Influence of Density on the Static

Liquefaction Characteristics of a Sandy

Kutch Soil

R. Bhamidipati , M. Hussain , and A. Sachan

Abstract Loose sands and very loose silty sands are most susceptible to static lique-
faction among all the soil types. The undrained response of granular soils is controlled
by several factors including material and stress states. Loose granular soils under
undrained conditions develop solid–fluid instability due to the generation of excess
pore water pressure consequently leading to static liquefaction. The increased pore
pressure indicates loss in effective confining pressure thereby resulting in reduced
mobilized shear stress. In the recent past, a number of incidents of static lique-
faction have occurred in dams across the world, causing extensive damage to life
and property. In this study, the effect of relative density on the static liquefaction
characteristics including undrained brittleness, collapse potential, and liquefaction
potential has been explored, for a soil from the Kutch region of India. This region
was severely affected by the devastating earthquake of 2001. To carry out the study,
isotropically consolidated undrained compression triaxial tests were performed with
frictional end rigid boundary conditions. The liquefaction resistance was observed
to decrease with the increase in void ratio; however, pore pressure ratios greater
than 0.85 were exhibited at void ratio corresponding to the relative density of 80%
signifying intense strain softening. The samples showed an increasing trend in peak
shear stress with increasing relative density. Also, the various liquefaction indices
decreased with relative density, particularly above 60%. The study showed that the
soil under study had a high tendency for static liquefaction.

Keywords Static liquefaction · Relative density · Pore pressure

R. Bhamidipati (B)
Department of Civil Engineering, C V Raman College of Engineering, Bhubaneswar 752054,
India
e-mail: jones.kgp@gmail.com
M. Hussain · A. Sachan
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj 382355, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 193
T. G. Sitharam et al. (eds.), Soil Dynamics, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 119,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4001-5_18
194 R. Bhamidipati et al.

1 Introduction

Sandy soils that occur in various parts of the world can be characterized by certain
unique engineering and physical properties. The mechanical behavior of sands is
largely guided by factors like stress state, void ratio, fines content, and boundary
conditions. Loose-saturated granular soils are known to exhibit a phenomenon known
as liquefaction, wherein, saturated sands lose their strength due to the application
of undrained loading. The loss in strength is due to the building up of excess pore
water pressures, generated due to shear loading. This creates a solid–fluid instability.
Static liquefaction is a special type of liquefaction which occurs when a saturated
granular soil mass loses most of its shear strength under monotonic loading. Whereas
cyclic liquefaction is initiated mostly by earthquake loading, static liquefaction can
also be triggered by sources such as blasting, driving of piles, railway and traffic
vibrations, etc. (Kramer [1]). The failure of Calaveras dam in California (1918), Fort
Peck dam on the Missouri river in Montana (1938), and the Merriespruit tailings
dam failure in South Africa (1994) are just some examples of catastrophic events
brought about by static liquefaction phenomenon. For many geotechnical engineering
problems pertaining to saturated sandy soils, the estimation of liquefaction potential
of the soils is very important, particularly so if the soil occurs in a seismically active
region. The liquefaction characteristics of sandy soils have been studied by several
researchers (Lade and Yamamuro [2], Papadopoulous and Tika [3], Salgado et al. [4],
Yamamuro et al. [5]). It was also found that loose silty-sandy soils were most likely
to be liquefiable in the event of monotonic loading (Yamamuro and Lade [6]). The
dynamic properties of some soil samples collected near the Bhuj area were studied
by Sitharam et al. [7] and Ravishankar et al. [8].
For this study, sandy soil near the Fatehgarh dam in the Kutch region of Gujarat
was used. Kutch is one of the most seismically active regions in India, and it was
struck by many massive earthquakes in the recent geological past (1819, 1956, and
2001). Fatehgarh dam region was one of the regions severely affected by the 2001
Bhuj earthquake and the associated liquefaction induced damages. Several thousand
square kilometers of soils in the Kutch region experienced liquefaction due to this
earthquake.
The basic properties of the soil are summarized in Table 1. Figure 1 shows the grain
size distribution of the soil. The soil had a fines content of 15%, with a clay content of
4%. In this paper, the effect of relative density on the static liquefaction characteristics
of the Fatehgarh dam soil was explored under undrained triaxial conditions. Relative

Table 1 Properties of the soil

Gs 2.65
% Fines 16%
% Clay 4%
emax 0.59
emin 0.29
Influence of Density on the Static Liquefaction Characteristics … 195

100

90

80

70

60
% Passing

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000
Grain Size (mm)

Fig. 1 Grain size distribution of the Fatehgarh dam soil

density of the soil is the single parameter that has most influence on the undrained
soil response and hence on liquefaction characteristics. The liquefaction behavior of
the Fatehgarh dam soil was evaluated using parameters such as Undrained Brittleness
Index (I B ), Collapse Potential (CP), and Liquefaction Potential (L P ). Each of these
parameters and the testing methodology adopted in the current study are explained
in the following sections.

2 Methodology

The void ratios for the soil under consideration were initially calculated at relative
densities of 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% using the provisions of IS 2720-Part 14. Five
specimens were prepared with different initial relative densities ranging from 20 to
100%. The void ratios corresponding to the different relative densities are presented in
Table 2. Isotopically consolidated undrained compression (CIUC) triaxial tests were
conducted on these samples. The samples were of 100 mm length and 50 mm diameter
(maintaining an aspect ratio of 2) and were prepared using moist tamping method at
an initial moisture content of 6%. After assembling the moist tamped specimens on
the base pedestal in the pressure cell, carbon-dioxide at a low pressure of about 5 kPa
was passed through the samples for around 30 min at a confining pressure of 20 kPa.
After this, water flushing was conducted by pushing a volume of de-aired water from
the base of the cell equivalent to at least two times the volume of the specimen.
After the water-flushing stage, the cell and back pressures were gradually increased
in steps of 40 kPa. The process was continued until a Skempton’s pore—pressure
196 R. Bhamidipati et al.

Table 2 Relative density and

Relative density (%) eo (before ef (after
void ratios of samples before
consolidation) consolidation)
and after consolidation
20 0.53 0.49
40 0.47 0.45
60 0.41 0.40
80 0.36 0.35
100 0.29 0.29

parameter ‘B’ was at least 0.95 The desired saturation levels corresponding the ‘B’
value of 0.95 were obtained at a back pressure of 270 kPa.
After the saturation stage, the saturated specimens were subjected to isotropic
consolidation at a confining pressure of 100 kPa. Consolidation was assumed to
be complete when the rate of volume change was less than 5 mm3 over a period of
5 min. The relative density values and void ratios of the specimens after consolidation
are presented in Table 2. After consolidation stage, the specimens were subjected to
undrained shearing at a deformation rate of 0.1 mm/min. All the tests were performed
at an effective confining stress of 100 kPa owing to the fact that static liquefaction is
a low-pressure phenomena Shear loading was continued until there was no change
in load for a period of 5 min or an axial strain of 20% was reached, which ever was
attained earlier. The vertical displacement, variations in deviator stress, and excess
pore pressure were recorded throughout the duration of the test. These parameters
were used to compute the effective stress parameters, q and p of the soil specimen.
The static liquefaction characteristics of a soil specimen were determined from
the experimental data using the following indices:
Liquefaction Potential (L p ) (Casagrande [9]): It is quantified in terms of variation
in the effective minor principal stress during shearing with respect to the final effective
minor principal stress and calculated by the following expression:

L p = (s3i − s3 f )/s3 f (1)

where s3i and s3 f are the initial and final effective minor principal stresses
respectively.
Collapse potential (CP) (Thevanayagam et al. [10]): It describes the amount of
reduction in mean effective confining stress, p , due to building up of excess pore
pressure during shearing. It is calculated using the expression:
  
CP = pi − pss

/ pi (2)

where pi and pss


are the mean effective pressures at the beginning of shearing and
at steady state, respectively. CP is very close to unity for soils with a high tendency
for liquefaction. For samples that show dilation right from the start of shear loading,
CP is taken as zero.
Influence of Density on the Static Liquefaction Characteristics … 197

Undrained Brittleness Index (I B ) (Bishop [11]): It describes the reduction in devi-

atoric stress, q, after the peak deviatoric stress, qpeak , is attained. I B is calculated as
shown:
 
IB = Suy − Sul /Suy (3)

where S uy (yield) is the same as qpeak and S ul is the minimum deviatoric stress after
the initial peak. Its values range between 0 and 1 for soils showing strain hardening
response and 1 for soils exhibiting complete liquefaction. All the above-mentioned
liquefaction indices are expected to show a strong positive correlation as they quantify
the same phenomena of static liquefaction.

3 Results

For each specimen, the variation in deviator stress was plotted against axial strain
(Fig. 2). The test results showed an increasing trend in peak deviatoric stresses with
increase in relative density. The values increased from 29 kPa at a relative density of
20% to 334 kPa at a relative density of 100%. This observation is consistent with the
study of Illinois River Sand and Toyoura sand specimens reported by Sadrekarimi
[12]. The increase was very significant at relative density values of more than 60%.
It is interesting that the specimens exhibited strain softening over the entire range of
explored relative densities. Figure 3 shows the development of excess pore pressure
during shearing. It was seen that from Dr % of 20% to 60%, the increase in EPP
was almost close to 95% of the confining stress (100 kPa). The value decreased
slightly to about 83 kPa at 80% Dr showing a shift in response and an increasing
dilative undrained behavior. At Dr of 100%, the specimen initially showed a dilative

400

350 20%
Deviatoric Stress (kPa)

40%
300
60%
250 80%

200 100%

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20
Axial Strain (%)

Fig. 2 Plot of deviatoric stress versus axial strain at different relative densities
198 R. Bhamidipati et al.

100

80
20% 40% 60%
60
80% 100%
EPP (kPa)

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20

-20
Axial strain (%)

Fig. 3 Excess pore pressure versus axial strain %

response with the EPP increasing and attaining negative values between 1 and 7%
axial strains. The excess pore water pressure response of the specimens captured the
signature observed in the stress–strain response.
The effective stress paths for the five tests were plotted using the q–p plane
(Fig. 3). Under drained loading conditions, the variation of mean effective stress (p )
depends on the initial material and stress states of the soil sample. For samples with
Dr up to 60%, a decrease in p was observed during the undrained shearing. For
specimens with Dr of 70 and 100%, p initially increased and then decreased. The
increase in p was highest for the specimen with Dr of 100%. Likewise, deviatoric
stress (q) decreased for all the samples after attaining a peak value. The decrease
in q increased with the decreasing relative density, an indication of increasing static
liquefaction. For specimens with Dr of 20–60%, the effective stress path descended
to the stress origin. This showed large susceptibility to static liquefaction for these
soil samples. However, the specimens with Dr of 80 and 100% showed a lower
tendency for static liquefaction. The sample with a Dr of 100% exhibited the highest
resistance to liquefaction instead showed dilation during the earlier stages of shear
loading. The stress path of this specimen showed an increasing trend during shearing.
Even at the end of shearing, the effective stress values were higher than the initial
value of 100 kPa (Fig. 4).
Liquefaction Indices including, CP and L p , were then computed for these test spec-
imens. Undrained stress–strain responses of the soil were used to calculate Undrained
Brittleness Index (I B ). The values ranged from 0.93 to 0.51, for the different relative
densities. For Dr ranging between 20 and 60%, the variation in IB was in a narrow
range of 0.88 to 0.93. The values dropped to 0.76 at Dr of 80% and 0.51 at Dr of
100%. The relationship between I B and Dr % for the samples is shown in Fig. 5.
Collapse Potential (CP) was calculated from the reduction in the mean effective
stress for each test specimen during the undrained shearing. In this study, the CP
values ranged from 0.975 at 20% Dr to 0.750 at Dr of 80%. For the specimen with
Influence of Density on the Static Liquefaction Characteristics … 199

180
20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
160
140
120
q (kPa)

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
p' (kPa)

Fig. 4 Effective stress paths at different relative densities

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
IB

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative Density (%)

Fig. 5 Plot showing variation in IB at different relative densities

Dr of 100%, because the p ss was observed to be higher than pi ., CP was calculated
as zero. For specimens with Dr of 20–60%, it was found that relative density had a
little influence on the Collapse Potential.
Liquefaction Potential (L p ) was evaluated from the variations in the effective
minor principal stress of each test specimen during the undrained shearing. The
shear-induced excess pore pressure is responsible for changes in the effective minor
principal stress (σi3 ). In this case, the variation in L p was observed to be in the range
of 0.97 at Dr of 20–0.66% at Dr of 100%. As in the case of CP, the samples with
relative density in the range of 20–60% showed little variation in L P with relative
density was evaluated to be 0.88 at Dr of 80% and 0.66 at Dr of 100% (Figs. 6 and
7).
200 R. Bhamidipati et al.

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
CP

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative Density (%)

Fig. 6 Plot showing variation in CP at different relative densities

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
LP

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative Density (%)

Fig. 7 Plot showing variation in LP at different relative densities

4 Conclusion

Isotropically consolidated undrained compression triaxial tests were conducted on

a Sandy Kutch soil to evaluate the liquefaction characteristics at different relative
densities. The undrained response of five specimens was studied at a relative density
ranging from 20 to 100%. The peak deviatoric stresses of the specimens increased
with relative density. The test results showed that at relative densities of 20–60%,
the sandy soil specimens showed intense strain softening and a large susceptibility
to static liquefaction. In this density range, I B , CP, and L P were are all compa-
rable and close to 0.9 or above. The soil specimens displayed a contractive response
during shearing which was captured by all the liquefaction indices. At relative densi-
ties of 80% and above the soil specimens exhibited an increasing dilative behavior.
The liquefaction indices decreased significantly, indicating an increasing resistance
 Influence of Density on the Static Liquefaction Characteristics … 201

toward static liquefaction. It should however be noted that even at a relative density
of 100%, the specimens still showed some loss of strength, though much lesser than
the looser states. This reveals the inherent tendency of the soil, under investigation,
to undergo static liquefaction.
The analysis of the test results from the study showed that the Fatehgarh dam
soil under investigation has a high susceptibility to liquefaction over a wide range
of densities. The current study was however limited to the effect of relative density
on static liquefaction characteristics of the soil, but practically liquefaction is also
influenced by other factors such as fines content and plasticity index of the soils.
A study of all these parameters is necessary to conduct any risk analysis associated
with static liquefaction for Kutch soils.

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