dehydration easy by creating
microscopic channels for water movement. Besides, high-intensity ul-
trasound induces cavitation phenomenon that is also beneficial for the
removal of moisture contents which are strongly attached to the pro-
ducts. Generally, the improvement in the drying rate by contacting
ultrasound is better than that by airborne ultrasound. However, the
direct contact between emitter and products makes it difficult to im-
plement this system on an industrial scale.
3. Ultrasound pre-treatment on food drying
3.1. Parametric effects of ultrasound pre-treatment
The parameters during ultrasound pre-treatment, such as ultrasonic
power, sonication time, frequency and the amplitude of the sonicator
probe will significantly influence the drying characteristics and quality
of food materials. For example, Nowacka et al. [18] applied ultrasound
pre-treatment for 10, 20 and 30 min in an ultrasonic bath before the
convective drying of apples. The drying time firstly increased with the
sonication time and then decreased, i.e., the apple with 20 min ultra-
sound pre-treatment presented the longest drying time among the three
pretreated samples. The parametric effects of ultrasound pre-treatment
were summarized in Table 1 and inconsistencies were pointed out.
From Table 1 we can see that the effect of sonication time during
food drying has been widely investigated and presented in the open
literature. The sonication time shows varying effects on water loss,
drying rate and food quality. Generally, food products lost water during
ultrasound pre-treatment when an osmotic solution was employed. As
reported by Rodrigues et al. [31], papaya lost its water to the osmotic
solution and the water loss increased with increasing sonication time.
Similar results were also found in pineapple [33,34], pomegranate
D. Huang, et al. Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950

Table 1
Parametric effects of ultrasound pre-treatment on food drying.
Species Pre-treatment conditions Main results

Apple [18] Water immersing; f = 35 kHz, T = 25 °C, t = 10, 20 and 30 min. The weight loss increased as the sonication time decreased;
The drying rate was the fastest at 30 min ultrasound pre-treatment, followed
by 10 and 20 min;
Longer sonication time led to greater destruction of structure.
Apple [19] Water immersing; f = 21 and 35 kHz, t = 30 min. The loss of dry matter, the Deff and the drying rate increased with increasing
frequency.
Apple [20] Water immersing; f = 25 kHz, P = 200 W, t = 5, 10 and 15 min. The longer the sonication time, the more soluble solids were lost;
Water loss increased with sonication time;
Shorter sonication time (5 min) resulted in lower water activity.
Banana [21] Water immersing; f = 25 kHz, T = 30 °C, t = 10, 20 and 30 min. Water gain increased with sonication time, while drying time decreased
with sonication time.
Blackberry [22] Water immersing; A = 45 and 90 μm, f = 24 kHz, P = 400 W, T = 15 °C, An increase in the value of ultrasonic parameters (amplitude and sonication
t = 10, 20 and 30 min. time) promoted a reduction in antioxidant retention.
Carrot [16] Water immersing; A = 24.4, 42.7 and 61 μm, f = 20 kHz, P = 1.5 kW, Higher ultrasound amplitudes and longer sonication time resulted in
T = 25 °C, t = 3 and 10 min. improved retention of polyacetylenes;
The lowest ultrasound amplitude level of 24.4 μm resulted in the highest
retention of carotenoids in ultrasound pre-treatment followed by freeze
drying.
Carrot [23] Water immersing; f = 25 kHz, P = 700 W, T = 23 °C, t = 30 and 60 min. The dried samples at low temperature and short ultrasound pre-treatment
time presented high capacity to reach a maximum moisture content.
Carrot [24] Water immersing; f = 21 and 35 kHz, T = 25 °C, t = 10, 20 and 30 min. Longer sonication time led to higher energy consumption;
Lower frequency and shorter sonication time resulted in better retention of
the carotenoids.
Cranberry [25] Water immersing; f = 35 and 130 kHz With increasing the frequency of ultrasound, hardness and water activity
were decreased;
The color difference was lower at higher frequency.
Guava [26] Osmotic dehydration; Indirect sonication: f = 25 kHz, P = 1, 1.75 and The ultrasound input (power and amplitude) and sonication time increased
2.5 kW, t = 20, 40 and 60 min; Direct sonication: A = 15%, 25% and 35%, the water loss, solid gain, and total color change of samples significantly;
P = 400 W, f = 20 kHz, t = 6, 13 and 20 min; Indirect sonication contributed to high water loss and solid gain with
acceptable total color change than direct sonication.
Melon [27] Water immersing and Osmotic dehydration; f = 25 kHz, I = 4870 W/m2, Samples immersed in distilled water presented negative water loss values,
T = 30 °C, t = 10, 20 and 30 min. while in sucrose solution the values were positive, and were higher when
sonication time increased.
Mushroom [28] Water immersing; f = 25 kHz, P = 154 W, T = 26 °C, t = 20 and 25 min. Water gain increased with increasing sonication time.
Okra [29] Water immersing; f = 25 kHz, P = 80, 200 and 320 W, T = 25 °C, t = 5, 10 The weight loss increased with the increase of ultrasound power and
and 15 min. sonication time.
Onion [30] Water immersing; A = 24.4, 42.7 and 61 μm, f = 20 kHz, T = 70 °C, t = 1, 3 Longer sonication time led to more severe oxidative and thermal
and 5 min. degradation;
Lower amplitudes led to higher antioxidant activity, while longer sonication
time reduced the antioxidant activity; Higher amplitudes and longer
sonication time resulted in greater leaching of flavonoids;
The longer the sonication time, the higher the color difference was.
Papaya [31] Water immersing and osmotic dehydration; f = 25 kHz, I = 4870 W/m2, Water loss increased with sonication time;
T = 30 °C, t = 10, 20 and 30 min. Samples immersed in distilled water presented positive sugar loss values,
while in osmotic solutions, the values were negative and increased with
sonication time.
Pear [32] Water immersing; A = 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%, f = 25 kHz, P = 500 W, Drying time was significantly shortened with an increase of ultrasonic
T = 25 °C, t = 5 min. amplitude;
By increasing the ultrasonic amplitudes, the hardness of the samples
decreased.
Pineapple [33] Water immersing and osmotic dehydration; f = 25 kHz, I = 4870 W/m2, Water loss and water diffusivity increased with increasing sonication time.
T = 30 °C, t = 10, 20 and 30 min.
Pineapple [34] Osmotic dehydration; f = 40 kHz, I = 55.5 kW/m3, T = 25 °C, t = 20 and The osmotic dehydration pre-treatment resulted in an increase in the dry
40 min. matter and a decrease in water content, the longer the sonication time, the
greater the changes.
Pineapple [35] Water immersing; f = 40 kHz, I = 55.5 W/L, T = 25 °C, t = 20 and 40 min. The moisture content increased with increasing sonication time.
Pomegranate [36] Osmotic dehydration; f = 25 and 40 kHz, P = 100 W, T = 30 °C, t = 10, 20, Water loss increased with sonication time;
30, 45, 60 and 80 min. Samples at 25 kHz showed the highest amount of solutes leaked out;
The lowest water activity was achieved at 40 kHz.
Quince [37] Water immersing; f = 24 kHz, P = 400 W, T = 30 °C, t = 15 and 30 min. Solid gain increased with an increase in ultrasound time.
Seaweed [38] Water immersing; A = 22.8, 68.4 and 114 μm, f = 20 kHz, P = 750 W, Lower amplitudes led to higher weight gains;
t = 10 min. The loss of solids from seaweed to water increased with the amplitudes
level;
Increasing the amplitude level resulted in a significant reduction in drying
time.
Strawberry [39] Osmotic dehydration; f = 25 kHz, P = 60 W, T = 30 °C, t = 10, 20, 30 and Hue decreased with increasing sonication time;
45 min The lightness increased with increasing sonication time at low osmotic
gradient and decreased with increasing sonication time at high osmotic
gradient.
Strawberry [40] Osmotic dehydration; f = 40 kHz, I = 0.2 W/m2, T = 20, 30 and 40 °C, The water loss increased with increase in sonication time;
t = 10, 20 and 30 min Short sonication time minimized color losses.
Strawberry [41] Water immersing and osmotic dehydration; f = 25 and 40 kHz, T = 30 °C, Strawberry pretreated in distilled water gained moisture, whereas
t = 10, 20, 30 and 45 min. strawberries pretreated in sucrose solutions lost water to the osmotic
(continued on next page)

4
D. Huang, et al. Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950

Table 1 (continued)

Species Pre-treatment conditions Main results

solution;
The water loss decreased with an increase in frequency.
Tilapia fillet [42] Osmotic dehydration; P = 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450 and 500 W, t = 30, The Ca2+-ATPase activity and rehydration rate was the highest at 400 W,
40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 min. while the hardness and chewiness was the lowest at 400 W;
After 60–70 min pre-treatment, the tilapia fillets exhibited a good texture
state, whereas an overlong duration resulted in worse texture.

[36], melon [27], guava [26] and strawberry [40]. These samples all
presented positive water loss values and the water loss increased with
sonication time. However, different results were also observed. For
example, Garcia-Noguera et al. [39] found that increasing the sonica-
tion time at 25 kHz appeared to actually decrease water loss values.
When food products were immersed in distilled water, water loss or
water gain might occur. Water loss from food products were observed in
refs. [20,29,31] and the value increased with sonication time. However,
although Nowacka et al. [18] found that the use of ultrasound pre-
treatment resulted in weight loss of apple cubes, the extension of so-
nication time did not increase the water loss value. After 30 min of
ultrasound treatment the weight loss were the smallest (0.8 ± 0.37%).
Samples subjected to ultrasound treatment for 10 and 20 min lost
2.3 ± 0.08 and 3.0 ± 0.19% of weight, respectively. On the other
hand, Garcia-Noguera et al. [41] observed water gain for strawberry
pretreated in distilled water and the value increased with sonication
time. Similar results were also presented in ref. [21] for banana, ref.
[28] for mushroom and ref. [27] for melon.
The sonication time also affects the drying rate and food quality.
Azoubel et al. [21] investigated the effect of ultrasound pre-treatment
on the drying kinetics of banana. Their results showed that the drying
rate increased with the increase in sonication time (10, 20 and 30 min).
While in Nowacka’s study [18], the drying rate was the slowest at
20 min ultrasound pre-treatment for apple cubes (10, 20 and 30 min).
As the sonication time increased, the total color change of food pro-
ducts also increased significantly [26,30,40], while the antioxidant
activity reduced [22,30].
The investigation of the effects of other parameters (ultrasound
power, frequency and amplitude) were limited compared to the effect
of sonication time. Kadam et al. [38] presented the effect of the

Table 2
Effects of ultrasound pre-treatment on food drying kinetics.
Species Drying conditions Main results

Apple [43] CV: T = 60 °C The total drying time was reduced by about 27.3% and the water effective diffusivity was
increased by up to 28.1%.
Apple [10] CV: T = 45 and 60 °C, v = 1, 2 and 3 m/s The combination of the ultrasonic pre-treatment and ultrasound assisted air-drying reduced the
total drying time by up to 58%, increased the water effective diffusivity by up to 93% and
increased the external mass transfer by up to 30%.
Apple [18] CV: T = 70 °C, v = 1.5 m/s. The drying time was reduced by 31%.
Apple [19] CV: T = 70 °C, v = 2 m/s. The drying time was reduced by 13–17%, however, the effective water diffusivity was not
affected.
Apple [45] CV: T = 50 °C, v = 2 m/s. No influence on the kinetics.
Agaricus bisporus [46] MWVD: Pm = 481, 673, and 865 W, Pv = 70 kPa. The average effective moisture diffusivity was increased.
Banana [44] CV: T = 50 and 60 °C Drying time was reduced by 28 and 18% at 50 and 60 °C, respectively
Banana [21] CV: T = 50 and 70 °C, v = 3 m/s. The drying time was reduced by 4.5–40%.
Banana [47] CV: T = 80 °C, v = 3 m/s. The drying time was reduced by up to 21.6% and the energy consumption was reduced by up to
22%.
Blackberry [22] CV: T = 40, 50 and 60 °C, v = 3 m/s. The drying rate was increased by almost five times with ultrasound at 90 μm for 20 min and air
temperature at 60 °C; The water effective diffusivity was increased almost 210% at 40 °C.
Carrot [48] Continuous and intermittent (5 min of cooling and The total drying time was reduced by 35% and 39% for intermittent and continuous drying,
30 min of heating) CV: T = 70 °C. respectively.
Carrot [8] CV: T = 70 °C, v = 2 m/s. The total processing time of PEF-US and US-PEF was reduced by 6–31% and the effective water
diffusion coefficient was increased.
Carrot [23] CV: T = 40 and 60 °C, v = 2 m/s. The drying rate with ultrasound for 30 min and dried at 40 °C was lower than that of the control
sample, while the opposite occurs in the same samples drying at 60 °C.
Guava [26] CV: T = 70 °C, v = 0.06 m/s The ultrasound pre-osmotic pre-treatments reduced the drying time by 11–33% and increased
the water effective diffusivity by 18–35%.
Melon [27] CV: T = 60 °C, v = 2 m/s. The drying time was reduced up to 12.8%.
Mushroom [28] CV: T = 50 °C, v = 1.5 m/s. The drying rate was increased by 34.78%, and 37.10% with US and EP + US combination,
respectively.
Okra [29] CV: T = 70 °C, v = 2 m/s. UVP can effectively improve the convective drying efficiency and reduce energy consumption.
Papaya [31] CV: T = 60 °C, v = 0.5 m/s. The effective water diffusivity was increased by 28.7%.
Parsley leaves [49] CVMW: P = 100 and 300 W, T = 20, 30 and 40 °C, The drying time was reduced by up to 29.8% and the energy expenditures was reduced
v = 0.7 m/s. maximally by 33.6%.
Pear [32] IR: T = 70 °C. The diffusion of water to the surface was enhanced and the drying time was shortened.
Pineapple [34] CV: T = 40 and 70 °C, v = 1 m/s. The drying time was reduced by 35%.
Pineapple [33] CV: T = 60 °C. The effective water diffusivity was increased by 64.3%.
Pineapple [35] CV: T = 40 and 70 °C, v = 1 m/s. The drying with ultrasound pre-treatment was faster.
Pomegranate arils [36] CV: v = 1.5 m/s. The effective diffusivity was increased by 43% and 66% during the first and second falling rate
period at the frequency of 40 kHz, respectively.
Potato [50] IR: T = 100 °C The drying time was reduced by 30% and 23% with US + Ethanol and US + Water,
respectively.
Seaweed [38] CV: T = 50 °C, v = 0.3 m/s. The dying time was reduced by up to 12.62%.
Strawberry [41] CV: T = 60 °C, v = 0.5 m/s. The effective water diffusivity was increased by 44% with ultrasound at 25 kHz for 30 min in
50% w/w osmotic solution.

5
D. Huang, et al.
amplitude of the sonicator probe on the drying kinetics of seaweed. A
weight gain was observed and the lower the amplitude, the higher the
weight gain. Kek et al. [26] observed water loss when guava slices were
ultrasound pretreated in osmotic solutions and the larger the amplitude,
the higher the water loss. Besides, the drying time and antioxidant re-
tention were significantly decreased, while the total color change was
increased with the increase in ultrasonic amplitude. The weight loss
and color difference also increased with a decrease in frequency and an
increase in ultrasound power.
In conclusion, the food products may lose or gain water during the
ultrasound pre-treatment, however, these results are expectable and are
due to the combined effect of ultrasound pre-treatment and the con-
centration gradient between food products and the liquid medium
(distilled water or osmotic solution). On one hand, the ultrasound pre-
treatment can promote the changes of the food tissue such as widening
the intercellular space by mechanical vibration and cavitation phe-
nomenon, and this will facilitate the loss of water. On the other hand,
the concentration gradient will also influence the direction of mass
transfer. For example, Oliveira et al. [43] found that during the ultra-
sonic pre-treatment in distilled water and in an osmotic solution of 25
°Brix, the Malay apple absorbed water from the liquid medium. How-
ever, when the apple was immersed in an osmotic solution of 50 °Brix,
water loss was observed. This was mainly caused by the concentration
difference of water and sugar. A high concentration of sugar was re-
mained at the surface of the apple and created an extra resistance for
water transfer from the fruit to the liquid medium. As the sugar con-
centration at the surface of the sample was slightly lower than 50 °Brix,
a low water loss (about 5%) occurred when the fruit was immersed in
the 50 °Brix osmotic solution. When the fruit was immersed in a 25
°Brix osmotic solution or distilled water, water moved toward the fruit
due to a higher sugar concentration at the surface of the sample than in
the liquid medium. The utilization of ultrasound promoted the mass
transfer between the products and liquid medium and thus an increase
in the value of ultrasonic parameters (sonication time, amplitude and
ultrasound power) increases the water loss or water gain. Besides, the
increase in the ultrasonic parameters reduces the drying time sig-
nificantly. However, it also increases the color change of dried products
[26]. Thus suitable ultrasound condition should be chosen to achieve
the best results.
3.2. Effect of ultrasound pre-treatment on drying kinetics
Effect of ultrasound pre-treatment on drying kinetics was summar-
ized in Table 2. From the Table, one can see that the increase in drying
kinetics is always observed when ultrasound technology is applied prior
to drying. Romero et al. [22] evaluated the effect of ultrasound pre-
treatment on the convective drying of Andean blackberry. They found
that the drying rate increased by almost five times when blackberries
were pretreated with ultrasound at 90 μm for 20 min and then dried at
60 °C. The effective water diffusivity also increased by almost 210%
even though at low temperatures. Fernandes et al. [33] investigated the
application of ultrasound pre-treatment on the convective drying of
pineapple. Their results showed that the effective water diffusivity in-
creased by 64.3%. Fuente et al. [44] also applied ultrasound pre-
treatment before the hot-air drying of banana. The drying time was
reduced by 28% and 18% at 50 and 60 °C, respectively.
Different results were also presented. Ricce et al. [23] conducted
ultrasound pre-treatment before hot-air drying. As shown in Fig. 4, the
drying rate with ultrasound for 30 min and dried at 40 °C was lower
than that of the control sample. Fijalkowska et al. [19] found that there
was no significant effect of ultrasound pre-treatment on the effective
water diffusivity of apple, which was only 2% higher in comparison
with the untreated one. Mierzwa et al. [45] also presented that contrary
to the expectation, the ultrasound pre-treatment did not influence the
kinetics of apple. The drying processes were not shortened and pro-
ceeded in a similar way as without initial pre-treatment.
6
Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950
The enhancement or even deterioration of the drying process with
the ultrasound pre-treatment may be the comprehensive effect of the
drying condition, food structure and water gain or loss during the ul-
trasound pre-treatment. As mentioned before, by applying ultrasound
pre-treatment, the cell disruption and microscopic channels might
occur, which makes the water movement easy. As the resistance of
water migration decreases, the drying process accelerates. For the de-
terioration of drying process, e.g., in Ricce’s publication [23], carrots
gained water during the ultrasound pre-treatment. The water filled the
intercellular spaces and/or entered into the cells. The accumulation of
water inside the cell hindered the drying process. Besides, under rela-
tively low drying temperature (40 °C) and short ultrasound pre-treat-
ment time, the cell disruption and tissue damages were relatively small.
Thus the improvement effect by ultrasound pre-treatment diminished.
However, increasing the drying temperature to 60 °C was enough to
counteract these negative effects as higher temperature increased the
heat and mass transfer driving force and thus enhanced the drying ki-
netics.
3.3. Effect of ultrasound pre-treatment on food quality
The ultrasound pre-treatment will somehow affect the quality of
food products, including physical and chemical ones.
Water activity is one of the physical properties most concerned. In
Kowalski’s study [48], it was found that ultrasound pre-treatment
caused a significant decrease (66% for UDODIT) in the water activity of
carrot. Similar results were observed in the convective-intermittent
drying of cherry [51] (significant decrease of 18%), hot-air or micro-
wave assisted hot-air drying of cranberry [25], convective drying of
mushroom (significant decrease of 19%) [28] and convective drying of
cheery [52] (slight decrease of 4–7%). Different result for the effect of
ultrasound pre-treatment on the water activity was also obtained in the
convective drying of apple with a ultrasound frequency of 35 kHz [19]
(significant increase of 10–13%).
Color change of the dried products is also a key parameter to take
into account when judging the food quality. Dehsheikh et al. [47] ob-
served a significant decrease (33.6%) in total color change in the con-
vective drying of banana slices under ultrasound pre-treatment. They
thought it was due to the increase in the brightness of the samples and
the decrease of the drying time. Similar results were also obtained in
the convective drying of guava slices [26] (17–38%), hot-air drying of
apple [45] and intermittent convective drying of carrot [48] (79.6% for
Fig. 4. Drying rate variation of carrot slices at 40 °C with and without ultra-
sound pre-treatment [23].
D. Huang, et al.
UDODIT). Jiang et al. [46] reported that the ultrasound pre-treatment
can help in improving the product color of the microwave-vacuum-
dried A. bisporus slices. Better preservation of color values were also
observed in the drying of carrot [16], seaweed [38], mushroom [28]
and strawberry [39]. However, Sledz et al. [49] stated that the ultra-
sound pre-treatment did not change the color of dried parsley leaves.
On the other hand, Ren [30] found that the ultrasound pre-treatment
contributed to a significant color change of onion. Similarly, out-
standing alterations in the color change were also observed in the case
of pomegranate arils [36] (47.4%) and okra [29] (28.5%).
Rehydration ability is another parameter to describe the quality of
dried food products. Nowacka et al. [18] found that the rehydration
capacity of apple subjected to ultrasonic treatment for shorter time (10
and 20 min) was lower than the untreated one. Rojas et al. [50] also
found the rehydration capacity reduction of potato slices when pre-
treated with Ethanol + US. They stated that the structure modification
on samples was the main reason for lower rehydration rate. However,
Ricce et al. [23] observed that the ultrasound pre-treatment improved
the rehydration rate at low temperatures. Similar results were also
presented by Gamboa-Santos et al. for carrot [53], Cakmak et al. for
mushroom [28] and Wang et al. for okra. Fijalkowska et al. [19] also
observed an increase in the rehydration rate, though the increase was
not significant.
Other physical properties were also investigated, including hard-
ness, shrinkage, density and porosity. Dujmic et al. [32] observed a
significant decrease in the hardness of pear under ultrasound pre-
treatment (up to 40.6%). Kek et al. [26] found that the ultrasound as-
sisted osmotic solution (70 °Brix) pre-treatment decreased the hardness
of the hot-air dried guava by an extreme of 71% approaching the
softness of fresh sample. Shamaei et al. [25] and Allahdad et al. [36]
also observed hardness reduction of cranberry and pomegranate aril.
The shrinkage of dried banana slices was investigated by Dehsheikh
et al. [47]. It was found that the ultrasound pre-treatment significantly
reduced the shrinkage by 71.8%. Similar result was also observed in
Cakmak’s study [28]. However, Nowacka et al. [18] observed that the
ultrasound pretreated apples presented 9–11% higher shrinkage than
untreated ones. Ultrasound pre-treatment also increased the porosity
[18,47,54] and decreased the density of food products [18,28,47].
Researchers also focused on the chemical properties of dried food
products, such as phenolic, flavonoid, carotenoid and anthocyanin
content and antioxidant activity. It was shown in Dehsheikh’s study that
with increasing ultrasonic power, the total phenolic content (TPC) of
the dried banana slices increased significantly by 113.7% [47]. The
increase in TPC by ultrasound pre-treatment was also obtained by Ren
Table 3
Parametric effects of ultrasound assisted food drying.
Species Pre-treatment conditions
Apple [56] Airborne; f = 20 kHz, P = 75 and 90 W
Apple [57] Airborne; f = 26 kHz, P = 100 and 200 W
Apple [58] Airborne; f = 21.8 kHz, I = 18.5 and 30.8 kW/m3
Carrot [59] Airborne; D = 15, 20, 25 and 30 cm, f = 21 kHz, P = 50, 100,
150 and 200 W.
Carrot and lemon peel [60] Airborne; f = 21.7 kHz, I = 4, 8, 12, 16, 21, 25, 29, 33 and
37 kW/m3
Cassava and apple [61] Airborne; f = 21.8 kHz, I = 6, 12, 19, 25 and 31 kW/m3
Eggplant [62] Airborne; f = 21.8 kHz, I = 6, 12, 19, 25, 31, and 37 kW/m3.
Eggplant [63] Airborne; f = 20 kHz, P = 45 and 90 W
Garlic slices [11] Contacting; f = 20 kHz, I = 216.8, 902.7 and 1513.5 W/m2.
Green pepper [64] Airborne; f = 20 kHz, P = 100 and 200 W
Model food [65] Airborne; f = 20 kHz, P = 60 and 120 W.
Peas [66] Airborne; f = 20 kHz, P = 15.3, 43.1 and 68.2 W
Pistachio [67] Airborne; f = 20 kHz, P = 500 and 1000 W
Potato [68] Airborne; f = 21.8 kHz, I = 6, 12, 19, 25, 31 and 37 kW/m3
Raspberry [69] Airborne; P = 100 and 200 W.
Strawberry [70] Airborne; f = 21.8 kHz, P = 30 and 60 W.
7
Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950
for hot-air dried and freeze dried onions [30] and Wang for convective
dried okra [29]. However, reduction of TPC was also observed in other
literatures. Cakmak found that TPC decreased by 7.3% with ultrasound
pre-treatment [28], while Gamboa-Santos et al. [53] observed that
there was hardly any change in the TPC and antioxidant activity. In
Ren’s study [30], the antioxidant activity reduced with relatively long
ultrasound processing time (e.g., 5 min). Siucinska et al. [52] and
Carlos et al. [22] also found antioxidant activity reduction by applying
ultrasound pre-treatment. However, Wang et al. [29] found that the
antioxidant activity of pretreated samples was little higher than the
control samples. Besides, the total flavonoid content (TFC) was also
higher than that in the control sample, which was the same as in Reikn’s
study [30]. The ultrasound pre-treatment also improved the retention
of carotenoid content, as presented in refs. [8,16,24,52]. On the other
hand, Silva et al. [27] stated that no significant difference of carotenoid
content was found between the sample pretreated with ultrasound and
vacuum and the sample without pre-treatment. As to the ultrasound
effect on the anthocyanin content, Allahdad et al. [36] found that an-
thocyanin content under pre-treatments was higher than that in fresh
pomegranate arils. However, negative effect of sonication on antho-
cyanin content was also observed, although the difference was not
statistically significant [52].
4. Ultrasound assisted food drying
4.1. Parametric effects of ultrasound assisted drying
The parameters during ultrasound assisted drying, such as the type
of application, the ultrasonic radiation distance and the ultrasound
power, also significantly influence the drying characteristics and
quality of food materials. For example, Schossler et al. [55] investigated
the continuous and intermittent ultrasound assisted convective drying
of apple and red bell pepper. They found that the drying rate was sig-
nificantly improved even though the net sonication time was 50%.
However, if the net sonication time was reduced to only 10%, an im-
provement on the drying kinetics was no longer observed. The para-
metric effects of ultrasound assisted food drying were summarized in
Table 3.
From Table 3 one can see that the effect of ultrasonic power on food
drying have been widely investigated. Kowalski et al. [57] investigated
the ultrasound assisted convective drying of apples. The drying time
decreased from 235 min (pure convective drying) to 185 and 145 min
at ultrasonic power of 100 and 200 W, respectively. Kouchakzadeh
et al. [67] applied a new approach of ultrasound assisted sun drying on
Main results
The drying rate increased with increasing ultrasonic power.
The drying rate increased with increasing ultrasonic power.
The drying time significantly reduced as the ultrasound intensity increased.
The drying rate increased with the increase of ultrasound power and the decrease
of ultrasonic radiation distance.
The drying kinetics and De increased significantly as more acoustic power
intensity was applied.
The more ultrasound power applied, the faster the drying.
The higher the power, the faster the moisture loss.
The drying rate increased with increasing ultrasound power intensity.
The drying time decreased and the color difference increased with the increase of
ultrasound intensity.
The drying time decreased with increasing ultrasound power.
The drying rate increased with increasing ultrasound power.
Increasing the ultrasonic power increased the drying rate and De.
The average drying efficiency increased with increasing ultrasound power.
The higher the applied power, the faster the drying kinetics.
The drying time decreased with increasing ultrasound power.
The drying rate, De and k increased with increasing ultrasonic power.
D. Huang, et al.
pistachios. The average drying efficiency increased from 8.5% (sun
drying) to 14.7% and 28% with 500 W and 1000 W ultrasonic power.
Kowalski et al. [69] conducted CV, CVMW, CVUS (ultrasonic power:
100 and 200 W) and CVMWUS (ultrasonic power: 200 W) drying of
raspberries. The results showed that drying with ultrasound power of
100 W and 200 W reduced the drying time by 54% and 63.6%, re-
spectively, in comparison to pure CV drying. Gallego-Juarez et al. [71]
also investigated the effect of acoustic pressure level on the drying of
carrot. They found that the effect of increasing the acoustic pressure
was scarcely appreciable. The improvement effect only occurred at the
first 10 min and then diminished. However, when the ultrasonic energy
was applied in direct contact with the carrot samples, the drying rate
was remarkably improved.
The ultrasonic power also affects the food quality. Tao et al. [11]
applied contacting ultrasound technology in the convective drying of
garlic slices. Although the total color change increased with the ultra-
sonic power intensity, the sample presented whiter color than the pure
convective dried one. It indicated that the original white color of garlic
can be better preserved under modest ultrasonic power.
Investigations of the effects of other parameters were very limited.
Luo et al. [59] self-designed an ultrasound assisted hot-air dryer as
shown in Fig. 5 and investigated the effect of ultrasound power, ul-
trasonic radiation distance, air velocity and air temperature on the
drying characteristics of carrots. The drying rate of carrot slices in-
creased with the increase of ultrasound power and the decrease of ul-
trasonic radiation distance.
As can be seen from the above discussion, the ultrasound power
always gives a positive effect on the drying process, i.e., accelerating
the drying rate and thus reducing the drying time. In fact, the magni-
tude of ultrasound improvement effect on drying was largely dependent
on the process variables, such as air velocity, air temperature, micro-
wave power and vacuum pressure, etc. Generally, the larger the above
variables, the milder the effect of ultrasound.
4.2. Effect of ultrasound assisted drying on drying kinetics
Effects of ultrasound assisted drying on drying kinetics were sum-
marized in Table 4. The increase in drying kinetics of food products was
observed when ultrasound technology was applied during drying. For
example, Baslar et al. [72] compared the USV, VD and OD drying on the
fish fillets. They found that the USV drying reduced the drying time of
salmon fillets by 44.4–67.6% compared with OD drying and by
7.4–25.7% compared with VD drying. The drying time of trout fillets
was also shortened, which was 52.5–75.8% compared with OD drying
and 21.9–27.4% compared with VD drying. Carcel et al. [73] evaluated
the improvement effect of ultrasound technology on the convective
drying of carrot. Their results showed that ultrasound technology sig-
nificantly accelerated the drying process, as the drying time was re-
duced by approximately 30% and the effective moisture diffusivity was
improved by 40%. Ozuna [68] also applied ultrasound technology
during the potato drying. The drying time was reduced by approxi-
mately 40%.
The ultrasound application can also reduce the energy consumption.
As reported in Kowalski’s study [57], the energy consumption was re-
duced by 10%. Sabarez et al. [56] investigated the ultrasound assisted
convective drying of apple samples. They found that with the assistance
of ultrasound, the drying time was reduced by 46–57% and energy
consumption was reduced by 42–54%. However, if the total energy
consumption (including the energy consumed by ultrasound generator)
was considered, the results may be different. For example, Kowalski
et al. [74] found that although the drying time of pure convective
drying was much longer than that of ultrasound assisted drying, the
energy consumption was lower. Additional energy was needed to ac-
tivate the ultrasound generator and the experimental system with the
devices increasing the air temperature and flow velocity also consumed
a significant amount of energy, and thus leading to the increase of
8
Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950
overall energy consumption.
4.3. Effect of ultrasound assisted drying on food quality
The ultrasound assisted drying will also affect the quality of food
products, including physical and chemical ones.
Water activity is one of the most important physical properties.
Szadzinska et al. [87] investigated the convective drying of strawberries
enhanced with microwave and ultrasound together and separately. A
significant decrease (34% for CVMWUS) in the water activity compared
to the CV drying was observed. Similar results were found in the drying
of green pepper [64] (up to approximately 49% for CVMWUS) and the
red beetroot [10] (up to 33% for CVUS). Kowalski et al. [69] also
evaluated the effect of ultrasound on the quality of dried raspberry. The
water activity decreased a lot with the assistance of ultrasound.
Color change of the dried products is also a key parameter when
judging the food quality. Kowalski et al. [69] found that although the
total color change with CVUS200 (ultrasonic power of 200 W) drying
was the lowest among all the drying tests, the color difference was still
visible as ΔE > 5. Similar result was also found in Szadzinska’s study
[64,87]. However, Kowalski et al. [74] observed that the color change
of apple in CVUS drying was higher than that in CV drying. They stated
that this may be caused by the high temperature achieved by sample’s
surface during CVUS drying. Another reason may be the water atomi-
zation caused by ultrasound. When ultrasonic waves arrived at the
sample surface, they broke the moisture layer and induced atomization.
As a result, the sample surface was “uncovered” and exposed to the hot
air and thus induced the color change.
Rehydration ability is another parameter to describe the quality of
dried food products. Chen et al. [78] found that the rehydration ca-
pacity of carrot slices under USV drying was higher than that under VD
drying. The CVUS dried salted cod also exhibited a higher rehydration
ability than CV dried ones [86]. Better rehydration properties by ap-
plying ultrasound were also observed by Szadzinska et al. for red
beetroot [10] and green pepper [64], though the improvement was not
significant. However, Gamboa-Santos et al. [88] stated that the rehy-
dration ratio was not affected by the ultrasound power and the obtained
values were similar to those of convectively-treated samples. While
Schossler et al. [85] found the ultrasound treated samples exhibited a
slightly lower rehydration ratio.
Other physical properties were also investigated, including hard-
ness, shrinkage, density and porosity. Silva Junior et al. [84] observed a
significant decrease in the hardness of papaya under CVUS drying (up
to17.6%). Ozuna et al. [86] found that the low-temperature drying
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of ultrasound assisted air-hot dying device [59].
D. Huang, et al. Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950

Table 4
Effects of ultrasound assisted drying on drying kinetics.
Species Drying conditions Main results

Apple [56] CV: T = 40 and 60 °C, v = 1 m/s; The drying time was reduced by 46–57% and energy consumption was reduced
by 42–54%.
Apple [57] CV: T = 40, 45 and 50 °C, v = 0.72, 2, 3 and 4 m/s The drying time was reduced by 38% and energy consumption was reduced by
10%.
Apple [58] CV: T = 30, 50 and 70 °C, v = 1 m/s The drying time was reduced by up to 53.8%.
Apple [74] CV: T = 40 and 50 °C, v = 2, 3 and 4 m/s The drying time was reduced by 48%.
Apple [75] CV: T = 45 and 60 °C, v = 1, 2, 3 and 5 m/s The drying time was reduced by 35%, and De was increased by up to 79%.
Apple [76] CV: T = 45 °C, v = 0.7 m/s The drying rate was significantly improved.
Apple [77] CV: T = -10, −5, 0, 5 and 10 °C, v = 2 m/s The drying time was reduced by up to 77% and the De and k was increased by
501 and 148%, respectively.
Apple and red bell pepper [55] CV: T = 80 °C, v = 3 m/s. Significant improvements were obtained for continuous sonication and
intermittent ultrasound at 50% net sonication time.
Carrot [59] CV: T = 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70 °C, v = 0.5, 1 and 1.5 m/s. The drying time was shortened by up to 37.5%.
Carrot [73] CV: T = 40 °C, v = 1 m/s The drying time was reduced by approximately 30% and De was improved by
40%.
Carrot [78] VD: T = 65 and 75 °C, Pv = 0.02 and 0.03 MPa The drying time was reduced by 41–53%.
Carrot [79] CV: T = 50 °C, v = 2.2 and 2.8 m/s. The drying rate was enhanced.
Carrot and lemon peel [60] CV: T = 40 °C, v = 1 m/s The drying time of carrot and lemon peel was reduced by 32% and53%,
respectively.
Carrot, eggplant, and apple CV: T = -14 °C, v = 2 m/s The drying time was shortened by 65–70% and the De and k increased by
cubes [80] 407–428% and by 96–170%, respectively.
Cassava and apple [61] CV: T = 40 °C, v = 1 m/s The drying rate of cassava and apple was increased by 32% and 56%,
respectively.
Clipfish [81] CV: T = 20 °C, v = 2 m/s. The drying time was reduced by 43%.
Clipfish [82] CV: T = 10, 20, and 30 °C, v = 1 m/s The drying time was reduced by over 90% and the heat transfer coefficient
increased by 27.9%.
Strawberry [70] CV: T = 40, 50, 60 and 70 °C, v = 2 m/s. The drying time was reduced by 13–44%, and the De and k were significantly
improved.
Eggplant [62] CV: T = 40 °C, v = 1 m/s The drying time was reduced by approximately 72%.
Eggplant [63] CV: T = 40 °C, v = 1 m/s The drying time was shortened by over 70%.
Eggplant [83] AFD: T = − 5, −7.5, −10 °C, v = 2, 5 m/s The drying time was shortened.
Garlic slices [11] CV: T = 50, 60 and 70 °C, v = 2.5 m/s. The drying process was significantly accelerated and both De and k were
enhanced.
Green pepper [64] CV: T = 54 °C, v = 2 m/s; CVMW: T = 54 °C, v = 2 m/s, The drying time was reduced by up to 70%
P = 100 W
Model food [65] CV: T = 50, 60 and 70 °C, v = 0.3, 0.95 and 1.9 m/s. The drying time was shortened by more than 60%.
Papaya [84] CV: T = 60 °C; VD: Pv = 0.02–0.03 MPa The drying time was reduced.
Peas [66] AFD: T = − 6, −3, 0, 10 and 20 °C The De was increased by up to 14.8%.
Pistachio [67] SD The average drying efficiency was increased from 8.5% without ultrasound
power to 14.7% and 28% with 500 W and 1000 W.
Potato [68] CV: T = 40 °C, v = 1 m/s The drying time was reduced by approximately 40%.
Raspberry [69] CV: T = 55 °C, v = 0.4 m/s and CVMW: T = 55 °C, The drying time was reduced by up to 63.6%.
v = 0.4 m/s, Pm = 100 W
Red beetroot [10] CV: T = 60 °C, v = 2 m/s; CVMWinter: T = 60 °C, v = 2 m/s, The total drying time was reduced by 66% and the drying rate in the
Pm = 100 W, t = 1, 3, 5 min CVMW5US30 program was over three times higher than that in CV drying.
Red bell pepper [85] FD: P = 46 Pa The drying time was reduced by 11.5%.
Salmon and trout fillets [72] VD: Pv = 15 mbar The drying process was accelerated.
Salted cod [86] CV: T = − 10, 0, 10 and 20 °C, v = 2 m/s The drying time was reduced by 35–54%, and De was increased by 74%.
Strawberry [87] CV: T = 52 °C, v = 2 m/s; CVMW: T = 52 °C, v = 2 m/s, The drying time was reduced by 52%–94%.
Pm = 100 W

assisted by ultrasound decreased the hardness of the salted cod by up to
36.9%. Similarly, Szadzinska et al. [10] observed the hardness reduc-
tion of red beetroot by an extreme of 81.5% under CVMW3US30 con-
dition and the apparent density also decreased by 38.5% under
CVMW5US30 condition. A lower apparent density indicated a higher
total volume, a less shrunken and more porous (up to 85%) beetroot
sample than that dried by pure convection. The shrinkage of dried
strawberry was investigated by Gamboa-Santos et al. [70]. It was found
that the ultrasound application and air temperatures did not sig-
nificantly affect the shrinkage. Similar result was also observed in
Schossler’s study for apple cubes [55].
Researchers also focused on the chemical properties of dried food
products, such as phenolic, flavonoid, carotenoid content, vitamin C
and antioxidant activity. It was shown in Tao’s study that the total
phenolic content (TPC) of the dried garlic slices increased with in-
creasing ultrasonic intensity (216.8, 902.7 and 1513.5 W/m2) first and
then dropped, while the antioxidant capacity with and without soni-
cation was not significantly different [11]. The TPC in samples soni-
cated at 902.7 W/m2 was the highest and comparable to that in freeze-
dried samples. Thus a modest ultrasound power level can help to retain
phenolic compounds. Besides, other variables such as drying tempera-
ture can also affect the TPC, TFC and AA values. For example, Ro-
driguez et al. [58] found that when a drying temperature of 30 °C was
used, USV samples (acoustic power of 30.8 kW/m3) presented a lower
TPC and FC loss than pure convective drying samples. However, when
drying temperatures of 50 and 70 °C were used, the ultrasound assisted
samples promoted a higher TPC and TFC loss. They thought it might be
related to the cellular damage induced by the combination of higher
drying temperature and the ultrasound application. While for anti-
oxidant activity, the value varied with the method used. According to
the CUPRAC assay, when drying temperatures of 30 and 50 °C were
used, the AA loss in ultrasound application was lower than that in pure
convective drying. However, when a drying temperature of 70 °C was
used, the ultrasound assisted samples promoted a higher AA loss. The
TPC, TFC and antioxidant capacity degradation by ultrasound appli-
cation were also observed in the atmospheric freeze-drying of eggplant
[83] and low-temperature drying of apple [77]. The ultrasound effect
on the carotenoid content was investigated by Silva Junior et al. [84],

9
D. Huang, et al.
in which the total carotenoid content dried by CVUS and USV increased
by 55% and 52.4% compared to the drying of control group, respec-
tively. Ultrasound application can also affect the vitamin C content of
food products. Gamboa-Santos et al. [88] observed a significant de-
crease of vitamin C retention of strawberry under CVUS drying (air
temperature higher than 40 °C). While Szadzinska et al. [64] found the
vitamin C retention of green pepper increased by up to 55.2%
(CVUS200). The high power ultrasound drying allowed to preserve a
high amount of vitamin C. Similar result was also presented in the USV
dried carrot slices, in which the vitamin C increased by 36.3% and
50.2% at 65 and 70 °C, respectively [78].
5. Conclusions
This paper reviewed a large number of published works related to
the application of ultrasound technology in food drying. The parametric
effects of ultrasound pre-treatment (ultrasonic power, sonication time,
frequency and the amplitude of the sonicator probe) and ultrasound
assisted drying (the type of application, the ultrasonic radiation dis-
tance and the ultrasound power) on drying kinetics and food quality
were discussed.
For ultrasound pre-treatment, the food products may lose or gain
water and it was due to the combined effect of ultrasound pre-treatment
and the concentration gradient between food products and the liquid
medium (distilled water or osmotic solution). With the increase of ul-
trasonic parameters (sonication time, amplitude and ultrasound
power), the water loss or water gain increased. The ultrasound pre-
treatment also accelerated the drying process, though some different
results were also presented.
For ultrasound assisted drying, the ultrasound power always gave a
positive effect on the drying process, however, the magnitude of ul-
trasound improvement was largely dependent on the process variables,
such as air velocity, air temperature, microwave power, vacuum pres-
sure, etc.
The application of ultrasound technology will somehow affect the
food quality, including the physical and chemical ones. Generally, the
ultrasound application can decrease the water activity, improve the
product color and reduce the nutrient loss such as total phenolic con-
tent, flavonoid content, antioxidant activity and vitamin C.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Hunan Provincial Key Research and
Development Program, China (2018NK2066), Hunan Provincial
Department of Education Project, China (18B185), the Scientific
Research Foundation for Talented Scholars of Central South University
of Forestry and Technology, China (2016YJ002), and the Hunan
Provincial Natural Science Foundation, China (2017JJ3517).
References
[1] G. Musielak, D. Mierzwa, J. Kroehnke, Food drying enhancement by ultrasound – a
review, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 56 (2016) 126–141.
[2] K.J. Mothibe, M. Zhang, J. Nsor-atindana, Y.-C. Wang, Use of ultrasound pretreat-
ment in drying of fruits: drying rates, quality attributes, and shelf life extension,
Drying Technol. 29 (2011) 1611–1621.
[3] D.I. Onwude, N. Hashim, K. Abdan, R. Janius, G. Chen, The effectiveness of com-
bined infrared and hot-air drying strategies for sweet potato, J. Food Eng. 241
(2019) 75–87.
[4] Y. Ando, et al., Improvements of drying rate and structural quality of microwave-
vacuum dried carrot by freeze-thaw pretreatment, Lwt 100 (2019) 294–299.
[5] A. Elmizadeh, M. Shahedi, N. Hamdami, Comparison of electrohydrodynamic and
10
Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950
hot-air drying of the quince slices, Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 43 (2017)
130–135.
[6] X. Zhou, et al., Effects of infrared radiation drying and heat pump drying combined
with tempering on the quality of long-grain paddy rice, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 53
(2018) 2448–2456.
[7] L.Z. Deng, et al., Chemical and physical pretreatments of fruits and vegetables:
Effects on drying characteristics and quality attributes - a comprehensive review,
Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 59 (2019) 1408–1432.
[8] A. Wiktor, M. Dadan, M. Nowacka, K. Rybak, D. Witrowa-Rajchert, The impact of
combination of pulsed electric field and ultrasound treatment on air drying kinetics
and quality of carrot tissue, Lwt 110 (2019) 71–79.
[9] Y. Tao, et al., Power ultrasound as a pretreatment to convective drying of mulberry
(Morus alba L.) leaves: impact on drying kinetics and selected quality properties,
Ultrason. Sonochem. 31 (2016) 310–318.
[10] J. Szadzińska, et al., Ultrasound- and microwave-assisted intermittent drying of red
beetroot, Drying Technol. (2019) 1–15.
[11] Y. Tao, et al., Contacting ultrasound enhanced hot-air convective drying of garlic
slices: mass transfer modeling and quality evaluation, J. Food Eng. 235 (2018)
79–88.
[12] M. Başlar, M. Kılıçlı, O.S. Toker, O. Sağdıç, M. Arici, Ultrasonic vacuum drying
technique as a novel process for shortening the drying period for beef and chicken
meats, Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 26 (2014) 182–190.
[13] A.C. Soria, M. Villamiel, Effect of ultrasound on the technological properties and
bioactivity of food: a review, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 21 (2010).
[14] F. Chemat, I. Grondin, A.S.C. Sing, J. Smadja, Deterioration of edible oils during
food processing by ultrasound, Ultrason. Sonochem. 11 (2004) 13–15.
[15] Ó. Rodríguez, et al., Application of power ultrasound on the convective drying of
fruits and vegetables: effects on quality, J. Sci. Food Agri. 99 (2019) 966.
[16] A. Rawson, B.K. Tiwari, M.G. Tuohy, C.P. O'Donnell, N. Brunton, Effect of ultra-
sound and blanching pretreatments on polyacetylene and carotenoid content of hot
air and freeze dried carrot discs, Ultrason. Sonochem. 18 (2011) 1172–1179.
[17] J.V. García-Pérez, C. Rosselló, J.A. Cárcel, S. De la Fuente, A. Mulet, Effect of air
temperature on convective drying assisted by high power ultrasound, Defect
Diffusion Forum 258–260 (2006) 563–574.
[18] M. Nowacka, A. Wiktor, M. Śledź, N. Jurek, D. Witrowa-Rajchert, Drying of ultra-
sound pretreated apple and its selected physical properties, J. Food Eng. 113 (2012)
427–433.
[19] A. Fijalkowska, M. Nowacka, A. Wiktor, M. Sledz, D. Witrowa-Rajchert, Ultrasound
as a pretreatment method to improve drying kinetics and sensory properties of dried
apple, J. Food Process Eng. 39 (2016) 256–265.
[20] K.J. Mothibe, M. Zhang, A.S. Mujumdar, Y.C. Wang, X. Cheng, Effects of ultrasound
and microwave pretreatments of apple before spouted bed drying on rate of de-
hydration and physical properties, Drying Technol. 32 (2014) 1848–1856.
[21] P.M. Azoubel, M.d.A.M. Baima, M.d.R. Amorim, S.S.B. Oliveira, Effect of ultrasound
on banana cv Pacovan drying kinetics, J. Food Eng. 97 (2010) 194–198.
[22] J.C. Romero, V.B. Yepez, Ultrasound as pretreatment to convective drying of
Andean blackberry (Rubus glaucus Benth), Ultrason. Sonochem. 22 (2015)
205–210.
[23] C. Ricce, M.L. Rojas, A.C. Miano, R. Siche, P.E.D. Augusto, Ultrasound pre-treat-
ment enhances the carrot drying and rehydration, Food Res. Int. 89 (2016)
701–708.
[24] M. Nowacka, M. Wedzik, Effect of ultrasound treatment on microstructure, colour
and carotenoid content in fresh and dried carrot tissue, Appl. Acoust. 103 (2016)
163–171.
[25] S. Shamaei, Z. Emam-Djomeh, S. Moini, Ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration of
cranberries: effect of finish drying methods and ultrasonic frequency on textural
properties, J. Texture Stud. 43 (2012) 133–141.
[26] S.P. Kek, N.L. Chin, Y.A. Yusof, Direct and indirect power ultrasound assisted pre-
osmotic treatments in convective drying of guava slices, Food Bioprod. Process. 91
(2013) 495–506.
[27] G. Dias da Silva, et al., Pretreatments for melon drying implementing ultrasound
and vacuum, Lwt 74 (2016) 114–119.
[28] R.Ş. Çakmak, O. Tekeoğlu, H. Bozkır, A.R. Ergün, T. Baysal, Effects of electrical and
sonication pretreatments on the drying rate and quality of mushrooms, LWT - Food
Sci. Technol. 69 (2016) 197–202.
[29] H. Wang, Q.-S. Zhao, X.-D. Wang, Z.-D. Hong, B. Zhao, Pretreatment of ultrasound
combined vacuum enhances the convective drying efficiency and physicochemical
properties of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), Lwt 112 (2019) 108201.
[30] F. Ren, C.A. Perussello, Z. Zhang, J.P. Kerry, B.K. Tiwari, Impact of ultrasound and
blanching on functional properties of hot-air dried and freeze dried onions, Lwt 87
(2018) 102–111.
[31] S. Rodrigues, F.I.P. Oliveira, M.I. Gallão, F.A.N. Fernandes, Effect of immersion time
in osmosis and ultrasound on papaya cell structure during dehydration, Drying
Technol. 27 (2009) 220–225.
[32] F. Dujmić, et al., Ultrasound-assisted infrared drying of pear slices: textural issues,
J. Food Process Eng. 36 (2013) 397–406.
[33] F.A.N. Fernandes, M.I. Gallão, S. Rodrigues, Effect of osmosis and ultrasound on
pineapple cell tissue structure during dehydration, J. Food Eng. 90 (2009) 186–190.
[34] J.L.G. Corrêa, M.C. Rasia, A. Mulet, J.A. Cárcel, Influence of ultrasound application
on both the osmotic pretreatment and subsequent convective drying of pineapple
(Ananas comosus), Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 41 (2017) 284–291.
[35] J.L.G. Corrêa et al., Use of ultrasound in the distilled water pretreament and con-
vective drying of pineapple, 63 (2016) 71–87.
[36] Z. Allahdad, M. Nasiri, M. Varidi, M.J. Varidi, Effect of sonication on osmotic de-
hydration and subsequent air-drying of pomegranate arils, J. Food Eng. 244 (2019)
202–211.
D. Huang, et al.
[37] M. Noshad, M. Mohebbi, F. Shahidi, S. Ali Mortazavi, Multi-objective optimization
of osmotic-ultrasonic pretreatments and hot-air drying of quince using response
surface methodology, Food Bioprocess Technol. 5 (2011) 2098–2110.
[38] S.U. Kadam, B.K. Tiwari, C.P. O'Donnell, Effect of ultrasound pre-treatment on the
drying kinetics of brown seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum, Ultrason. Sonochem. 23
(2015) 302–307.
[39] J. Garcia-Noguera, F.I. Oliveira, C.L. Weller, S. Rodrigues, F.A. Fernandes, Effect of
ultrasonic and osmotic dehydration pre-treatments on the colour of freeze dried
strawberries, J. Food Sci. Technol. 51 (2014) 2222–2227.
[40] E. Amami, et al., Effect of ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration pretreatment on
the convective drying of strawberry, Ultrason. Sonochem. 36 (2017) 286–300.
[41] J. Garcia-Noguera, et al., Ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration of strawberries:
effect of pretreatment time and ultrasonic frequency, Drying Technol. 28 (2010)
294–303.
[42] M. Li, et al., Impact of ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration as a pre-treatment
on the quality of heat pump dried tilapia fillets, Energy Procedia 123 (2017)
243–255.
[43] F.I.P. Oliveira, M.I. Gallão, S. Rodrigues, F.A.N. Fernandes, Dehydration of malay
apple (Syzygium malaccense L.) using ultrasound as pre-treatment, Food Bioprocess
Technol. 4 (2010) 610–615.
[44] C.I.A. La Fuente, R.F. Zabalaga, C.C. Tadini, Combined effects of ultrasound and
pulsed-vacuum on air-drying to obtain unripe banana flour, Innovative Food Sci.
Emerg. Technol. 44 (2017) 123–130.
[45] D. Mierzwa, S.J. Kowalski, Ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration and convective
drying of apples: process kinetics and quality issues, Chem. Process Eng. 37 (2016)
383–391.
[46] N. Jiang, et al., Effect of thermosonic pretreatment on drying kinetics and energy
consumption of microwave vacuum dried Agaricus bisporus slices, J. Food Eng. 177
(2016) 21–30.
[47] F. Nadery Dehsheikh, S. Taghian Dinani, Coating pretreatment of banana slices
using carboxymethyl cellulose in an ultrasonic system before convective drying,
Ultrason. Sonochem. 52 (2019) 401–413.
[48] S.J. Kowalski, J. Szadzińska, A. Pawłowski, Ultrasonic-assisted osmotic dehydration
of carrot followed by convective drying with continuous and intermittent heating,
Drying Technol. 33 (2015) 1570–1580.
[49] M. Sledz, A. Wiktor, K. Rybak, M. Nowacka, D. Witrowa-Rajchert, The impact of
ultrasound and steam blanching pre-treatments on the drying kinetics, energy
consumption and selected properties of parsley leaves, Appl. Acoust. 103 (2016)
148–156.
[50] M.L. Rojas, P.E.D. Augusto, Ethanol and ultrasound pre-treatments to improve in-
frared drying of potato slices, Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 49 (2018)
65–75.
[51] S.J. Kowalski, J. Szadzińska, Convective-intermittent drying of cherries preceded by
ultrasonic assisted osmotic dehydration, Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif. 82
(2014) 65–70.
[52] K. Siucińska, D. Konopacka, M. Mieszczakowska-Frąc, A. Połubok, The effects of
ultrasound on quality and nutritional aspects of dried sour cherries during shelf-life,
LWT - Food Sci. Technol. 68 (2016) 168–173.
[53] J. Gamboa-Santos, A.C. Soria, M. Villamiel, A. Montilla, Quality parameters in
convective dehydrated carrots blanched by ultrasound and conventional treatment,
Food Chem. 141 (2013) 616–624.
[54] Z. Farhaninejad, M. Fathi, M. Shahedi, M. Sadeghi, Osmotic dehydration of banana
slices using direct and indirect sonication: optimization and microstructure ana-
lysis, J. Food Process Eng. 40 (2017) e12336.
[55] K. Schössler, H. Jäger, D. Knorr, Effect of continuous and intermittent ultrasound on
drying time and effective diffusivity during convective drying of apple and red bell
pepper, J. Food Eng. 108 (2012) 103–110.
[56] H.T. Sabarez, J.A. Gallego-Juarez, E. Riera, Ultrasonic-assisted convective drying of
apple slices, Drying Technol. 30 (2012) 989–997.
[57] S.J. Kowalski, D. Mierzwa, US-assisted convective drying of biological materials,
Drying Technol. 33 (2015) 1601–1613.
[58] Ó. Rodríguez, et al., Influence of power ultrasound application on drying kinetics of
apple and its antioxidant and microstructural properties, J. Food Eng. 129 (2014)
21–29.
[59] D.L. Luo, J. Liu, Y.H. Liu, G.Y. Ren, Drying characteristics and mathematical model
of ultrasound assisted hot-air drying of carrots, Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng. 8 (2015)
124–132.
[60] J.V. García-Pérez, J.A. Cárcel, E. Riera, A. Mulet, Influence of the applied acoustic
energy on the drying of carrots and lemon peel, Drying Technol. 27 (2009)
281–287.
[61] C. Ozuna, T. Gomez Alvarez-Arenas, E. Riera, J.A. Carcel, J.V. Garcia-Perez,
Influence of material structure on air-borne ultrasonic application in drying,
Ultrason. Sonochem. 21 (2014) 1235–1243.
[62] J.V. García-Pérez, C. Ozuna, C. Ortuño, J.A. Cárcel, A. Mulet, Modeling ultra-
sonically assisted convective drying of eggplant, Drying Technol. 29 (2011)
11
Ultrasonics - Sonochemistry 63 (2020) 104950
1499–1509.
[63] A. Puig, I. Perez-Munuera, J.A. Carcel, I. Hernando, J.V. Garcia-Perez, Moisture loss
kinetics and microstructural changes in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) during
conventional and ultrasonically assisted convective drying, Food Bioprod. Process.
90 (2012) 624–632.
[64] J. Szadzińska, J. Łechtańska, S.J. Kowalski, M. Stasiak, The effect of high power
airborne ultrasound and microwaves on convective drying effectiveness and quality
of green pepper, Ultrason. Sonochem. 34 (2017) 531–539.
[65] S.M. Beck, H. Sabarez, V. Gaukel, K. Knoerzer, Enhancement of convective drying
by application of airborne ultrasound - a response surface approach, Ultrason.
Sonochem. 21 (2014) 2144–2150.
[66] M. Bantle, T.M. Eikevik, Parametric study of high-intensity ultrasound in the at-
mospheric freeze drying of peas, Drying Technol. 29 (2011) 1230–1239.
[67] A. Kouchakzadeh, The effect of acoustic and solar energy on drying process of
pistachios, Energy Convers. Manage. 67 (2013) 351–356.
[68] C. Ozuna, J.A. Carcel, J.V. Garcia-Perez, A. Mulet, Improvement of water transport
mechanisms during potato drying by applying ultrasound, J. Sci. Food Agric. 91
(2011) 2511–2517.
[69] S.J. Kowalski, A. Pawłowski, J. Szadzińska, J. Łechtańska, M. Stasiak, High power
airborne ultrasound assist in combined drying of raspberries, Innovative Food Sci.
Emerg. Technol. 34 (2016) 225–233.
[70] J. Gamboa-Santos, A. Montilla, J.A. Cárcel, M. Villamiel, J.V. Garcia-Perez, Air-
borne ultrasound application in the convective drying of strawberry, J. Food Eng.
128 (2014) 132–139.
[71] J.A. Gallego-Juarez, G. Rodriguez-Corral, J.C. Gálvez Moraleda, T.S.A. Yang, New
high-intensity ultrasonic technology for food dehydration, Drying Technol. 17
(1999) 597–608.
[72] M. Baslar, M. Kilicli, B. Yalinkilic, Dehydration kinetics of salmon and trout fillets
using ultrasonic vacuum drying as a novel technique, Ultrason. Sonochem. 27
(2015) 495–502.
[73] J.A. Cárcel, J.V. Garcia-Perez, E. Riera, A. Mulet, Improvement of convective drying
of carrot by applying power ultrasound—influence of mass load density, Drying
Technol. 29 (2011) 174–182.
[74] S.J. Kowalski, D. Mierzwa, M. Stasiak, Ultrasound-assisted convective drying of
apples at different process conditions, Drying Technol. 35 (2016) 939–947.
[75] F.A.N. Fernandes, S. Rodrigues, J.A. Cárcel, J.V. García-Pérez, Ultrasound-assisted
air-drying of apple (Malus domestica L.) and its effects on the vitamin of the dried
product, Food Bioprocess Technol. 8 (2015) 1503–1511.
[76] S.J. Kowalski, A. Pawłowski, Intensification of apple drying due to ultrasound en-
hancement, J. Food Eng. 156 (2015) 1–9.
[77] J.V. Santacatalina, et al., Ultrasonically enhanced low-temperature drying of apple:
influence on drying kinetics and antioxidant potential, J. Food Eng. 138 (2014)
35–44.
[78] Z.G. Chen, X.Y. Guo, T. Wu, A novel dehydration technique for carrot slices im-
plementing ultrasound and vacuum drying methods, Ultrason. Sonochem. 30
(2016) 28–34.
[79] M. Aversa, A.-J. Van der Voort, W. de Heij, B. Tournois, S. Curcio, An Experimental
analysis of acoustic drying of carrots: evaluation of heat transfer coefficients in
different drying conditions, Drying Technol. 29 (2011) 239–244.
[80] J.V. Garcia-Perez, J.A. Carcel, E. Riera, C. Rosselló, A. Mulet, Intensification of low-
temperature drying by using ultrasound, Drying Technol. 30 (2012) 1199–1208.
[81] M. Bantle, T.M. Eikevik, A study of the energy efficiency of convective drying
systems assisted by ultrasound in the production of clipfish, J. Cleaner Prod. 65
(2014) 217–223.
[82] M. Bantle, J. Hanssler, Ultrasonic convective drying kinetics of clipfish during the
initial drying period, Drying Technol. 31 (2013) 1307–1316.
[83] D. Colucci, D. Fissore, C. Rossello, J.A. Carcel, On the effect of ultrasound-assisted
atmospheric freeze-drying on the antioxidant properties of eggplant, Food Res. Int.
106 (2018) 580–588.
[84] Vieira da Silva, E. Júnior, L. Lins de Melo, R.A. Batista de Medeiros, Z.M. Pimenta
Barros, P.M. Azoubel, Influence of ultrasound and vacuum assisted drying on pa-
paya quality parameters, Lwt 97 (2018) 317–322.
[85] K. Schössler, H. Jäger, D. Knorr, Novel contact ultrasound system for the ac-
celerated freeze-drying of vegetables, Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 16
(2012) 113–120.
[86] C. Ozuna, J.A. Cárcel, P.M. Walde, J.V. Garcia-Perez, Low-temperature drying of
salted cod (Gadus morhua) assisted by high power ultrasound: Kinetics and physical
properties, Innovative Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 23 (2014) 146–155.
[87] J. Szadzińska, S.J. Kowalski, M. Stasiak, Microwave and ultrasound enhancement of
convective drying of strawberries: experimental and modeling efficiency, Int. J.
Heat Mass Transf. 103 (2016) 1065–1074.
[88] J. Gamboa-Santos, et al., Impact of power ultrasound on chemical and physico-
chemical quality indicators of strawberries dried by convection, Food Chem. 161
(2014) 40–46.