Soil –water-plant relationship

Measurement of infiltration:

Due to the complexity of the infiltration phenomenon and the fact that
many factors affect the process, the measurements of infiltration rates
and volumes should be accomplished under field conditions. Infiltration
can be measured by two methods namely (1) indirect method or by
infiltrations (2) Direct method Hydrograph analysis.

(1) Indirect Method: They involve artificial application of water over

sample area. The mechanism used for this purpose is called
infiltration. There are two types of infiltrometers vize. flooding type
and rain simulators

(2) Direct method: It consists of analysis of runoff hydrograph

resulting from a natural rainfall over a basin under consideration

Some common terms related to infiltration:

Infiltration rate, I: The maximum rate at which water will enter the
soil mass through the surface.
Cumulative infiltration, Z :The total quantity of water that enters
the soil at a given time.
Basic infiltration, fo : Rate of infiltration decreases rapidly initially
and tends to approach a constant value, which
is called basic infiltration.

Quantification of infiltration

If i = depth of infiltration, cm
io = depth of infiltration at t = to = 0
t = time , min.
i1 = depth of infiltration at t = t1
I = rate of infiltration , cm/min.
Then the following characteristics of infiltration which are useful for
irrigation can be analyzed.

di
Instantaneous infiltration rate = dt  I t
Accumulated depth of infiltration at time t = it
it  i o
Average infiltration rate =
t  to
The instantaneous and average infiltration rates normally decrease
with time in agricultural soils. (Fig.3.14). Another characteristics of
infiltration is the magnitude of infiltration rate increases with
decreasing initial moisture content.(Fig. 3.15).

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 Soil –water-plant relationship

Fig. Infiltration curves for different soil types

Fig. 3.14 Example of Infiltration rate (Average , instantaneous) , and

cumulative infiltration depth

Time (h)
Fig. 3.15 Infiltration rate as function of moisture content

Generally the following factors limits infiltration rate:

- initial (antecedent) moisture content
- conditions of sub-soil
- hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile
- texture, porosity (changed by cultivation and compaction)
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 Soil –water-plant relationship

- degree of swelling of soil colloids and organic matter.

- Vegetation cover, duration of rainfall or irrigation.

Infiltration equations
Numerous empirical equations have been developed to represent the
infiltration phenomena. Most of these equations are empirical in nature
and have been developed to match observed data sets. Systems of
equations have also been applied to produce numerical simulation
models of the infiltration phenomena. Many of this numerical
simulation models have empirical terms with in them and may
therefore be termed quasi numerical models. But here we focus on
application of empirical equations which have proven useful in system
design.

a) Kostiakov equation
An early equation to quantify infiltration was that developed by
Kostiakov (1932). It is described by the following equation.

i  ct 

Where i = depth of infiltration , cm

t = time of infiltration , min
c and  empirical constants
The Kostiakov equation has been found to fit field measured
infiltration data , especially over relatively short periods (in the
range of a few hours) and is practical in irrigation system design.

b) Philip equation
A slightly more complex equation , but one which may be derived
from the same field data set as the Kostiakov equation, is that
developed by Philip(1957). Philip’s equation can be derived from
theoretical analysis of one dimensional vertical infiltration in to a
uniform soil. It is given as:

i = Sp(t)0.5 + Ap(t)
where
i = depth of infiltration, cm
t = time of infiltration ,min.
S = sorptivity constant , cm /(min)0.5
Ap = conductivity constant , cm /min

The sorptivity term, Sp , is dominant during the early stages of

infiltration and the conductivity term , A p , is dominant during the
late stages of infiltration.

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 Soil –water-plant relationship

It should be noted that both the Kostiakov and Philip equations are
normally given with different constants for different soil types.

c) Soil conservation Service equations

The USSCS has made a large number of field trials to measure and
categorize infiltration rates. The SCS has used a slightly modified
form of the Kostiakov equation to represent the infiltration
equation. Application of this method has been aided by the use of
intake family concept. Figure3.16 indicates cumulative depth of
infiltration versus time of infiltration in minutes. By locating the
results of a field test on the graph for the soil in question, the
nearest intake family to represent the particular soil type can be
chosen.

The governing equation for infiltration using SCS method is given

by:

i  at b  c
In which i and t are as defined previously except that i may
represent the depth of infiltration in inches or centimeters, and a
& b are given as a function of the intake family and can be obtained
from table 3.3 c is equal to 0.275 for I in inches and c = 0.6985
for i in centimeters.

The number of the SCS intake family in table 3.3 approximates the
level of the long term intake rate in inches per hour. The long term
intake rate is defined as the one on the Kostiakov type infiltration
curve at which the infiltration rate decreases by 5 percent within a
one- hour period. This may be expressed as

2
 d  di  d i  0.05  di
    2   
 dt  dt  dt  60 min  dt
The time at which the long term intake rate occurs can be
calculated using either of the following two equations.
IF di
  a (b)(t l ) b 1 or
60 dt

2
 0.05IF  d i
 2   2
 a (b)(b  1)(t L ) b  2
 60  dt
Where IF = Number of the SCS family
tL = time to long term infiltration rate , min.

Solving either of the two preceding equations for t L , approximates

the time at which the long term intake rate occurs. The intake rate
in inches per hour at time t L , is equal to IF , the intake family
number.
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 Soil –water-plant relationship

The relationship between the value of the intake family and the long
term infiltration rate is very useful in developing general design
parameters for surface or sprinkler systems.

Fig. 3.16 Intake families for the SCS method of Infiltration.

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 Soil –water-plant relationship

2.5. Flow of water in the soil

Soil water is dynamic and moves constantly in the soil medium in
different directions under different forces acting on it. Downward and
lateral movement of water occurs during or after irrigation or rainfall
and upward movement takes place when upper soil layers start drying
up owing to evaporation or evapotraspiration.
Soil water moves in response to soil-water potential differences. Water
will move from points of higher water potential toward points of lower
potential. Soil-water potential differences give rise to water flow which
can be either
 a viscous flow of liquid water in water filled pores, or vapour
flow in air-filled pores; or
 a diffusive flow, namely, diffusion of water molecules as
vapour.
For water movement the first form is predominant in wet soils, and the
second is responsible for water transfer in dry soils.
The forces causing soil-water movement may be divided into classes
based on the characteristics form of such movements:
 mechanical forces are those forces, such as gravitational,
pressure, and matrical forces, that cause mass flow.
 Molecular forces include the osmotic, adsorptive and vapour
pressure gradient forces that cause diffusion transfer.
Movement of water in soil medium may be considered in different
stages under different conditions of soil wetness. These stages are: (i)
movement in saturated soil and (ii) movement in unsaturated soil.

i. Flow of water in saturated soil

Under saturated condition when all soil pores are completely filled with
water, the movement is referred to as saturated flow. Water in
saturated soils is not under any tension and the flow follows either
poiseuille’s or Darcy’s law.
According to Poiseuille’s law the rate of discharge, Q, of capillary tube
with radius r is
 r 2 P
Q 
8 L
(2.24)
Where
P = pressure difference between two ends of the tube =  w H , in
which
 w = density of water and H = difference in head between two ends
of the tube
 = viscosity of water
L = length of the tube
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 Soil –water-plant relationship

The equation states that the flow is directly proportional to the square
of the radius of pore. This shows that a soil with large sized
pores, for example, sandy soil permits a faster movement of
water than a soil with smaller sized pores (clay soil).

Suppose a soil column contains cylindrical, parallel pores of one size

only, and the number of pores divided by the cross-sectional area
perpendicular to the flow is n. Then the flow rate through the column
is
q  nQ (2.25)
If the pores, instead of being all the same, are of various size classes,
the total flow is the sum of the flows of each of the pore size classes.

Darcy's law
Darcy (1856) gave the empirical relationship between water flux and
energy gradient. Water flow in saturated soils is considered to follow
the Darcy’s law which states that the velocity of water flow is directly
proportional to the difference of hydraulic heads and inversely
proportional to the flow length.
For the derivation of Darcy's equation we shall discuss a simple
experiment demonstrated in Fig. below. The soil is placed in a
horizontal cylinder connected on both sides with vessels containing
water maintained at a constant level in each vessel by an overflow
valve. If the water level on the left side is higher than that on the right
side, water flows to the right. The rate of discharge Q = V/t is simply
measured by the volumetric overflow V in time t. The flux density q
(LT-1) (macroscopic flow rate) is
V
q  (2.26)
At
where A is the cross-sectional area of the soil column perpendicular to
the direction of flow.

Constant

h Constant

A V
Fig. 2.16:
L

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 Soil –water-plant relationship

In 1956, Darcy experimentally demonstrated for columns of sand a

linear relationship between the flux density q and the hydraulic
gradient Ih. In our experiment shown

h
q  K (2.27)
L

where h/L is the hydraulic gradient Ih, h the difference between

water level on both ends of the soil column of length L. h considered
the hydraulic head drop along the soil. Inasmuch as h/L is
dimensionless, K is proportionality coefficient called hydraulic
conductivity. Hydraulic gradient is the fall or decrease in hydraulic
head per distance in direction of flow. When hydraulic gradient
becomes unity, the driving force is equal in magnitude to force of
gravity. That means,
q=K

When we read piezometer levels h1 and h2 at elevations z1 and z2,

respectively, we have in terms of the potential H

 H  H1  H
q   K  2    K .
 z1  z 2  z

or
H
q  K . (2.28)
z
where the total potential head H (= h + z) is related to a unit weight
of water.

This equation states that the flow is proportional to the driving force of
the water flow that is the gradient of the potential.

 The negative sign in the above equations means that water flows
in the direction of decreasing potential or against the positive
direction of z.
Limitations of Darcy’s law
Darcy’s law is not valid for all conditions of liquid flow. It applies only
when the flow is laminar and where soil-water interaction does

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 Soil –water-plant relationship

not result in change of permeability with a change in gradient.

Laminar flow occurs usually in silt and clay soil
Movement of water in saturated soils does not depend on the total
pore space, but on the size of conducting pores as it appears from the
Poiseuilles’ and Darcy’s law.

Hydraulic conductivity
The hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the ability of the soil to
conduct the flow of water. It is a soil property that is highly dependent
on the soil water content and thus with matric potential. The hydraulic
conductivity also differs greatly between soils. The reason is that the
friction forces acting on the flowing water depend not so much on the
total amount of water in the soil, but on the geometry of the liquid
filled pore space. This in turn depends on the pore-size distribution of
the soil, and thus on the soil texture and soil structure. Finally, the
hydraulic conductivity depends also on the friction between water
molecules and thus on the viscosity of the water.
Hydraulic conductivity of soils decreases by several orders of
magnitude as the water content changes from saturation to permanent
wilting point.
The hydraulic conductivity of saturated soils is constant in time and, in
a uniform soil, also in position.

ii. Flow of water in unsaturated soil

Soil of which the pore volume is only partially filled with water are
called unsaturated. The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is
smaller than that of saturated soils, because only the pores which
contain water can contribute to the flow of water. When a saturated
soil starts to become unsaturated, the large pores are emptied first. As
the result, the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity decreases very fast
with water content. The flow becomes a function of the water content
of the soil and is referred to as unsaturated flow and the conductivity
of the soil is referred to as unsaturated hydraulic conductivity.

Under saturated condition there exists steady state flow through a

tube of uniform size (Fig. 2.17), the flux density or flow rate is the
same through every cross-section of the tube. Consequently water is
not stored. On the contrary, under non-steady state flow, water is
stored (or in some situations it is coming from storage) in the soil.
Thus in transient or non-steady state flow, the flux density entering
the tube in Fig. 3.2 would not equal the flux density leaving the tube.
The difference between that entering and that exiting is the storage.
That is, the storage (which can be expressed as a change in volume
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 Soil –water-plant relationship


water content with time, can be determined from the difference
t
between inflow and outflow (which can be expressed as the change in
q
flux density along the length of the tube, .
s
The description given above has been termed conservation of mass
because it states that water is not lost or destroyed, i.e., what flows in
is either stored or flows out. For one dimensional water flow in soils,
the conservation of mass can be stated mathematically as
 q
 (2.29)
t s
In which  is volume water content, t is time, q is water flux density,
and s is distance. If we substitute from Dary’s law or equation (2.28)
for q in equation (2.29) we obtain
   H 
 K  (2.30)
t s  s 

A qout
qin

s

Fig. 2.17: a tube of cross-sectional area A and length s is uniformly

packed with a uniform soil. Water enters at a flux density q in and
leaves at a flux density qout

2.6. Water extraction by plant

Abut 60 – 95% of a physiologically active plant is water. Water is
required for such plant processes as:
 Photosynthesis,
 Transport of minerals and photosynthates,
 Structural support,
 Growth and
 transpiration

The plant uses water primarily for transpiration. The process of

transpiration, defined as water loss through evaporation of living
plants via openings of stomata, usually accounts for about 99% of the
water used by the plants. Transpiration involves the conversion of
water from the liquid to vapor phase within the leaf and its support
through stomata of the leaf into the atmosphere. It occurs when the
vapour pressure within the leaf exceeds that of the surrounding air and
stomata are open to allow carbon dioxide into the plant for
photosynthesis.

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 Soil –water-plant relationship

The plant extracts water from the soil to replenish water lost by
transpiration. Water moves through the soil into the roots, up the
xylem and into the leaves due to a water potential gradient between
the leaf and the soil. The rate of water flow is given by
 leaf  soil
Q 
rplant  rsoil

 leaf   T  O

Where
Q =rate of flow
 leaf = total water potential in the leaf
 soil = total water potential in the soil
T = turgor pressure within the leaf
O =osmotic pressure within the plant
rplant =resistance to water movement into the roots, up the xylem,
and into the leaf;
rsoil =resistance to water movement in the soil

The term rsoil can also be written as:

1
rsoil 
K
Where K is the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
Absorption of water occurs mainly through the roots. As the plant
removes water from the soil, the water content of soil decreases and
 soil decreases (becomes more negative). At the same time the
conductivity of the soil decreases (hence rsoil increases). Decreasing
 soil and increasing rsoil tends to decrease water flow into the plant.
Water moves in the soil toward a single root along a gradient of
decreasing water potential. If water is to enter the root, the root
should be in contact with the soil and at a lower water potential.

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 Soil –water-plant relationship

Fig. 2.18: Soil water extraction pattern

Plants have normally a higher concentration of roots in the upper part
of the root zone. In a normal soil with good aeration and without
restrictive layers, a greater portion of roots of most plants remains
within 45 to 60 cm surface soil layers and most the water needs of
plants are met from this zone. As the available water from this zone
decreases, plants extract more water from lower depths. About 40% of
the water need is met from the first 25% of the root zone (Fig. 2.18).
When the water content of upper soil layers reaches the wilting point,
all the water need of plants are essentially met from lower layers.
In uniform soil profile with moist soil, plants usually extract 40, 30, 20
and 10 percent of the water needed from respective quarters of the
root zone (Fig. 2.18). The extraction pattern is normally positively
correlated with the root distribution pattern.

Lecture Notes By Negash Wagesho Nov. 2007 12