Automotive Workshop 102

King Edsel G. Isleta

Angelito B. Diu
 VISION
Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational institution of
choice providing holistically developed individuals in the Asia-Pacific Region.

MISSION
Laguna University is committed to produce academically prepared and
technically skilled individuals who are socially and morally upright citizens.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

MISSION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna University is committed
to produce academically prepared and technically skilled mechanical engineers
who are socially and morally upright citizens.

VISION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna University is envisioned
to be the provincial college of choice producing well-equipped mechanical
engineers who specializes on energy management.
 Table of Contents
Module 1: Piston-Engine Operation
Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1: Internal Combustion Engines 1
Lesson 2: Piston-Engine Basics 2
Lesson 3: Engine Construction 5
Lesson 4: Reciprocating to Rotary Motion 7
Lesson 5: Engine Valves 7
Lesson 6: How the Engine Operates 10
Lesson 7: Multiple-Cylinder Engines 17
Lesson 8: Flywheel and Drive Plate 17
Assessment Task 1 20
Summary 21
Reference 22

Module 2: Engine Types and Classifications

Introduction 23
Learning Objectives 23
Lesson 1: Engine Types 24
Lesson 2: Engine Classifications 35
Assessment Task 1 50
Summary 51
Reference 52

Module 3: Engine Instruction

Introduction 53
Learning Objectives 53
Lesson 1: Piston-Engine Construction 53
Assessment Task 73
Summary 74
Reference 75
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 An in-line four-cylinder spark-ignition engine with overhead

camshaft 3
Figure 1.2 Reciprocating motion is up-down or back-and-forth motion 4
Figure 1.3 The two limiting positions of the piston 4
Figure 1.4 Three views that show the actions in an engine cylinder 6
Figure 1.5 Piston and piston rings. Top and Bottom view of piston 8
Figure 1.6 The clearance between the cylinder wall and the piston must be filled.
9
Figure 1.7 Piston-and-connecting-rod assembly attached to a
connecting-rod journal. 10
Figure 1.8 Crankshaft with one piston-and-connecting-rod assembly 11
Figure 1.9 As the crankshaft rotates, the rod journal or crankpin swings 11
Figure 1.10 The four piston strokes Intake, Compression, Power and
Exhaust 12
Figure 1.11 Intake and Exhaust valves for one cylinder of an engine 13
Figure 1.12 Valve and valve seat in a cylinder head 13
Figure 1.13 With a compression ratio of 8:1 14
Figure 1.14 Compression ratio is the volume in the cylinder 15
Figure 1.15 Camshaft and bearings removed from an overhead valve 16
Figure 1.16 Cam on a camshaft. Note locations of the toe and heel 17
Figure 1.17 Valve Closed 18
Figure 1.18 Valve Open 18
Figure 2.1 Various ways of arranging engine system 24
Figure 2.2 An in-line three-cylinder spark-ignition engine with overhead camshaft.
25
Figure 2.3 An In-line four-cylinder engine with the camshaft 26
Figure 2.4 An in-line four-cylinder engine. (Chrysler Corporation) 27
Figure 2.5 A four-cylinder engine with two overhead camshafts 27
Figure 2.6 A V-4 engine that has an internal balance shaft 29
Figure 2.7 A flat liquid-cooled four-cylinder engine with single overhead camshafts.
29
Figure 2.8 A five-cylinder engine with double-overhead camshafts. 30
Figure 2.9 A turbocharged five-cylinder engine with double-overhead
camshaft and oil-cooled pistons 30
Figure 2.10 An in-line six-cylinder engine 31
Figure 2.11 A V-6 engine with the camshaft in the cylinder block and
the valves operated by pushrods 32
Figure 2.12 A V-6 engine with double overhead camshafts 33
Figure 2.13 A flat or opposed six-cylinder engine 34
Figure 2.14 A V-18 engine with overhead valves and the camshaft 35
Figure 2.15 A double-overhead camshaft V-8 engine 36
Figure 2.16 Four methods of driving the camshaft. (ATW) 38
Figure 2.17 Types of valve trains. (ATW) 38
Figure 2.18 Oil-pump, ignition distributor, and fuel-pump drives 39
Figure 2.19 Cylinder numbering for inline engines 40
Figure 2.20 Cylinder numbering for V-type engines 41
Figure 2.21 Firing order related to cylinder numbering 41
Figure 2.22 Two-cycle engine operation 44
Figure 2.23 Four-cycle engine operation 45
Figure 2.24 A three-cylinder, two-stroke engine with direct fuel injection 46
Figure 2.25 Ceramic-coated parts in a diesel engine 47
Figure 2.26 A two-rotor Wankel engine 49
Figure 2.27 Sequence of action in a Wankel engine 49
Figure 3.1 Cylinder block for an inline three-cylinder engine 54
Figure 3.2 Internal parts of a cylinder block for an inline four-cylinder
Engine 55
Figure 3.3 Internal construction of one bank of a V-6-cylinder block 56
Figure 3.4 How the piston-and-ring assembly and connecting rod are
 installed 57
Figure 3.5 Cylinder head for an OHC four-cylinder engine 59
Figure 3.6 An acoustic oil pan using layers of plastic 60
Figure 3.7 Enlarged view of an aluminum cylinder wall 61
Figure 3.8 Cylinder block for an automotive diesel engine 62
Figure 3.9 Cylinder head for a four-cylinder OHV engine 63
Figure 3.10 Shapes of combustion chambers. (ATW) 63
Figure 3.11 An acoustic valve cover with a center plastic layer 64
Figure 3.12 A high-swirl intake port used with a masked valve seat 64
Figure 3.13 Airflow through the auxiliary intake valve or jet valve 66
Figure 3.14 Sequence of action in a stratified-charge spark-ignition engine 66
Figure 3.15 Cylinder head for an OHV six-cylinder engine 68
Figure 3.16 Single exhaust system for a V-type engine 69
Figure 3.17 Exhaust manifold for an inline six-cylinder engine 70
Figure 3.18 The crankshaft has oil holes drilled through it to carry oil 71
Figure 3.19 Standard crankshaft for a V-6 engine compared with a V-6 71
Figure 3.20 The engine crankshaft has a vibration damper 72

Course Code: AT102

Course Description: For student interest in the automobile from a business,
technical, and/or consumer perspective subject covered include automotive career
exploration, consumer information, minor maintenance and safety inspection, and an
introduction to technical system. Also automotive history and current social issue
associated with automobile, prerequisites;

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

 Diagnose and repair all major vehicle systems.

 Document repairs of vehicles accurately and descriptive of concern, cause, and
correction.
 Effectively locate and utilize technical information required for vehicle repairs.
 Work safely and responsibly within all shop standards and environmental
guidelines.
 Successfully pass at least two Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) technical
skill assessments.
 Function collaboratively as a member of a team to achieve specified and
measurable results.
 Comprehensive knowledge of employer expectations and ethical work practice.
 Demonstrate accuracy, proficiency and quality in task performance.
 Strategize professional growth in automotive industry.

Course Requirements:
 Assessment Tasks - 60%
 Major Exams-40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%

Final Grade = Total CS + Final Exam x 70% + 30% of the Midterm

 Module 1
Piston-Engine Operation

Introduction

An engine is a machine that converts heat energy to mechanical energy. The heat from

burning a fuel produces power which moves the vehicle. Sometimes the engine is called the

power plant (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Define the Operation and principles of Gasoline Engine.

2. Define the two types of Piston.

3. Know the different kind of Engine Strokes.

4. Describe the Flywheel and Drive Plate.

5. Identify the different parts of the Engine.

Lesson 1. Internal Combustion Engines

Automotive engines are internal-combustion (IC) engines because the fuel that runs them

is burned internally, or inside the engines. There are two types: reciprocating and rotary.

Reciprocating means moving up and down, or back and forth. Most automotive engines are

1
reciprocating. They have pistons that move up and down, or reciprocate, in cylinder. These are

pistons engines (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Rotary engines have rotors that spin, or rotate. The only such engine now used in

automobiles is the Wankel engine (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Lesson 2. Piston-Engine Basics

Two Kinds of Piston Engines

The two kinds of piston engines are the spark-ignition engine and the compression-ignition

(diesel) engine. The difference between them are (Crouse and Anglin, 2004):

 The type of fuel used.

 The way the fuel gets into the cylinders.

 The way the fuel is ignited

The spark-ignition engine usually runs on a liquid fuel such as gasoline or an alcohol blend.

The fuel must be highly volatile so that it vaporizes quickly. The fuel vapor mixes with air before

entering the engine cylinders. This forms the highly combustible air-fuel mixture that burns easily.

The mixture then enters the cylinders and is compressed. Heat from an electric spark produced

by the ignition system sets fire to, or ignites, the air-fuel mixture. As the mixture burns

(combustion), high temperature and pressure are produced in the cylinder. This high pressure,

applied to the top of the piston, forces it to move down the cylinder. The motion is carried by gears

and shafts to the wheels that drive the car. The wheels turn and the car moves (Crouse and

Anglin, 2004).

2
 In diesel or compression-ignition engine, the fuel mixes with air after it enters the engine

cylinders. The piston compresses the air to as little as 1/22 of its original volume. Compressing

the air this much raises its temperature to 1000 F (538C) or higher. A light oil called diesel fuel is

then sprayed or injected into the hot air. The hot air or heat of compression ignites the fuel. The

method of ignition by heat of compression gives the diesel engine the name compression-ignition

engine (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 1.1 An in-line four-cylinder spark-ignition engine with overhead camshaft.

3
 Figure 1.2 Reciprocating motion is up-down or back-and-forth motion as contrasted with rotary

(rotating) motion.

Figure 1.3 The two limiting positions of the piston are top dead center and bottom dead center. A

piston stroke occurs when the piston moves from BDC to TDC or from TDC to BDC.

4
Lesson 3. Engine Construction

Spark-ignition and compression-ignition piston engine similar in construction. Both have

pistons that move up and down in cylinders. The same action takes place in each cylinder, usually

at equally-spaced intervals of crankshaft rotation (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

In a four-cylinder spark-ignition engine each cylinder is about 4 inches [102 mm] in

diameter. The cylinder head covers the top of the cylinder. The bottom of the cylinder is open. As

the engine runs, the pistons slide up and down in the cylinders (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The picture shows the actions in the cylinder of a spark-ignition engine. In (A), the piston

is at its lower limit of travel, or bottom dead center (BDC). The space above the piston is filled

with air- fuel mixture. Next, the piston moves up the cylinder toward top dead center (TDC). This

compresses the mixture. As the piston nears TDC, an electric spark ignites the mixture. The

mixture burns, creating high temperature and a resulting pressure that pushes the piston down

the cylinder. This downward movement produces the power that moves the car. The actions are

the same in all cylinders and continue as long as the engine runs (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Pistons and Piston Rings

Pistons are made of aluminum alloy (aluminum mixed with other metals). They weigh

about 1 pound [0.454 kg]. The piston is slightly smaller than the cylinder which allows the piston

to slide up and down. This is a sliding fit (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Because the pistons are slightly smaller, there is a small gap or piston clearance between

the piston and the cylinder wall. This gap must be closed (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

5
 Otherwise, some of the compressed air-fuel mixture leaks past the pistons and into the

crankcase. This leakage is blowby. Excessive blowby reduces engine power, wastes fuel, and

pollutes the air (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

To prevent excessive blowby, piston rings are installed on the pistons. The rings are split

at one point. This allows them to be expanded slightly, slipped over the head of the piston, into

ring grooves cut in the piston (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

There are two types of piston rings:

1. Compression rings – These form a sliding seal between the piston and the cylinder wall.

2. Oil-control rings (or oil rings) – These scrape off most of the lubricating oil splashed on the

cylinder wall, and return the oil to the crankcase.

Figure 1.4 Three views that show the actions in an engine cylinder.

6
Lesson 4. Reciprocating to Rotary Motion

The reciprocating motion of the piston must be changed to rotary motion to turn the drive

wheels. A connecting rod and a crank on the crankshaft make this conversion. The connecting

rod connects the piston pin in the piston to a connecting-rod journal, or crankpin, on the

crankshaft. The piston pin allows the connecting rod to tilt back and forth (Crouse and Anglin,

2004).

The connecting-rod journal is an offset part of the crankshaft. It swings in a circle as the

crankshaft rotates. A rod cap and bolts attach the connecting rod to the connecting-rod journal.

They hold a split bearing (two halves), or connecting-rod bearing, in place in the cap and rod. A

slight clearance allows the connecting-rod journal to turn inside the bearing. The clearance is

normally filled with oil to prevent metal-to-metal contact (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

As the piston moves up and down, the rod journal moves in a circle and the crankshaft

rotates. The connecting rod swings to one side so its lower end follows the rod journal. After the

piston reaches BDC and starts up, the rod tilts to the other side. As the piston moves up and

down, the connecting rod to follow the rod journal as it swings in a circle around the crankshaft.

The action changes the reciprocating motion of the piston to rotary motion of the crankshaft

(Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Lesson 5. Engine Valves

Most engines have two holes, or ports, in the upper enclosed end of the cylinder. (Some

engines have more than two ports.) one port is the intake port. The other is the exhaust port. Air-

7
fuel mixture flows into the cylinder through the intake port. Burned gases leave the cylinder

through the exhaust port (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The two ports are open only part of the time. The rest of the time they are closed by the

intake and exhaust valves. The valves are plugs with long stems that open and close the ports in

the cylinder head. When a valve moves up into its port, the valve seals tightly against a valve

seat. In this position, the valve is closed, sealing the port. When a valve is pushed down off its

seat, the port is open. Then the air-fuel mixture or exhaust gas can pass through the port. The

opening and closing of the valves are controlled by the valve train (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 1.5 Piston and piston rings. Top and Bottom view of piston.

8
 The two ports are open only part of the time. The rest of the time they are closed by the

intake and exhaust valves. The valves are plugs with long stems that open and close the ports in

the cylinder head. When a valve moves up into its port, the valve seals tightly against a valve

seat. In this position, the valve is closed, sealing the port. When a valve is pushed down off its

seat, the port is open. Then the air-fuel mixture or exhaust gas can pass through the port. The

opening and closing of the valves are controlled by the valve train (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 1.6 The clearance between the cylinder wall and the piston must be filled.

9
Lesson 6. How the Engine Operates

Engine Operation

The actions in the spark-ignition engine can be divided into four parts. Each part consists

of a piston stroke. This is the movement of the piston from BDC to TDC, or from TDC to BDC.

The complete cycle of events in the engine cylinder requires four piston strokes. These are intake,

compression, power and exhaust. The crankshaft makes two complete revolutions to complete

the four piston strokes. This makes the engine a four-stroke-cycle engine. It is also called a four-

stroke or four-cycle engine. The word cycle means a series of events that repeat themselves

(Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 1.7 Piston-and-connecting-rod assembly attached to a connecting-rod journal.

10
 Figure 1.8 Crankshaft with one piston-and-connecting-rod assembly.

Figure 1.9 As the crankshaft rotates, the rod journal or crankpin swings in a circle around it.

11
 Figure 1.10 The four piston strokes Intake, Compression, Power and Exhaust.

Intake Stroke

During the intake stroke of a spark-ignition engine, the piston is moving down. The intake

valve is open. Air-fuel mixture flows through the intake port and into the cylinder. The fuel system

supplies the mixture (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

As the piston passes through BDC, the intake valve closes. This seals off the upper end

of the cylinder.

12
 Figure 1.11 Intake and Exhaust valves for one cylinder of an engine.

Figure 1.12 Valve and valve seat in a cylinder head.

Compression Stroke

After the piston passes BDC, it starts moving up. Both valves are closed. The upward

moving piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in to a smaller space, between the top of the piston

13
and the cylinder head. This space is the combustion chamber. The mixture is compressed into

1/8 or less of its original volume. This is like taking a quart of air and squeezing it into about half

a cup. The amount that the mixture is compressed is the compression ratio. It is ratio between

the original volume and the compressed volume in the combustion chamber. If the mixture is

compressed to 1/8 of its original volume, then the compression ratio is 8 to 1 (written 8:1) (Crouse

and Anglin, 2004).

Power Stroke

As the piston nears TDC at the end of the compression stroke, an electric spark jumps the

gap at the spark plug. The heat from the spark ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture. The air-

fuel mixture then burns rapidly, producing high temperatures of up to 6000 F. These high

temperatures cause very high pressure which pushes down on the top of the piston. The

connecting rod carries this force to the crankshaft, which turns to move the drive wheels (Crouse

and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 1.13 With a compression ratio of 8:1, the air-fuel mixture is compressed to one-eight of its original

volume.

14
Figure 1.14 Compression ratio is the volume in the cylinder at BDC divided by the volume with the piston

at TDC, or A divided by B. A is the air volume. B is the clearance volume.

Exhaust Stroke

As the piston approaches BDC on the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens. After

passing through BDC, the piston moves up again. The burned gases escape through the open

exhaust port. As the piston nears TDC, the intake valve opens. When the piston passes through

TDC and starts down again, the exhaust valve closes. Another intake stroke begins and the whole

cycle – intake, compression, power, and exhaust – repeats. This goes on continuously in all

engine cylinders as long as the engine runs (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Valve Action

In many engines, each cylinder has two valves. One is an intake valve, the other is an

exhaust valve. Some engines have more than two valves. These are multivalve engines. They

15
have three, four, five, or six valves per cylinder. For example, an engine with four valves in each

cylinder is a four-valve engine (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The valve train is the series of parts that open and close the valves. The action starts at

the crankshaft. The crankshaft drives the camshaft through gears, sprockets and chain, or

sprockets and a toothed timing belt. Most camshafts have a cam for each valve in the engine.

Each cam is a round collar with a high spot or lobe (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 1.15 Camshaft and bearings removed from an overhead valve.

The camshaft mounts overhead, on top of the cylinder head. The bucket tappet sits on top

of the valve stem. Underneath the tappet is a valve spring that holds the tappet up against the

cam. When the rotating cam brings the cam lobe down against the top of the bucket tappet, the

lobe pushes the tappet down. This compresses the spring and pushes the valve down off its seat.

The valve opens. As the cam continues to rotate, the lobe moves away from the tappet. The

spring pushes the tappet and valve up until the valve seats (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

16
Lesson 7. Multiple-Cylinder Engines

A single-cylinder four-cycle engine has only one power stroke every two crankshaft

revolutions. The engine delivers power only one-fourth of its running time. This is during the power

stroke. During the other three strokes the piston is not delivering power to the crankshaft (Crouse

and Anglin, 2004).

For a more even flow of power, automotive engines are multiple-cylinder engines. They

have three or more cylinders. In general, the more cylinder in an engine, the smoother it runs.

With six or more cylinders, the power impulses follow each other so closely that they overlap. The

more even power flow results in a smoother running engine (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Lesson 8. Flywheel and Drive Plate

Even when the power impulses overlap, the flow of power from the pistons to the

crankshaft is not smooth. Each power stroke delivers a sudden power impulse to the crankshaft.

This causes the crankshaft to try to speed up. During the other three piston strokes, the crankshaft

tries to slow down. A weight on each end of a flywheel on the rear, helps keep it turning smoothly

(Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

17
Figure 1.16 Cam on a camshaft. Note locations of the toe and heel.

Figure 1.17 Valve Closed

18
 Figure 1.18 Valve Open

On vehicles with a manual transmission, the heavy metal flywheel helps smooth out the

power flow. It resists any sudden change in the crankshaft’s speed of rotation. Vehicles with an

automatic transmission or transaxle have a light drive plate (or flex plate) with a fluid-filled torque

converter attached to the crankshaft. This acts the same as the flywheel to smooth power flow

(Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The flywheel also serves as the driving member of the clutch in cars with a manual

transmission. In addition, the flywheel (and also the drive plate) has a ring of teeth on its outer

rim. A small pinion gear on the starting motor meshes with the ring-gear teeth when the starting

motor operates. This rotates the flywheel and crankshaft to start the engine (Crouse and Anglin,

2004).

19
 Some engines have a dual-mass flywheel or tandem-mass flywheel. This is basically two

separate flywheel – a primary flywheel and a secondary flywheel. The primary flywheel attaches

to the crankshaft flange. As the crankshaft rotates, engine power is transmitted from the primary

flywheel, through torsional springs, to the secondary flywheel. This arrangement allows the

springs to absorb the crankshaft torsional vibration caused by the engine power impulses. The

result is a smoother power flow and reduced drive-train noise and vibration (Crouse and Anglin,

2004).

Assessment Task

Describe the 4 different Strokes and the Valve Action

1.

2.

3.

20
4.

5.

Summary

An engine is a machine that converts heat energy to mechanical energy. Automotive

engines are internal-combustion (IC) engines because the fuel that runs them is burned internally,

or inside the engines. The spark-ignition engine usually runs on a liquid fuel such as gasoline or

an alcohol blend. In diesel or compression-ignition engine, the fuel mixes with air after it enters

the engine cylinders. Spark-ignition and compression-ignition piston engine similar in

construction. Pistons are made of aluminum alloy (aluminum mixed with other metals). To prevent

excessive blowby, piston rings are installed on the pistons. The reciprocating motion of the piston

must be changed to rotary motion to turn the drive wheels. The connecting-rod journal is an offset

part of the crankshaft. As the piston moves up and down, the rod journal moves in a circle and

the crankshaft rotates. Most engines have two holes, or ports, in the upper enclosed end of the

21
cylinder. The two ports are open only part of the time. The actions in the spark-ignition engine can

be divided into four parts. During the intake stroke of a spark-ignition engine, the piston is moving

down. The intake valve is open. After the piston passes BDC, it starts moving up. Both valves are

closed. As the piston nears TDC at the end of the compression stroke, an electric spark jumps

the gap at the spark plug. As the piston approaches BDC on the power stroke, the exhaust valve

opens. The valve train is the series of parts that open and close the valves. The camshaft mounts

overhead, on top of the cylinder head. A single-cylinder four-cycle engine has only one power

stroke every two crankshaft revolutions. Even when the power impulses overlap, the flow of power

from the pistons to the crankshaft is not smooth. The flywheel also serves as the driving member

of the clutch in cars with a manual transmission. (Crouse and Anglin, 2004)

Reference

Crouse and Anglin. (2004). Automotive Mechanic. 10th Edition, International Edition

22
 Module 2
Engine Types and Classifications

Introduction

Automotive engines can be classified according to number of cylinders, arrangement of

cylinders, arrangement of valves and valve trains, type of cooling.

It can be also classified according to number of strokes per cycle (two or four), type of fuel

burned, method of ignition, firing order and reciprocating or rotary

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Define the different Engine Types.

2. Define different arrangement of Valves and Valve Trains.

3. Know the different Firing Order.

4. Know the Classification by Cycles.

23
Lesson 1. Engine Types

Number and Arrangement of Cylinder

American passenger-car engines have four, six, eight or ten cylinders. Imported cars offer

a greater variety. They use engines with three, four, five, six, eight, and twelve cylinders. Cylinders

can be arranged:

1. In a row (in line).

2. In two rows or banks set at an angle (V type).

3. In two rows of banks opposing each other (flat, pancake, or horizontally-opposed type).

4. Like spokes on a wheel (radial type).

Figure 2.1 Various ways of arranging engine system

Three-Cylinder Engines

Two- and three-cylinder engines are popular in other counties. Several small cars with

three-cylinder in-line engines are sold in the United States. Three-cylinder engine for a car

24
manufactured in Japan and sold in this country. The engine has an overhead camshaft and

produces 60 horsepower (hp) [45 kilowatts (kw)] at 5500 revolutions per minute (rpm) (Crouse

and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 2.2 An in-line three-cylinder spark-ignition engine with overhead camshaft.

To save weight, the camshaft and crankshaft are hollow. The cylinder block is aluminum

alloy with cast-in cylinder liners of cast iron. The camshaft is driven from the crankshaft by a

toothed timing belt. The ignition distributor is driven directly from one end of the camshaft. The oil

pump is on the front end of the crankshaft. A V belt from the crankshaft drives the alternator and

water pump (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

25
Four-Cylinder Engines

Four cylinders can be arranged (Crouse and Anglin, 2004):

1. In a line.

2. In a V (V-type).

3. Opposed (flat or pancake).

A V-type engine has the cylinders set in two rows (or banks) of two cylinders each. The

two rows are at an angle to each other. For years, most V-type engines had the two rows of

cylinder separated by 90 degrees. Many newer V-type engines separate the cylinder rows by only

60 degrees. This makes the engine narrower so it more easily fits the smaller engine

compartments of downsized vehicles (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 2.3 An In-line four-cylinder engine with the camshaft in the cylinder block, throttle-body injection,

and distributorless ignition. (Chevrolet Division of General Motors Corporation)

26
 Figure 2.4 An in-line four-cylinder engine. (Chrysler Corporation)

Figure 2.5 A four-cylinder engine with two overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder.

27
 In an opposed-cylinder engine, two rows of two cylinders oppose each other. The rows are in

the same plane, separated by 180 degrees (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

1. FOUR-CYLINDER IN-LINE ENGINE – The camshaft in the cylinder block is driven by a

timing chain from the crankshaft. The valves in the cylinder head are operated through

valve lifters, pushrod, and rocker arms. An engine with this type of valve train is often

called an overhead-valve (OHV) engine or a pushrod engine. An electronic distributorless

ignition system fires the spark plugs.

Engine using an oil-pump drive shaft to drive the oil pump. This engine has bucket tappets.

The camshaft is driven by sprockets and a timing belt. A bowl-in-piston forms part of the

combustion chamber.

The General Motors Quad-4 engine has four valves per cylinder and bucket tappets.

Sprockets and a chain drive the two overhead camshafts. One camshaft operates the

intake valves. The other operates the exhaust valves.

2. V-4 ENGINE – The V-4 engine has two rows of two cylinders each, set at an angle to form

a V. The crankshaft has only two connecting-rod journals. Connecting rods from opposing

cylinders attach to the same journal. This type of engine is difficult to balance with

counterweights on the crankshaft. To overcome the roughness and vibration, the engine

has a balance shaft. It turns in the direction opposite the crankshaft.

3. OPPOSED FOUR-CYLINDER ENGINE – The Volkswagen Beetle has an opposed (flat or

pancake) air-cooled engine. It is mounted in the rear and drives the rear wheels. The

liquid-cooled engine mounts at the front of the car and drives the front wheels. Sprockets

and toothed timing belts turn the two camshafts.

28
Figure 2.6 A V-4 engine that has an internal balance shaft for smoother operation. (Ford Motor Company

of Germany)

Figure 2.7 A flat liquid-cooled four-cylinder engine with single overhead camshafts. (Subaru of America,

Inc.)

29
Five-Cylinder Engines

Several manufacturers have made five-cylinder in-line engines. Mercedes makes a five-

cylinder diesel engine. The engine mounts longitudinally. The transaxle sends power to both the

front and rear drive axles. A five-cylinder turbocharged spark-ignition engine mounts transversely

and drives the front wheels (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 2.8 A five-cylinder engine with double-overhead camshafts. (Audi of America, Inc.)

Figure 2.9 A turbocharged five-cylinder engine with double-overhead camshaft and oil-cooled pistons.

(Volkswagen of American, Inc.)

30
 The engine produces 300 hp [220 kw] at 6500 rpm. A separate oil circuit supplies

lubricating oil to the turbocharger bearings. Small nozzles direct a spray of cooling oil onto the

underside of the pistons. This helps carry away (or dissipate) the heat produced by the high-

power output of each cylinder. A thermostatically-controlled oil cooler helps maintain the

lubricating oil at the proper temperature. The five-cylinder engine has 20 valves – four valves per

cylinder. Two camshafts in the cylinder head operate the valves through bucket tappets (Crouse

and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 2.10 An in-line six-cylinder engine. The cylinder are slanted to permit a lower hood line. (Chrysler

Corporation)

31
Six-Cylinder Engines

Six cylinders can be in line, in a V, or opposed. The valves may be operated by a camshaft

in the cylinder block. Or they may be operated by one or two camshafts mounted in the cylinder

head (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

1. SIX-CYLINDER IN-LINE ENGINE – A six-cylinder inline spark-ignition engine valves are

operated by pushrods from the camshaft in the cylinder block. The oil pump mounts on

the side of the block and is driven by a gear on the camshaft.

2. V-6 ENGINE – The V-6 engine has two rows of three cylinders each, set at an angle. The

angle between the banks is usually either 60 degrees or 90 degrees. The engine has four

camshafts, two in each cylinder head. A timing chain turns the idler sprocket. It then drives

the timing belt which rotates the four camshafts.

3. OPPOSED SIX-CYLINDER ENGINE – Ferrari, Porsche, and Subaru make opposed six-

cylinder engines with overhead camshafts. The layout of the engines is similar, with one

more cylinder added to each bank.

32
 Figure 2.11 A V-6 engine with the camshaft in the cylinder block and the valves operated by pushrods.

(Ford Motor Company)

V-8 Engines

The V-8 engine has two four-cylinder rows, or banks, set at a 90-degree angle. The engine

is like two four-cylinder engines mounted on a single crankcase and using a single crankshaft.

The crankshaft has four crankpins. Connecting rods from opposing cylinders are attached to a

single crankpin. Therefore, each crankpin has two connecting rods attached to it. (Crouse and

Anglin, 2004).

33
Figure 2.12 A V-6 engine with double overhead camshafts, two in each cylinder head. (Pontiac Division of

General Motors Corporation)

34
Figure 2.13 A flat or opposed six-cylinder engine with a single overhead camshaft in each cylinder head.

(Subaru of America, Inc.)

The V-8 engine has the camshaft in the cylinder block. Pushrods operate the valves. The

double-overhead-camshaft V-8 engine used in the Chevrolet Corvette. There are four valves per

cylinder, for a total of 32 valves in the cylinder heads. A chain from the crankshaft drives an idler

sprocket. It drives the timing chain that turns the camshafts (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

35
 Figure 2.14 A V-18 engine with overhead valves and the camshaft in the cylinder block. (Ford Motor

Company)

Twelve- and Sixteen-Cylinder Engines

These engines have been used in passenger cars, buses, trucks, and industrial

equipment. The cylinders are most often in two banks (V or opposed). Some designs have three

banks (W type) or four banks (X type). Passenger cars with a 12-cylinder engine sold in the United

States include BMW, Ferrari, Jaguar, and Lamborghini. No new passenger cars with a 16-cylinder

engine are now available (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Lesson 2. Engine Classifications

Arrangement of Valves and Valve Trains

Engine valves allow the engine to breathe. The intake valves open to admit air-fuel mixture

(air only in diesel engines) to the engine cylinders. The exhaust valves open to allow burned

36
gases to exit or exhaust from the engine cylinders. Cams on the rotating camshaft operate the

valve train, which opens the valves (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

There are several different arrangements of valves and valve trains. Differences that affect

engine classification include:

a. Location of the camshaft.

b. How the camshaft is driven.

c. Type of valve train.

d. Number of valves per cylinder.

Figure 2.15 A double-overhead camshaft V-8 engine used in the Chevrolet Corvette. The engine has four

valves per cylinder and a total of 32 valves. (Chevrolet Division of General Motors Corporation)

37
1. CAMSHAFT LOCATION – The camshaft is either in the cylinder block or on the cylinder

head (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

2. TYPES OF CAMSHAFT DRIVE – Camshafts are driven by timing gears, sprockets and

timing chain, or sprockets and toothed timing belt. Some engines use a combination of

timing chain and timing belt to drive the camshafts (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

3. TYPES OF VALVE TRAIN – Most automotive engines use one of two basic types of valve

train. These are overhead camshaft and camshaft in block or overhead valve. In each

type, the rotating cam lobe actuates the valve train to open the valve.

The camshaft in the cylinder block may also drive the ignition distributor. A shaft from the

distributor drives the engine oil pump. An eccentric on the camshaft operates the

mechanical fuel pump (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

4. NUMBER OF VALVES PER CYLINDER – Some engines have more than two valves per

cylinder. Some have three, four, five, or even six valves in each cylinder. The purpose of

these added valves is to allow the engine to breathe more freely. the added valves allow

more air-fuel mixture to enter and the burned gases to exit more freely.

This improves volumetric efficiency so the engine produces more power (Crouse and

Anglin, 2004).

38
Figure 2.16 Four methods of driving the camshaft. (ATW)

Figure 2.17 Types of valve trains. (ATW)

39
 Figure 2.18 Oil-pump, ignition distributor, and fuel-pump drives. The gear on the camshaft drives the oil

pump and distributor. The eccentric (off-center) ring on the camshaft drives the fuel pump. (Buick Division

of General Motors Corporation)

Engine Rotation and Cylinder Numbering

Most automotive engines, both spark-ignition and diesel, have standard rotation. This

means that the crankshaft rotates in a counterclockwise direction, as viewed from the flywheel or

output end of the engine. When you are looking at the front of the engine, the crankshaft rotates

clockwise (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The cylinders in an engine are numbered. In most engines, they are numbered in the

sequence in which the connecting rods attach along the crankshaft. Cylinder number 1 is usually

the cylinder farthest from the output end of the crankshaft. Using this method, the engine can be

installed either longitudinally or transversely without affecting cylinder numbering (Crouse and

Anglin, 2004).

40
 In V-type or opposed-cylinder engines, the cylinders may be numbered in sequence in

each bank. Cylinder number 1 is farthest from the output end of the crankshaft. Several different

cylinder-numbering arrangements are used for V-6 and V-8 engines (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Service manual often refer to right-hand or left-hand locations of parts that are near or on

the engine. Cylinder bank and accessory locations are right or left when the engine is viewed from

the output end (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 2.19 Cylinder numbering for inline engines.

41
 Figure 2.20 Cylinder numbering for V-type engines.

Figure 2.21 Firing order related to cylinder numbering.

42
Firing Order

The firing order is the sequence in which the cylinder deliver their power strokes. It is

designed into the engine. The crankpin and camshaft arrangement determine the firing order. In

most engines, the firing order evenly distributes the power strokes along the crankshaft. Most

engine designs avoid firing two cylinders, one after the other, at the same end of the crankshaft

(Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Firing orders for the same type of engine may differ. Two firing orders for in-line four-

cylinder engines are 1-3-4-2 and 1-2-4-3. In-line six-cylinder engines use 1-5-3-6-2-4. A Chrysler

V-6 and two General Motors V-6 engines all have the same firing order or 1-2-3-4-5-6. Ford V-6

engines have fired 1-4-2-5-3-6 and 1-4-2-3-5-6. A firing order used on V-8 engines by Chrysler

and General Motors is 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2. Ford V-8 engines use 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8 and 1-3-7-2-6-5-4-

8 (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Many engine service jobs require that you know the cylinder numbering and firing order.

Some engines have cylinder-numbering identification, firing order, and direction of ignition-

distributor rotation cast into or imprinted on the intake manifold. The information is also in the

manufacturer’s service manual (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The complete firing order of a four-cycle engine represents two complete revolutions of

the crankshaft. This is 720 degrees of crankshaft rotation. Most engines are “even firing.” This

means, for example, that in an in-line six-cylinder engine a firing impulse occurs every 120

degrees of crankshaft rotation (720 + 6 = 120). The firing order of this engine is 1-5-3-6-2-4.

When piston number 1 is at TDC on the end of the compression stroke, piston number 6 is at

43
TDC on the end of the exhaust stroke. To determine the two pistons that are moving up and down

together (piston pairs), divide the firing order in half. Then place the second half under the first

half:

1-5-3

6-2-4

The piston pairs for this inline six-cylinder engine are 1 and 6,5 and 2, and 3 and 4. (Crouse

and Anglin, 2004).

Classification by Cooling

Almost all automotive engines are liquid-cooled. The liquid-cooled engine circulates

coolant between the engine and the radiator to remove excess heat (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The Volkswagen Beetle engine, and some others, are air-cooled. They have metal fins on

the cylinders to help carry away excess heat. The small one- and two-cylinder engines in power

lawn mowers and similar equipment are air-cooled (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Classification by Cycles

Piston engines operate on either the two-stroke cycle or the four-stroke cycle. Automotive

engines are four-stroke-cycle engine. Every fourth piston stroke is a power stroke. In the two-

stroke cycle, every other piston stroke is a power stroke. This provides a power stroke during

each crankshaft revolution (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

44
 The two-stroke-cycle engine produces twice as many power strokes at the same

crankshaft speed (rpm) as the four-stroke-cycle engine. However, this does not make the two-

stroke engine twice as powerful. In the two-stroke-cycle engine, the piston opens the transfer and

exhaust ports. Then there is always some mixing of the fresh air-fuel mixture with the exhaust

gases. This reduces the amount of fresh air-fuel mixture that enters. Also, only part of the piston

stroke is devoted to getting air-fuel mixture into the cylinder. This further reduces the amount of

air-fuel mixture that enters. And finally, only part of the downward stroke (the power stroke)

produces power (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 2.22 Two-cycle engine operation

45
 Figure 2.23 Four-cycle engine operation

A three-cylinder, two-stroke engine that Chrysler is developing for possible automotive

use. The engine has no valve train and uses direct injection which injects the fuel directly into the

cylinder. Some of the advantages of this engine include size and weight reductions, with a

resulting improvement in fuel economy over other engines. However, before the two-stroke

engine can be installed in new vehicles, it must meet the exhaust emissions standards and be as

durable as a comparable four-stroke engine (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Classification by Fuel

Spark-ignition engines usually burn gasoline or gasohol. This is a blend of gasoline and

alcohol. Some spark-ignition engines, especially in buses and trucks, burn liquified petroleum gas

(LPG) or compressed natural gas (CNG). Diesel engines usually burn a light oil called diesel fuel.

Flexible fuel vehicles can burn gasoline or alcohol-blend fuels (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

46
 Figure 2.24 A three-cylinder, two-stroke engine with direct fuel injection.

Adiabatic Engines

Adiabatic means “without loss of heat.” In the standard piston engine, most of the heat

energy in the fuel is lost. Instead of producing power, the heat leaves the engine through the

lubricating system cooling system, and exhaust gas (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The hotter an engine runs, the higher its efficiency. More of the heat energy in the fuel is

then used to move the car. However, simply raising the operating temperature of the piston engine

will not work. The metal parts will melt or fail. Under development is the adiabatic diesel engine.

It uses parts made or coated with a ceramic material. This allows the engine to operate at a much

higher temperature. Then more of energy in the fuel produces power. Studies show that a small

car with an adiabatic engine could get 100 mpg (42.5 km/L) (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

47
 Figure 2.25 Ceramic-coated parts in a diesel engine. (Ford Motor Company)

Rotary Engines

In rotary engines, rotors spin to produce power. There are two types, only one of which is

now used in passenger cars. The two are the gas-turbine engine and the Wankel engine. There

has been much research on gas turbines, but so far, no practical automotive engine has resulted.

In the gas turbine, burning air-fuel mixture spins a power turbine that is geared to the car wheels

(Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The gas turbine is used successfully in airplanes, helicopters, and electric generating

systems. In these installations, it operates mostly at constant speed. It does not do will in

automotive vehicles. One reason is a noticeable delay in acceleration after the driver depresses

the throttle. Also, the power-turbine section, which gets very hot and runs at very high speed, is

made of expensive material (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

48
 This makes the gas turbine cost more to manufacture than a comparable piston engine.

However, a future oil shortage and the ability to operate on a variety of fuels could help make the

gas turbine an important alternative powerplant (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Wankel Engine

The Wankel engine has rotors that spin in oval chamber shaped like a fat figure 8. It is a

rotary-combustion (RC) engine because the combustion chambers are in, and therefore rotate

with, the rotors. The engine operates on the four-stroke cycle (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The four actions – intake, compression, power, and exhaust – are going on at the same

time around each rotor while the engine is running. Follow lobe A around. As it moves, the space

between A and C (2) expands. This causes air-fuel mixture to fill the space. Then, when love C

passes the intake port, the space (A to C) is sealed off (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Meantime, the space between A and B has been greatly reduced. It has held air-fueled

mixture (like 3 and 4 between lobes A and C). The mixture between A and B has been

compressed. Now, a spark at the spark plug ignites the mixture. It burns and forces the rotor to

turn. As lobe B passes the exhaust port, the burned mixture exhausts (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The “strokes” of intake, compression, power, and exhaust follow continuously in each rotor

chamber. This occurs as long as the engine is running (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

49
 Figure 2.26 A two-rotor Wankel engine. (Mazda Motors of America, Inc.)

Figure 2.27 Sequence of action in a Wankel engine during one complete revolution of the motor. (Mazda

Motors of America, Inc.)

50
 Assessment Task

List 5 different Engine Types and Number and Arrangement of Cylinder.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

51
 Summary

American passenger-car engines have four, six, eight or ten cylinders. Two- and three-

cylinder engines are popular in other counties. To save weight, the camshaft and crankshaft are

hollow. A V-type engine has the cylinders set in two rows (or banks) of two cylinders each. In an

opposed-cylinder engine, two rows of two cylinders oppose each other. Several manufacturers

have made five-cylinder in-line engines. The engine produces 300 hp [220 kw] at 6500 rpm. Six

cylinders can be in line, in a V, or opposed. The V-8 engine has two four-cylinder rows, or banks,

set at a 90-degree angle. The V-8 engine has the camshaft in the cylinder block. Twelve- and

sixteen-cylinder engines have been used in passenger cars, buses, trucks, and industrial

equipment. Engine valves allow the engine to breathe. Most automotive engines, both spark-

ignition and diesel, have standard rotation. In V-type or opposed-cylinder engines, the cylinders

may be numbered in sequence in each bank. The firing order is the sequence in which the cylinder

deliver their power strokes. Firing orders for the same type of engine may differ. Many engine

service jobs require that you know the cylinder numbering and firing order. The complete firing

order of a four-cycle engine represents two complete revolutions of the crankshaft. Almost all

automotive engines are liquid-cooled. Piston engines operate on either the two-stroke cycle or

the four-stroke cycle. A three-cylinder, two-stroke engine that Chrysler is developing for possible

automotive use. Spark-ignition engines usually burn gasoline or gasohol. This is a blend of

gasoline and alcohol. Adiabatic means “without loss of heat.” The hotter an engine runs, the higher

its efficiency. In rotary engines, rotors spin to produce power. The gas turbine is used successfully

52
in airplanes, helicopters, and electric generating systems. The Wankel engine has rotors that spin

in oval chamber shaped like a fat figure 8.

References

Crouse and Anglin. (2004). Automotive Mechanic. 10th Edition, International Edition

53
 Module 3
Engine Construction

Introduction

Spark-ignition and diesel engines are similar in construction. Both have cylinder blocks,

cylinder heads, crankshaft, and bearings. Also, both have pistons, connecting rods, and valve

trains. The main difference between spark-ignition parts and diesel engine parts is that diesel

parts are usually heavier and stronger. This is because the internal pressures are higher in diesel

engines. (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Know the Engine Construction.

2. Define the Cylinder Block.

3. Define the Cylinder Head and Cylinder Gasket.

4. Describe the Exhaust and Intake Manifold.

54
Lesson 1. Piston-Engine Construction
Cylinder Block

The cylinder block is the foundation of the engine. All other engine parts are assembled in

or attached to the cylinder block. Most block are cast from gray iron (cast iron) or iron mixed with

other metals such as nickel and chromium. Some blocks are cast from aluminum alloy (Crouse

and Anglin, 2004).

The block is a casting that has large holes for the cylinder bores. It also has water jackets

and coolant passages. Water jackets are the spaces between the cylinder bores and the outer

shell of the block. Coolant flows through these spaces to pick up heat and carry it away from the

engine (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The core clean-out holes allow removal of the cores that formed the water jackets. The

cores are made of sand and shaped like water jackets. They are put into place and hot metal is

poured around them. After the metal has cooled and hardened, the cores are broken up and

removed through the clean-out holes. Then the holes are sealed with plugs. These are called core

plugs, freeze plugs, or expansion plugs. If coolant in the block starts to freeze, the coolant

expands and pushes the plugs out. This may provide some protection against a cracked block.

However, coolant that contains the proper amount of antifreeze is not likely to freeze (Crouse and

Anglin, 2004).

55
 Figure 3.1 Cylinder block for an inline three-cylinder engine. (Chevrolet Division of General Motors
Corporation)

Figure 3.2 Internal parts of a cylinder block for an inline four-cylinder engine. (American Honda Motor
Company, Inc.)

56
Machining the Block (Crouse and Anglin, 2004)

After the cores are removed, the block is cleaned and machined. Then:

1. Holes are drilled for attaching various parts.

2. Cylinder are machined and finished.

3. If the camshaft is to be in the block, camshaft-bearing holes are bored.

4. Surfaces to which parts attach are machined and finished

5. Oil passages are drilled.

6. Valve-lifter bores are machined (pushrod engines).

7. Coolant passages are cleaned out.

Figure 3.3 Internal construction of one bank of a V-6-cylinder block. (General Motors Corporation)

57
Parts Attached to and Installed in Block (Crouse and Anglin, 2004)

1. The crankshaft, with main bearings, is attached to the bottom of the block. (In the shop,

the block is normally upside down while the crankshaft is installed.) The crankshaft fits

into bearings in the main-bearing caps and block.

2. The pistons, with rings installed and connecting rods attached, are installed. (In the shop,

the block is turned upright for this job.) The connecting rods, with rod bearings, are

attached to the crankpins on the crankshaft.

3. Other parts, are installed.

4. The cylinder head with valves and camshaft (on OHC engines) is assembled.

5. After bearing adjustment and installation of the head and oil pump, the oil pan is attached.

Lubricating oil is added to the engine. Then the engine is started and given a running test.

When the internal engine parts have been installed, the assembly is a short block. A new or

remanufactured short block is used if the old engine is beyond economical repair. Some parts

from the old engine are installed on the short block. They include the cylinder head, oil pan, and

front cover. Transferring these parts reduces the cost of the “new” engine (Crouse and Anglin,

2004).

58
 Figure 3.4 How the piston-and-ring assembly and connecting rod are installed from the top of the block.

(American Honda Motor Company, Inc.)

Oil Pan

The oil pan is a plastic or metal. It is shaped to fit on the bottom of the block. A gasket is

installed between the pan and block to seal the joint and prevent oil leaks (Crouse and Anglin,

2004).

The bottom of the block plus the oil pan forms the crankcase. They enclose, or encase,

the crankshaft. The oil pan holds from 3 to 9 quarts [3 to 8 L] of oil, depending on the engine. An

oil pump sends oil from the oil pan to the moving engine parts (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

59
 Some engines have an acoustical oil pan. Pieces of plastic damping material and

stamped-steel inserts attach to the flat surfaces inside the pan. When mechanical noise from the

engine vibrates the steel pan, the plastic layer prevents the noise and vibration from reaching the

passengers (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Aluminum Cylinder Block

Many engines have cylinder blocks made of aluminum alloy. Aluminum weighs much less

and conducts heat more rapidly than cast iron. However, aluminum is too soft for use as cylinder-

wall material. It would wear rapidly. Aluminum blocks have either cast-iron cylinder liners or are

cast from an aluminum alloy containing silicon particles. Both types of cylinder blocks are used in

automotive engines. This reduces vehicle weight and improves fuel economy (Crouse and Anglin,

2004).

Cylinder liners are sleeves that are either cast into the block or installed later. Cast-in

cylinder liners are installed in the mold, and the aluminum is poured around them. They become

a permanent part of the block. Two kinds of liners, dry and wet, can be installed later. Dry liners

are pressed in. They touch the cylinder bore along their full length. Wet liners touch the cylinder

block only at the top and bottom. The rest of the liner touches only the coolant. Pressed-in dry

liners and wet liners are replaced if they become worn or damaged (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

60
Figure 3.5 Cylinder head for an OHC four-cylinder engine, with the major parts that are attached to and
installed in the cylinder head. (Mazda Motors of America, Inc.)

Figure 3.6 An acoustic oil pan using layers of plastic that absorb engine noise and vibration.

61
Aluminum Cylinder Block without Liners

Mercedez-Benz, Porsche, and others use aluminum blocks that have silicon particles in

them. Silicon is a very hard material. After the block is cast, the cylinders are honed (Crouse and

Anglin, 2004).

This procedure uses rotating abrasive stones to enlarge the cylinder to their final finished

size. Then the cylinders are threated with a chemical that eats away (or etches) the aluminum

surface. This leaves only the silicon particles exposed. The piston and rings slide on the silicon

particles with minimum wear (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Cylinder Head

Heads are cast from cast iron or aluminum alloy. They are machined to take the various

parts that are attached to or installed in the heads (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The cylinder head forms the top of the combustion chamber. The piston and rings form

the bottom. Each of the basic combustion-chamber shapes produces a specific effect. The wedge

increases the turbulence of the burning mixture, but has high exhaust emission. The hemispheric

provides relatively slow burning. The cup or bowl-in-piston improves turbulence in diesel,

turbocharged, and high-performance engines. The cylinder head is flat. The height and shape of

the crescent or pent-roof is easily varied to change the compression ratio and turbulence. Greater

turbulence causes the air-fuel mixture to burn faster (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Some cylinder-head covers (valve covers) are acoustic. They are stamped from three-

layer sheets. The two outer layers are metal. The middle layer is plastic. Mechanical noise from

62
the engine causes the inside metal layer to vibrate. However, the middle plastic layer prevents

the noise and vibration from reaching the passengers (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 3.7 Enlarged view of an aluminum cylinder wall. The aluminum is etched away, exposing the hard
particles of silicon.

Figure 3.8 Cylinder block for an automotive diesel engine that uses wet cylinder liners. (Peugeot Motors
of America, Inc.)

63
Cylinder-Head Gasket

A head-gasket seals the joint between the cylinder head and the cylinder block. The

gasket is placed between the head and the block. Tightening the head bolts forces the soft

material pf the head gasket to fill any irregularity. These seals the joint. Head-gasket installation

becomes extremely important in sealing between an aluminum head and a cast-iron block

(Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 3.9 Cylinder head for a four-cylinder OHV engine, with the major parts that are installed in and
attached to the cylinder head. (Chrysler Corporation)

64
 Figure 3.10 Shapes of combustion chambers. (ATW)

Figure 3.11 An acoustic valve cover with a center plastic layer that absorbs engine noise and vibration.
(Chrysler Corporation)

65
 Figure 3.12 A high-swirl intake port used with a masked valve seat to direct the mixture into the
combustion chamber and increase turbulence. This allows the engine to run on a leaner mixture while
exhaust emissions. (Mazda Motors of America, Inc.)

Swirl-Type Combustion Chamber

Another way to improve turbulence is to use a high-swirl intake port and a masked intake-

valve seat. This arrangement causes the incoming air-fuel mixture to move rapidly in a circular

pattern. Several other arrangements also produce high swirl and turbulence. One uses a small

jet valve, or auxiliary intake valve. It admits a jet or stream of air into the combustion chamber.

This creates additional turbulence and reduces exhaust emissions (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Precombustion Chamber

A precombustion chamber is a separate small combustion chamber where combustion

begins. A primary intake valve opens into the main combustion chamber. An auxiliary intake valve

opens into the precombustion chamber. Both intake valves open at the same time. The auxiliary

intake valve admits a rich mixture. The primary intake valve admits a rich mixture. The spark plug

66
in the precombustion chamber ignites the rich mixture. It streams out and mixes with the lean

mixture. This causes high turbulence and good combustion (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

A spark-ignition engine using a precombustion chamber is a stratified-charge engine.

“Stratified” means in layers. Ignition begins in a layer or pocket of rich mixture which is surrounded

by a leaner mixture (or only air in a diesel engine). The leaner average air-fuel ratio provides

greater fuel economy and less exhaust emissions. The diesel engine is a stratified-charge engine

(Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 3.13 Airflow through the auxiliary intake valve or jet valve creates a swirling action in the
combustion chamber. (Chrysler Corporation)

67
 Figure 3.14 Sequence of action in a stratified-charge spark-ignition engine using a precombustion
chamber. (American Honda Motor Company, Inc.)

Exhaust Manifold and Exhaust System

The exhaust manifold is a set of tubes. It carries exhaust gas from the cylinder head to

the exhaust system. The manifold attaches to the head so the exhaust ports in the head align with

the tube openings. An in-line engine needs one exhaust manifold. V-type and opposed-cylinder

engines have two exhaust manifolds, one for each bank (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The two exhaust manifolds are connected through a crossover pipe. This forces the

exhaust gas from both banks to flow through the catalytic converter and the muffler. The catalytic

converter converts most of the pollutants in the exhaust gas to harmless substances. The muffler

and the resonator (not used on all cars) reduce exhaust noise (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

68
Intake Manifold

The intake manifold is also a set of tubes. These tubes carry air or air-fuel mixture from

the throttle valves to the intake ports in the cylinder head. On in-line engines, the intake manifold

attaches to the side of the cylinder head. On V-type engines, the intake manifold is between the

two banks of cylinder. Some in-line engines have the intake and exhaust manifolds on the same

side of the cylinder head. Other engines have the manifolds on opposite sides (Crouse and Anglin,

2004).

Figure 3.15 Cylinder head for an OHV six-cylinder engine, with the intake manifold and exhaust manifold
that attach to the same side of the head. (Chrysler Corporation)

Exhaust manifolds for some carbureted in-line engines have a heat-control valve. It helps

provide heat to the air-fuel mixture in the intake manifold while the engine is cold. This improves

fuel vaporization for better cold-engine performance. Some V-type engines have an exhaust-gas

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passage that runs across the intake manifold under the carburetor mounting pad. When the

engine is cold, the heat-control valve forces exhaust gas from one cylinder bank through the

passage. This heats the air-fuel mixture entering the intake manifold (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 3.16 Single exhaust system for a V-type engine that uses one catalytic converter. (Oldsmobile
Division of General Motors Corporation)

Crankshaft

The crankshaft is a one-piece casting or forging of heat-treated alloy steel. Counterweights

placed opposite the crankpins balance the crankshaft. The crankshaft for some V-6 engines have

spread out or splayed crankpins. A splayed crankpin is split into two parts. Each connecting rod

has its own crankpin. This reduces out-of-balance conditions (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

The output end of the crankshaft has the flywheel or drive plate attached to it. The front

end has the gear or sprocket that drives the camshaft, the vibration damper, and the drive-belt

pulley. Engines with a distributorless ignition system or an electronic engine-control (EEC) system

have a notched plate or timing disc on the crankshaft. A crankshaft sensor signals the passing of

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the notches to the computer in the EEC system. The computer then uses this information to

calculate engine speed (crankshaft rpm) and piston position (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

Figure 3.17 Exhaust manifold for an inline six-cylinder engine that uses a heat-control valve.

Vibration Damper

The power strokes tend to twist the crankshaft. Each power stroke applies a force that

may exceed 4000 pounds [18,000 N] on the crankpin. This force tries to push the crankpin ahead

of the rest of the crankshaft. Then, as the force on the crankpin recedes, the crankshaft untwists.

This twist-untwist action repeats with every power stroke. The action tends to create an oscillating

(back and forth) motion in the crankshaft. This is torsional vibration. It can break the crankshaft

(Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

A vibration damper (or harmonic balancer) helps control torsional vibration. The damper

mounts on the front end of the crankshaft. This forms the hub to which the crankshaft pulley

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attaches. The inertia ring is to which the crankshaft pulley attaches. The inertia ring is bonded

through the rubber ring to the pulley. The inertia ring has a damping effect which tends to hold

the crankshaft to a constant speed. This cancels the twist-untwist action (Crouse and Anglin,

2004).

Figure 3.18 The crankshaft has oil holes drilled through it to carry oil from the main bearings to the
connecting-rod bearings. (Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc.)

Figure 3.19 Standard crankshaft for a V-6 engine compared with a V-6 crankshaft with splayed crankpins.
(Buick Division of General Motors Corporation)

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 Figure 3.20 The engine crankshaft has a vibration damper installed on the front end and a flywheel or
drive plate attached to the rear. (ATW)

Engine Bearings

Bearings are placed in the engine where there is rotary motion between engine parts.

These bearings are usually sleeve bearings that fit like sleeves around the rotating shafts. The

part of the shaft that rotates in the bearing is a journal. Crankshaft and connecting-rod bearings

are split into two parts. One half of the connecting-rod bearing fits into the connecting-rod. The

other half fits into the rod-bearing cap. One half of the crankshaft or main bearing fits into a

semicircle machined in the cylinder block. The other half fits into the main-bearing cap (Crouse

and Anglin, 2004).

Each bearing half has a steel or bronze back with up to five linings of soft bearing material.

The bearing wears, and not the more expensive crankshaft or other part. This reduces the cost

repair by allowing the reuse of the more expensive part (Crouse and Anglin, 2004).

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Assessment Task

Describe the following Engine parts.

1. Cylinder Head

2. Intake and Exhaust Manifold

3. Crankshaft

4. Engine Bearings

5. Cylinder Block

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 Summary

Spark-ignition and diesel engines are similar in construction. The cylinder block is the

foundation of the engine. The block is a casting that has large holes for the cylinder bores. The

core clean-out holes allow removal of the cores that formed the water jackets. Lubricating oil is

added to the engine. The oil pan is a plastic or metal. It is shaped to fit on the bottom of the block.

The bottom of the block plus the oil pan forms the crankcase. Some engines have an acoustical

oil pan. Many engines have cylinder blocks made of aluminum alloy. Cylinder liners are sleeves

that are either cast into the block or installed later. The cylinder head forms the top of the

combustion chamber. Some cylinder-head covers (valve covers) are acoustic. A head-gasket

seals the joint between the cylinder head and the cylinder block. Another way to improve

turbulence is to use a high-swirl intake port and a masked intake-valve seat. A precombustion

chamber is a separate small combustion chamber where combustion begins. A spark-ignition

engine using a precombustion chamber is a stratified-charge engine. The exhaust manifold is a

set of tubes. It carries exhaust gas from the cylinder head to the exhaust system. The two exhaust

manifolds are connected through a crossover pipe. The intake manifold is also a set of tubes.

These tubes carry air or air-fuel mixture from the throttle valves to the intake ports in the cylinder

head. The crankshaft is a one-piece casting or forging of heat-treated alloy steel. The output end

of the crankshaft has the flywheel or drive plate attached to it. The power strokes tend to twist the

crankshaft. Each power stroke applies a force that may exceed 4000 pounds [18,000 N] on the

crankpin. A vibration damper (or harmonic balancer) helps control torsional vibration. Bearings

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are placed in the engine where there is rotary motion between engine parts (Crouse and Anglin,

2004).

References

Crouse and Anglin. (2004). Automotive Mechanic. 10th Edition, International Edition

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