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What is Geodesy?
Geodesy is the science of accurately measuring the Earth's size, shape, orientation, mass distribution and how these vary with time.

Over the last century, geodesy has developed from fairly simple
surveying technologies, which helped to accurately determine positions
on Earth, to a complex toolbox of methods now available to scientific
researchers and students. In recent decades, geodetic applications have
rapidly expanded from measuring plate motions and monitoring
earthquake hazards to include research on volcanic, landslide, and
weather hazards; climate change; and water resources. Learn more from
this video on 9 Impacts of Geodesy .

Gravity is determined by
mass. Earth’s mass is Example of early geodetic method -
not distributed equally, German surveyors during the First
and it also changes over World War.
time. This visualization
of a gravity model (the
geoid) was created with
data from NASA’s
Gravity Recovery and
Climate Experiment
(GRACE) and shows
variations in Earth’s
gravity field. Red shows
areas where gravity is
relatively strong, and
blue reveals areas where
gravity is weaker.

Jump down to: GPS | Lidar | InSAR | GRACE | Altimetry | SfM | Meters

Geodetic methods
GPS/GNSS (Global positioning system/Global navigation satellite system)

GPS is a USA-based fleet of more than 30 satellites that are orbiting our
planet approximately 11,000 miles above Earth's surface. GNSS includes
the USA's GPS and similar satellites from other countries. A position can
be calculated using three satellites, plus a fourth to correct for clock
imprecision. You may already be familiar with handheld GPS units,
which people have in their phones, tablets, cameras, cars, and more.
Whereas handheld GPS can be accurate to a few meters or tens-of-
meters, the high-precision "differential" GPS units that Earth scientists
Three GPS satellites are use in their research can measure motions as slow as one millimeter per
used for positioning and year. The first major applications of high-precision GPS were to monitor High precision GPS station in
a fourth provides a time plate tectonic motions and assess earthquake and volcanic hazards. More the Sierra Nevada region of in
correction. Together recently, scientists have been able to apply the technique to landslide
they allow calculation of the Plate Boundary
hazards, ground water monitoring, tide gauging, ice/snow monitoring,
precise positions. and soil and atmospheric moisture. Learn more about GPS from Observatory (station P149)
UNAVCO's Educational Resources or Wikipedia. Some good resources on GPS water cycle products and "reflection GPS" can be found at GPS
Spotlight.

GETSI modules that feature GPS data:

Ice Mass and Sea Level Changes (Unit 4)

GPS, Strain and Earthquakes
Measuring Water Resources with GPS, Gravity, and Traditional Methods (Units 3 & 4)
Monitoring Volcanoes and Communicating Risks
Measuring the Earth with GPS: Plate Motion and Changing Ice-Water
Eyes on the Hydrosphere: Tracking Water Resources
Understanding Our Changing Climate: Data Behind Melting Ice and Changing Sea Level (Unit 4)

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High Precision Positioning with Static and Kinematic GPS/GNSS

Lidar (Light detection and ranging)

Lidar is a remote sensing technology that measures distance by sending out laser pulses and calculating the reflection
return time. Lidar scanners can be mounted on aircraft, ground-based tripods, or mobile devices (airborne lidar,
terrestrial laser scanning [TLS], and mobile lidar, respectively). Depending on the way a survey is set up, the
resulting topographic model can have a resolution of meters to centimeters. The laser beams also have the ability to
penetrate and return through holes in a vegetation canopy, thus yielding a "bare earth" topography from the latest
returning signals that is not possible using other methods. Differences between first and last returns in vegetated
areas can yield canopy volume and density. Repeated scans of the same area allow for detailed measurement of
topographic change. Lidar can be used for a broad range of hazard assessment applications, stratigraphic analyses,
With airborne LiDAR a
understanding geomorphic and tectonic processes, and vegetation studies. Learn more about lidar from
scanner is mounted on
OpenTopography, Wikipedia, Washington Dept. of Natural Resources or National Ecological Observatory Network.
an airplane and
combined with data GETSI modules that feature lidar data:
from GPS and an IMU
(inertial measurement Imaging Active Tectonics with InSAR and Lidar
unit) to yield high- Analyzing High Resolution Topography with TLS and SfM
resolution topographic Surface Process Hazards
data. Monitoring Volcanoes and Communicating Risks (Unit 1)
Planning for Failure: Landslide Analysis for a Safer Society
Modeling Flood Hazards

InSAR (Interferometric synthetic aperture radar)

InSAR measures ground deformation using two of more synthetic

aperture radar (SAR) images. Most commonly, the images are from
Earth-orbiting radar satellites but the method can be used from aircraft or
ground-based sensors too. The radar signal phase changes between repeat
images allows for centimeter-scale measurement of deformation over
spans of days to years and over large regions. Although complications
can arise from ground-surface moisture and changing atmospheric
conditions, radar is able penetrate clouds and provide data over large InSAR uses the phase change
Interferogram showing areas, thus making it a good complement to other methods such as GPS, between successive images to
volcanic uplift about 3 lidar, and SfM which have more limited spatial extents. InSAR has measure land level changes.
miles west of South applications for monitoring of natural hazards (ex. earthquakes, This example shows the
Sister, Oregon. USGS volcanoes and landslides), measuring land subsidence, and even surface
(C. Wicks).
method applied to measuring
water level assessments and glacial ice velocity. Learn more about
InSAR from Physics Today article by M. Pritchard, UNAVCO InSAR infographic and poster, the
change caused by an
USGS InSAR Fact Sheet, or Wikipedia. earthquake.

GETSI modules that feature InSAR data:

Imaging Active Tectonics with InSAR and Lidar

Ice Mass and Sea Level Changes (Unit 3)
Surface Process Hazards (Unit 4)
Monitoring Volcanoes and Communicating Risks
Understanding Our Changing Climate: Data Behind Melting Ice and Changing Sea Level (Unit 3)

GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) & Follow-on Mission

Measuring Earth's gravity field, is also an element of geodesy. The

advent of satellite-based gravity measurements has profoundly affected
our ability to determine the changing mass distribution on Earth. GRACE
(Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment) has led to unprecedented
observations. The gravity field of the Earth is uneven, reflecting the mass
distribution on our planet. The orbit of the twin satellites of GRACE is
disturbed by the uneven gravity field, changing the distance between the
satellites. This distance change is measured using a microwave ranging
One of the first system. This technique is used in tandem with GPS, as each of the
produced gravity maps Artists rendition of GRACE-
satellites is equipped with a highly precise GPS receiver. This measure of
of Earth from GRACE, the gravity of Earth can be used for many applications, but changes in FO satellites. Like the original
based on 111 days of groundwater and ice mass have been two of the most profound. They GRACE, the twin GRACE-FO
data in 2003. GRACE. have aided researchers in understanding climate change impacts and satellites follow each other in

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groundwater changes over time. GRACE data can be used to track the distribution of water over orbit around the Earth,
Earth's surface on continents, ice sheet volume, sea level change, ocean currents, and the dynamics of separated by about 137 miles
the inner structure of Earth. Learn more about GRACE from the official GRACE website, GRACE
Follow-on website, brochure on GRACE in layman's terms, or NASA mission pages.
(220 km). The exact distance is
affected by the changing
GETSI modules that feature GRACE data: gravity field below and is
continually measured by laser
Ice Mass and Sea Level Changes (Unit 3)
Measuring Water Resources with GPS, Gravity, and Traditional Methods (Units 2 & 4) ranging between the satellites.
Eyes on the Hydrosphere: Tracking Water Resources
Understanding Our Changing Climate: Data Behind Melting Ice and Changing Sea Level (Unit 3)

Altimetry: Ice and sea level

Satellite altimetry measures the distance between a satellite and a target on Earth. Usually, this is done with a radar altimetry system, which sends
a radar pulse to Earth's surface and then measures the time the pulse takes to reach the surface and return to estimate the distance. Particular
characteristics of the signal, like the magnitude and shape of the waveform, give information on the type of surface surveyed. Other altimetry
systems exist, like ATLAS (Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System), a laser altimetry system on ICESat-2 (scheduled spring 2017).

These methods are used to survey both sea level and ice altitude. These satellite missions last for years, so collect data ideal for climate change
studies as the ice and sea levels can be measured over time. This data can be compared to data collected from GRACE, to give a complete picture
of how ice volume and sea level are changing. For more information, see the Aviso+ page on the basics of altimetry and the ICESat-2 page for
information on ice satellite altimetry. Some examples of the results of satellite altimetry are at JPL, NOAA, and CU Sea Level Research Group.

GETSI modules that feature altimetry data:

Ice Mass and Sea Level Changes (Units 2 & 4)

Understanding Our Changing Climate: Data Behind Melting Ice and Changing Sea Level (Unit 2)

Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry

Structure from Motion or SfM is a photogrammetric method for creating

three-dimensional models of a feature or topography from overlapping
two-dimensional photographs taken from many locations and
orientations to reconstruct the photographed scene. The applications of
SfM are wide-ranging, from many sub-fields of geoscience
(geomorphology, tectonics, structural geology, geodesy, mining) to
An example SfM model archaeology, architecture, and agriculture. In addition to ortho-rectified
from the Pofadder shear imagery, SfM produces a dense point cloud data set that is similar in
zone. The blue many ways to that produced by airborne or terrestrial lidar. The
A cartoon of the SfM
rectangles indicate the advantages of SfM are its relative cost in comparison to lidar, as well as technique, based on taking
calculated camera its ease of use. The only required equipment is a camera. A computer and photographs from a wide array
locations; the model is a
3D point cloud with a
software are needed for data processing. Additionally, an aerial platform of orientations and distances.
like a balloon or drone can also be useful for topographic mapping The location of the camera for
photo overlay. Jamie applications. Because SfM relies on optical imagery, it is not able to
Kirkpatrick. generate the "bare earth" topographic products that are typical derivatives
each photograph is calculated
of lidar-based technologies – thus, SfM is usually best suited to areas of limited vegetation. Learn using features recognized in
more about Structure-from-Motion from GETSI Introduction to SfM. multiple photographs.
GETSI modules that feature SfM data:

Analyzing High Resolution Topography with TLS and SfM

Meters: borehole, tilt, creep

Three types of meters can supplement the data collected using the
geodetic techniques detailed above: borehole strainmeters, tiltmeters, and
creepmeters.

Borehole strainmeters are installed in boreholes and measure very small

changes in the dimension of a borehole at depth, reflecting the
continuous strain in Earth's crust. This is accomplished by measuring the
USGS Hawaiian
change in diameter or volume of a strainmeter installed in the borehole. A map of the Plate Boundary
Usually, strainmeters are installed at a depth of 200 m in a 15 cm Observatory Borehole
Volcano Observatory
diameter borehole. A seismometer is installed above the strainmeter. A Strainmeter Network across
field engieers lower a
tiltmeter may also be installed in the borehole. For more, see the
tiltmeter into a deep

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borehole on the west UNAVCO Strainmeter page or the USGS instruments page. the western United States. This
flank of Mauna Loa network is used to study the 3D
which will help monitor Tiltmeters are very sensitive inclinometers that measure the change from
volcanic activity. horizontal. These may be installed in boreholes with borehole strain field resulting from
strainmeters. A tiltmeter may also be installed on the ground surface. active deformation across the
Tiltmeters are generally used for fault monitoring, volcano monitoring, dam monitoring, assessing Pacific and North American
potential landslides, and the orientation and volume of hydraulic fractures. For more, see the plates.
UNAVCO Tiltmeter page or the USGS instruments page.

Creepmeters are used exclusively to quantify fault slip. Two monuments are placed on either side of a fault, 30 meters apart. A wire connects the
two monuments, and the displacement of the wire represents the displacement on the fault. For more, see the USGS page.

GETSI modules that feature tilt data:

Monitoring Volcanoes and Communicating Risks (Unit 2)

Other Resources

NASA's Brief History of Geodesy

9 Impacts of Geodesy by UNAVCO

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