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History Essay Prep
History Essay Prep
Economic - Treaty of Versailles resulted in repatriations of £6.6 billion, crippling Germany’s economy - Great Depression => resulted in Chinese GDP shrinking by 35%
Conditions - Industry operated at 47% of pre-war performance - Heavy taxes on people (70%), widespread poverty
- Weimar Republic printing money = hyperinflation, banks were closed in 1932 - 4% of population controlled 50% of the land
- 6 million people were unemployed - KMT received economic aid from American and British => “not patriotic”
- China was then largely an agricultural nation, lagging behind the West
Social - Treaty of Versailles humiliate Germany - Peasants (80% of population) faced high taxes (up to 70%) under GMT
Conditions - Army was reduced from 4.5 million to 100,000. - Warlord Period => even higher taxes, poor working conditions, tough military rule, economic output was
- Germany had to accept war-guilt shrinking during Warlord Period
- German territory was ceded - Quality of life much higher in cities, coasts => 20% went to primary school, 1% to secondary school
- Conservative elite still held power in Weimar Republic => supportive of Hitler’s fight for German strength - Land Redistribution in 1924 (allowed peasants to feel like they’d gotten revenge)
- Mao’s CCP treated peasants well (under Mao’s orders)
Political - Feeling that the Weimar were “November Criminals” (for accepting ToV terms) - Treaty of Versailles and 21 Demands were regarded as unfair and humiliating for China
Conditions - Political instability and deadlock - 6 coalition governments between 1924 and 1929 - Defeat to Japan in Sino-Japanese War was extremely embarrassing
(and factors - Nazi Party by 1930 had almost 200 seats (majority) of parliament - Qing Dynasty had collapsed, “dynastic” system of rule had proven to be outdated (abdication of PuYi
for Hitler’s - Hitler manipulated Weimar Constitution superbly 1911)
Case) - In 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor after a series of backroom negotiations and - Republic of China failed (YSK bribery, domination of government led to 1915 rebellion against him)
parliamentary elections (Ebert thought this would keep Hitler under control) - Defeat of China in Sino-Japanese War led to radical new ideologies (New Culture Movement, May 4th
- Reichstag Fire occurred - Hitler enacted Article 48 to unilaterally take control of the government, Movement) destroyed Confucian ideals
purging many communists and political foes
- Hitler controlled the Government through Article 48, abolished powers of state, dissolved
parliament
Personal - Hitler was recalled for many Germans as a golden age of strong rule - Shrewd and opportunistic conference: used the 1935 Zunyi Conference to deliver blistering attack on
Factors - Brilliant speaker, good organiser and politician. Different to leaders of Weimar. Bolsheviks, ousting them from China
- Driven, charismatic, proud and determined. Got German people to support him. - Humble, working-class background. Father was abusive. Would regularly visit farms (propaganda points)
- Adaptive/perceptive visionary: Adopted Marxist-Leninism to suit China, focus on rural population
- Communist ideology appealing to peasants - promised them a better life after years of neglect
Use of Force - Used Article 48 to purge an estimated 4000 political opponents - Futian Incident and 1942 Yenan Campaign, Mao killed 10,000 individuals
- Allowed SA to parade the streets, attack political opponents, force people to vote for Nazi Party in 1930 - Purged 2,000 party members in late 1940s claiming an anti-Bolshevik league had infiltrated Communists
and 1932 elections
- Night of Long Knives: assassinated 85 political leaders in one evening (Rohm, Strasser, von Papen, von
Schleicher). Cleared the path for Hitler’s RTP, also, was good as public resented these leaders for their
‘thuggish brownshirt tactics’
Propaganda - Hitler flew across the country visiting villages and towns and meeting people (most of campaign $ was - Turned 6,000 mile long march into a major propaganda victory (even though 90% of CCP was eliminated)
spent on this) - Used Long March and split following the First United Front to discredit the KMT, assume role of true
- Cult of personality was developed - portrayed as a strong, saviour of Germany. Newspapers, TV nationalists of China
advertisements, entertainment business (films, poetry, theatre) all containing messages of Hitler’s - Used events like Luding Bridge Incident to emphasise CCP bravery
strength, and denounced Weimar Republic for “backstabbing Germany” - Portrayed as a Father figure, “Uncle/Father Mao” - famous posters of him behind a rural Chinese setting
- Students in schools pledged allegiance to Hitler, Nazi teachers in school to indoctrinate children (boys as as a god-like figure watching over the peasants
soldiers, women as bearers of children)
CONSOLIDATION OF POWER
How did Hitler and Mao consolidate their power/rule?
Prescribed Hitler Mao Zedong
Content
Political Moves ● Nazis replaced old Weimar Legal system (which preached people’s rights and freedoms) with a new
system, which emphasised race and the community above the individual ● Political Structure: claimed to have “elections” for each official, when really they were all hand-picked.
○ Under this new system of law, highest duty of to Fuhrer citizen was obedience and to show Politburo was filled with people loyal to Mao, they would just rubber stamp his policies
risrespect was a crime ○ Military Commander and Political Commissar for each of the 6 sections China was divided into
○ Judges had to swear oath of allegiance to Hitler
were always from PLA - giving Mao control, regardless of who the Chairman was, of each region
○ No one could practice law unless they belonged to League of National Socialist German
Lawyers and bureau
● Decree for the Protection of People and State February 1933 allowed for indefinite detention without trial ● 100 Flowers Campaign (1956)
● 1934 the people's Court was set up to deal with treasonable offences – the court proceedings presided ○ Initially, was designed to promote discussion/feedback for Mao. Criticism became too intense,
over by Roland Freisler was secret and there was no right of appeal except to Hitler Mao used 100 Flowers Campaign to identify and purge opponents via Anti-Right Campaign
(1957-1959)
■ 500,000 intellectuals were branded rightists, 1,000 were executed.
■ By 1958, 1 million party members had been expelled/sent to re-education camps
Economic ● Hitler abolished trade unions in May 1933 and made it compulsory for all workers to join the German ● Businesses were nationalized in 1953 (including banks)
Policies Labour front (DAF) – a nazi organisation headed by Dr. Robery Ley ● Collectivization: allowed Mao to have control over richer/poorer groups, and since they were in groups it
○ Special committees called the Trustees of Labour established to settle disputes between was easier to track/control them (Ex: Great Leap Forward)
workers and employers about wages and working conditions ● Anti-movements
■ Trustees tended to side with employers
○ Series of movement launched against the ‘remnants of the bourgeois class’ whom the CCP
○ Most workers enjoy the highest standard of living under the Nazis between 1933-9
■ Unemployment fell from nearly 6 million in 1932 to only a few hundred thousand by 1939 regarded as politically or socially suspect
■ Wages higher than they had been in the last years of the Weimar Republic although not ○ Chinese people were encouraged to inform on anyone they knew who was unwilling to accept
as much as in 1928 new regime
○ German Labour Front took over responsibility for the workers Leisure and Recreation ○ Special govt. Department drew up a dangan, a dossier, on every suspected person
■ Non-Nazi recreational clubs closed down, even chess clubs ■ If an individual's dossier was dubious he stood very little chance of obtaining housing or
○ Ley set up two new organisations called ‘Beauty of Labour’ and ‘Strength through Joy’ work
■ Beauty of Labour campaigned to persuade employer to provide better working ● Anti-landlord campaign
conditions factory canteens and purple lighting and ventilation
○ The property of landlords was confiscated and redistributed among their former tenants
■ Strength through joy held a number of activities with high turn out:
○ Some landlords allowed to keep a portion of their land provided that they become peasants but
great majority were put on public trial and denounced enemies of the people
KDF Activity Number of participants ○ As many as 1 million landlords killed during PRC’s land campaign of early 50s
Concerts 2.5 million
Forceful ● Concentration camps ● Resist America and Aid Korea Campaign (1950), Three Antis (1951), Five Antis (1952)
Repression/ ○ Dachau The first concentration camp opened in March 1933 ○ Estimated 250,000 “western sources of influence” purged
Handling Dissent ○ Never fewer than 10000 prisoners in the camps and in total about 225 000 Germans were ○ Extension of previous methods such as Yenan Campaign, to eliminate any new threats
imprisoned for Political crimes in the years of 1933 to 1939 ● Labour Camps, Public “trials”, Social scrutiny (neighbours policing each-other in the name of
○ Discipline in the camps was brutal, the diet poor and living conditions inadequate Nationalism), Mass Campaigns. Neighbors spied on eachother.
○ Prisoners made to do hard labour and was subjected to sadistic beatings and torture
● Cultural Revolution (1966-76): abolish “traditional China” to get rid of Confucianism. Eliminate
● Policing and Security Forces
○ Alongside the ordinary police forces use jobs were to detect crime and keep under a new system intellectuals, further Mao’s Cult of Personality.
of policing developed – both systems under Himmler ○ 200 artists killed, all music was to be revolution-related, religious sites were destroyed, 1.5
○ Goering set up Gestapo in Prussia 1933 million were killed
■ Gestapo heavily dependent on denunciations by ordinary Germans e.g. in Wurzburg ● Imposition of military control
54% of all race related charges were initiated by private citizens ○ 1950 in a series of ‘reunification‘ campaigns three pLA armies were despatched west and south
○ Gestapo and security service (SD) rooted out and dealt with political offenders and opponent of ○ Officially they were sent in order to help improve local conditions and troops did contribute to
the regime such schemes as road building
■ SD was set up in 1931 by Himmler increasingly they were given the task of gathering
○ Main purpose was to impose martial law and repress any sign of an independence movement
intelligence and monitoring public opinion
● The SS ■ One army sent to Tibet
○ SS created 1925 and became powerful after the Night of Long Knives ■ A second went to Xinjiang
○ 220 000 members by 1935 ■ A third went to southern province of Guangdong
○ Death's Head units of the SS ran concentration camps from 1934
○ Himmler also built up Waffen SS – members who were more highly trained and better equipped
with motorised vehicles and tanks
○ During WWII the SS to control and many factories the SS became a kind of state within a state
and played a major part in the ruling of territories conquered by Nazis and in carrying out what
Himmler called ‘the final solution of the Jewish question’
○ Einsatzgruppen units of SS rounding up and killed thousands of Jews gypsies and slavs in
Poland and Russia from autumn 1939 onwards
Propaganda ● Fuhrer Cult ● Portrayed as the saviour of women in China (banned arranged marriages, child marriages, polygamy,
○ Cult of Fuhrer established gave right to vote, and right to property).
○ The book’ The Hitler no-one knows’ sold 420000 copies between 1932 and 1940 ○ Enormously popular amongst women, propaganda frequently highlighted his pro-women policies
○ Hitler's birthday celebrated with mass rallies and parades ● 1.5 million propagandists working under Mao to promote his Cult of Personality
○ Kershaw argues that Hitler was an increasingly victim of the Fuhrer myth and began to confuse
● Roadside loud-speakers, posters, all newspapers were controlled, all films were controlled
fantasy with reality especially in foreign policy
● Media and Arts controlled ● LITTLE RED BOOK (everyone had to have one) to expose everyone to his Communist ideals, hugely
○ March 1933 ministry for popular enlightenment and propaganda set up by Goebbels successful
● Goebbels regarded radio as the most important medium: the Reich Radio Company brought all
broadcasting under Nazi control
○ Cheap radios was mass produced in 1932 fewer than 25% of households had a radio by 1939
70% did
● 1933 there were 4700 daily papers in Germany by 1944 1000
○ Eher Verlag (Nazi publishing house) controlled 66% of 1939
○ The sole newsagency permitted was run by the Nazis
● All films had to pass censors and about half of Germany's best known film stars emigrated
● New rituals created to celebrate the Nazi state: the Nuremberg rallies, celebrations of the Munich
Putsch and Hitler's birthday
● Nazis stood for traditional art, music, literature and Drama and they, in common with many ordinary
Germans who were puzzled by and hostile to the highly experimental culture of which Berlin was a
centre in the 1920s
○ Ziegler, the president of the Reich Chamber of Art, and other nazis objected to the abstract
expressionist paintings, they wanted to return to realism
○ Ziegler organised An exhibition of the kind of paintings with the Nazis disapproved calling at the
Exhibition of degenerate of art
■ Nazis blamed Jews and communists for the spread of this kind of art and regarded it as
a conspiracy to undermine German culture
● Nazis also wanted literature and Drama which would reflect their ideas
○ May 1933 ‘Burning of the books’ in Berlin
■ Libraries ransacked for books which Nazis disapproved of and student hurled books into
a public bonfire
● Artists, writers and composers forced to join Nazi organisations in order to pursue their art and refusal to
join these organisations meant that it was impossible to get their work displayed
○ All publications were censored by the government and censors looked at political
views,character and race of it’s author not the content of the book
○ This censorship produced art was boring and unadventurous
Result:
- Quickly produced farm machinery produced in factories feel to pieces when used.
- Steel produced by the backyard furnaces were frequently too weak to be of any use and could not be used
in construction - its original purpose.
- The harvest of 1959 was 170 million tons of grain - well below what China needed.
- 1960 was 144 million tons, even lower.
- Between 1959-1962 estimated 20 million people died of starvation or diseases.
- 1959-1962: Great Chinese Famine (Mao: 'I see no famine')
- 80 million lives
- Peng sent private letter to Mao about concerns of GLF's shortcomings → Mao turned on Peng and publicly
circulated the letter, dismissed Peng of his Minister post and threatened to go to countryside to start another
peasant rebellion and overthrow CCP
- Great Famine 1958-61
- as many as 80 million people died of starvation
- parents sold their children and cannibalism was rife, but China's leadership did not act
- officials continued to claim that production targets were being met
- speaking the truth was too dangerous
- Mao’s response
- Mao eventually came to accept what was happening but didn't accept blame
- he blamed:
- the peasants for hoarding food
- local officials for being incompetent
- bad weather, which had affected harvests
- his reputation was tarnished and he withdrew from the political frontline
- Outcome
- Liu and Deng, who confronted Mao, revoked Mao's reforms
- allowed private farming to operate again
- eventually food supplies improved
- Famine came to an end
- Mao would later punish both Liu and Deng for going against Marxist ideals
Assigned Power:
- CCP gives extensive power to mayors and party secretaries in 700-odd municipalities
- System of promotion incentives to keep them responsive to the central government
- Led to whatever Beijing needs, Beijing Gets, no matter the costs to environment or human rights
Aims and Aims: Hundred Flowers Campaign
results of ● Nazification of politics ● WHY did Mao launch the campaign?
political ● Establishing totalitarian control of Hitler as Fuhrer ○ April 1956: Mao declares 'Let a hundred flowers bloom, a hundred schools of thought contend.'
policies ● Elimination of of opposition and establishment of support ○ Encouraged critical debate to promote progress in the fields of art, literature and science.
● February 1957: speech, Mao encouraged criticism saying the CCP thought it could learn from the people
Methods: and be rectified.
● Gleichschaltung – the process of nazification by which Nazi Germany successively established totalitarian ● April 1957: campaign underway
control ● June 1957: campaign was out of hand and CCP criticised all over China for: -poor policies -authoritarianism
○ 1933-7 was the period with the systematic elimination of non-nazi organisations -corruption -poor living standards
● For workers, recreational organization called Kraft durch Freude (Strength through Joy) under the ● June 1957: Mao ended the campaign
German Labor Front (DAF) was set up ● Results – Anti-Rightist Movement
○ This brough hobbies and private leisure under control ○ Suppressed all those that spoke out during Hundred Flowers
○ 25 million members – largest Nazi Organisation ○ End of 1957: 300,000 condemned as rightists, including writer Ding Ling
○ Reichsberufswettkampf, a national vocational competition was held for workers to compete
● Sondergericht – were special courts where Jews, Slavs, Communists were tried (bias and their outcome 3 Antis Campaign 1951
was predetermined) ● The Three-anti Campaign was launched in Manchuria at the end of 1951
● 1934 – People’s court were used to put enemies on trial, with judges only being from the Nazi Party ● It was aimed at members within the Communist Party of China, former Kuomintang members and
● Nuremberg Laws 1935 – could fire someone from their job because they were Jewish bureaucratic officials who were not party members.
● Note: These are more rise to power but some policies he put in to consolidate political control ● Three antis imposed were:
○ "First Gleichschaltung Law" (Erstes ;lchschaltungsgesetz, 31 March 1933), passed using ○ corruption
Enabling Act, dissolved the diets of all Länder except the recently-elected Prussian parliament, ○ waste
which the Nazis already controlled → Giving control of state authority and the Nazis ○ bureaucracy
○ "Second Gleichschaltung Law" (Zweites Gleichschaltungsgesetz, 7 April 1933) deployed one
Reichsstatthalter (Reich Governor) 5 Antis Campaign 1952
○ The Law concerning the reconstruction of the ‘Reich’ (Gesetz über den Neuaufbau des Reiches) ● The Five-anti campaign was launched in January 1952. It was designed to target the capitalist class
(30 January 1934) formally did away with the concept of a federal republic, converting Germany ● The Communist party set a very vague guideline of who could be charged, and it became an all out war
into a highly centralized state. States were reduced to mere provinces, as their institutions were against the bourgeoisie in China. Deng Xiaoping warned the people "not to be corrupted by capitalist
practically abolished altogether. All of their powers passed to the central government. thinking"
○ The Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich (1 August 1934) prescribed that upon ● Five antis imposed were:
the death of the incumbent president, that office would be merged with the office of the ○ bribery
chancellor, and that the competencies of the former should be transferred to the "Führer und ○ theft of state property
Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler", as the law stated. ○ tax evasion
○ cheating on gov't contracts
Results: ○ stealing state economic info
● Hitler able to establish control over Germany, and declare himself Fuhrer
● Established and enforced Nazi control over Germany
Terror
Aims:
● To control the German state
Methods:
● Reichstag Fire Decree, suspended the provisions of the German constitution that protected basic
individual rights, including freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of assembly. Also
permitted increased state and police intervention into private life, allowing officials to censor mail, listen in
on phone conversations, and search private homes without a warrant or need to show reasonable cause
Results:
Results:
- Extensive control of German life
- Book burnings meant many essential texts were destroyed and humanity lost information contained within
them
Extent of Propaganda:
authoritarian - 13th March 1933 Joseph Goebbels was appointed minister for the Reich Ministry of Popular
control Enlightenment and Entertainment
- The media (radio, cinema, poster, speeches, and rallies were used expansively
- “Its most important role was in strengthening the regime.” (Herzstein)
Cult of Personality:
- that he was the “messiah” or savior come to help Germany in her time of need.
- Portrayed as a great hero, with many attributes.
- This increased public awareness of the Nazi party, and made Hitler highly popular and favorable.
- The propaganda method gave Hitler a way to instill his regime into the minds of the nation.
- All textbooks and homes had a picture of Hitler
Cold War
IMPACT OF COLD WAR ON COUNTRIES OTHER THAN US & USSR + IMPACT on Cold War
Social Political Economic
Germany Brain drain due to the divide: Skilled workers left East Germany as Became a focus of the Cold War - conflict in Germany led to separate states The Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine:
refugees to West Germany (by 1961, the flow was 1,800 per day) until East/West Germany was reunited. - Policy of containment, 13 billion USD to rebuild Europe, West
Germany received 1.5 billion USD
The Berlin Wall: social split to occur between eastern and western East Germany: political identity stripped. Anti-Communists purged, Soviets - American company heads/economic advisors guided Western
germans these differences caused the East Germans to view their western controlled East Germany Germany Economy. Approximately 200 vocational centers opened.
relatives as pampered and privileges. Families were separated. People who - East Germany: millions of POWs used as slaves, 30% of economic
tried to escape were killed (140 people were killed whilst escaping West Germany: guided by Americans, but, still had parties of their own resources stripped from Germany. Mineral-rich land given to
(SPD, CSU, CDU) who gave German people voice Poland. Industrial output dropped 13%
Improved Living Standards in West Germany:
- Between 1950 and 1965, level of car ownership in West Germany
increased by 6 times.
- Plentiful supply of consumer goods and generally low inflation
Vietnam Bombing: Health issues, agricultural setbacks as a result of “Rolling - More Communist support - the French (initially) prevented an - Industrial output dropped by 50% as 70% of industrial sites were
Thunder” and “Agent Orange”. This destroyed Vietnam’s natural election from taking place before they left Vietnam because they destroyed
environment and led to widespread illnesses. knew the Communists would win - Transportation routes damaged - trade routes (by road) no longer
- Political turmoil for future leaders; next generation of Communist used.
Biological Warfare: leaders in Vietnam had a weakened military, but still had to defend - Agricultural output decreased by almost 13%
“Agent Orange“, one of major herbicides used, has left a serious ecological themselves against Khmer Rouge in Cambodia
and human impact on Vietnamese people’s lives. Today there are still many
children in Vietnam growing up with various diseases and disabilities
affected by the harmful chemicals carried out in the war.
Main foreign policies When Truman came to power as president he had limited FP experience. Salami tactics & creation of buffer zone
related to the Cold War - Given that it took so long for European nations to start the second front with USSR (not until 1944),
US came to realise that in order for European recovery, Germany had to be revitalised, and needed a and Stalin saw Britain & France;s appeasement directly targeted at him, he mistrusted west and
working economy → sought to stimulate economic recovery wanted a buffer zone for protection
- Communists who were loyal to Stalin took leading positions in national parties, then joined
Containment coalitions with left wing parties so that they soon dominated provisional govt. By controlling judicial
- 1946 Truman wrote to Secretary of State 1946: Unless Russia is faced with an iron fist and strong & repressive systems of state communists able to rig elections< Political opponents disappeared or
language another war is in the making harassed.
- Saw communism as a threat to access to markets, and saw communism as a political threat - Between 1947-8, 6 states turned communist
- Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan - Political system controlled, as well as economy, culture, land and media
Effect on the development Orthodox historian – Truman policies were an attempt to defend the world, and he was responding to soviet Orthodox historian – blaming Stalin and USSR, and that they were responsible for the outbreak of Cold
of the Cold War aggression. War. Stalin had signed Declaration of Liberated Europe → which he then violated. All states in Eastern
Europe had communist single-party systems by 1948. Impossible to cooperate over Germany, and Stalin
Revisionist historian – US took advantage of their nuclear monopoly and soviet weakness, and used the seen as aggressive in Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Korea and Berlin.
Truman Doctrine and Marshall aid to establish economic dependence of various countries, which would
ultimately lead to political control. Truman’s dollar-imperialism created Cold War. Revision historian – responsibility of the US. USSr devastated by war – 1700 cities destroyed, 60000
villages were in ruins and 25 million russians killed. US had increased industrial input by 90% and had a
nuclear monopoly. Stalin’s desire to control Eastern Europe was entirely defensive (wanted to control
eastern states as they had previously used as precursors prior to attacks on USSR). US issues Truman
doctrine which gave them right to intervene anywhere, and Marshall aid seen as economic imperialism.
This intimidated Stalin.
Main foreign policies Eisenhower had even more aggressive stance against USSR than Truman. When Eisenhower won Khrushchev decided to reduce size of red army unilaterally.
related to the Cold War presidential elections by attacking Truman administration for being ‘soft on communism’ → containment no
longer enough, there should be a rollback of communism. He was seen as a Cold Warrior → strongly 1956 – Khrushchev gave secret speech
anti-communist - De-Stalinization process opened up for new opportunities
- Peaceful co-existence with capitalist west → breaking from Stalin’s policies and vaguely insinuated
New look a new relation could be established with satellites in Eastern Europe
- Communism should still be contained
- Secretary of State Dulles expressed desire of ‘rollack’ of communist controlled areas Khrushchev travelled abroad, unlike Stalin, and participated in a number of summit meetings.
- Support by Eisenhower but only through peaceful means - He met both Eisenhower and Kennedy
- Left meeting in Paris when Eisenhower refused to apologise for U2 Incident
Massive Retaliation
- Nuclear weapons now regarded as weapons of first resort, not last resort
- Less reliance on conventional forces, and stopping of fighting of limited wars
- Nuclear weapons produced and US army reduced
Year 1953 1954 1956 1960
US Army Size 1 534 000 1 405 000 1 026 000 871 000
Cold War Events Alliances against communism formed Positive changes related to Cold War:
1954 1953
- Creation of SEATO by US, France, Britain, Australia, new Zealand, Philippines, Thailand and - Korean war armistice signed
Pakistan, with the main aim of preventing communist expansion in SEA 1954
1955 - Peace conference arranged at Geneva to deal with Indochina War, under the chairmanship of
- Baghdad Pact formed between Britain, Iraq and later Iran and Pakistan with aim of excluding USS USSR and Britain
from Middle East. US did not join for tactical reasons but stood behind organisation 1955
- Germany offered full membership in NATO - Great power summit Geneva between USSR, US, Britain and France → leaders met for first time
since Potsdam. New positivity → ‘spirit of Geneva’
New foreign policy and rollback tested - Occupational forces of Austria decided to end the occupation and re-establish full independence of
1953 the country → Not possible for Korea and Germany
- Revolt in East Berlin against communist rule → no US support given - Soviet troops withdrawn from Finland
1956 - Khrushchev went to Yugoslavia to heal rift between two states and to show that USSR could
- Hungary revolted against soviet control → US gave no support accept existence of a communist regime not controlled by Moscow → break with Stalin’s policies
- During Suez Crisis 1956 US refused to support her allies Britain, France and Israel → stood on
same side as USSR 1956
1958 - Poland announced reforms but Khrushchev was eager to secure that Poles didn’t go too far
- During second Berlin Crisis Eisenhower declared that he wanted to avoid war - Hungary he couldn’t control developments and when Imre Nagy announced that free elections
would be allowed and perhaps leave the Warsaw Pact, Red army invaded. Major consequences:
Nevertheless involved in Cold War: - Strained China-uSSR relations
1954 - Brought an end to ‘spirit of Geneva’
- Coup d’etat in Guatemala → covert operation undertaken by CIA which deposed democratically - Eisenhower had talked about rollback of communism → words were empty
elected Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz whom the US considered to be leftist - Damaged reputation of USSR internationally
- US committed to defend Taiwan during Taiwan Strait Crisis - Showed extent of the new relations that the USSR would allow
- US supported Diem in Vietnam after France had left. In 1954 it was Eisenhower who articulated - During Suez Crisis 1956, Khrushchev given an opportunity to extend soviet influece to Middle East
Domino Theory when looking at communism in SEA - Stalin had only armed or given support to countries bordering USSR
1956 - Khrushchev more adventurous and involved USSR in Middle East and Latin America
- Eisenhower authorised reconnaissance spy planes crossing RUssian territories - Departure from Stalin’s policies and escalation of Cold War
1957
- Eisenhower Doctrine passed by Congress stating that US would defend with arms any state in 1958
middle east threatened by communist aggression - He put pressure on western powers to find solution to Berlin and German problems
1961 - He gave a six month ultimatum to find a solution of Berlin to GDR (which wasn’t recognised by
- Bay of pigs invasion west)
- Second Berlin Crisis led nowhere when Khrushchev extended time limit
- Berlin wall finally erected 1961 and in the west it was a symbol of communist repression
- But did stabilize German issue → now no need for German peace treaty
Both politicians contributed to confrontations and detente, while Stalin and Truman were more Cold War Warriors Khrushchev can be argued to be more unpredictable.
Main foreign policies Reagan administration continued Carter’s tough stance, and Reagan had attacked Carter by saying that Mikhail Gorbachev elected General Secretary of age of 54. He introduced a number of reforms – he was
related to the Cold War the USSR had manipulated the Detente period to pursue their own gains. originally a leninist who made attempts to reform system to survive. Gorbachev’s plan for reconstruction
contained two main points:
Eventhough US was in a recession, 1982 military budget was increased by 13% - Cooperation of west to end the COld War in order to reduce cost of arms race
- A reconstruction of the USSR. Key aspects:
Systematic challenge - Glasnost (openness)
- New weapons to be developed which would be difficult challenge by USSR - Perestroika (restructuring)
- New weapons would make USSR weapons obsolete which would put pressure on Soviet - Demokratizatsiya (democratisation)
economy
Reagan started largest peacetime military buildup in US history – between 1981-8 military spending went
from $117 billion/year → $290 billion/year
1986 1990
- Second summit meeting between Gorbachev and Reagan in Reykjavik, Iceland - Gorbachev elected to a new office president of USSR
- Gorbachev announced that he was prepared to withdraw his SS-20 millies from Europe if - Way of creating his own political platform independent of Communist Party
US withdrew their Pershing and Cruise missiles - March the Congress removed article 6 in constitution – Communist Party no longer had a political
- Acceptance of Reagan’s zero-option policy Monopoly
- Also proposed a 50% reduction of all long-range missiles, and in return US would call off - Economy in critical situation
SDI - GNP went down by 4% in 1990 and 15% in 1991
- Reagan refused - Severe shortages of basic food supplies, meat and sugar
- Gorbachev shocked americans by proposing the abolition of all nuclear weapons within 10 - Communist hardliners criticise Gorbachev and nationalism in Baltic states, and Georgia posed an
years → Raegan’s commitment to SDI couldn’t allow this enormous problem to go Gorbachev who committed himself the democratic solutions
- Meeting showed agreements could be made - In the Congress of people's deputies yeltsin had been offered a new platform criticising the
- Became known that funds from arms deals with Iran had been secretly used to finance Contras in president
Nicaragua fighting the left wing govt. In country - Gorbachev’s solution to the mounting nationalist problem was a union treaty giving the Republics
- Violated US laws and Reagan claimed he didn’t know within the Soviet Union more autonomy – didn't seem to satisfy some Republics and by the end of
- Scandal affected popularity or president the year many hardliners were given key positions in the Soviet government
- Foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze in resigned dramatically in December claiming
1987 that dictatorship is coming
- Washington treaty (INF treaty) signed → all missiles based on lan in Europe and Asia with a range - Two German states allowed to merge 1990 USSR accepted that West German state could also be
of 500-5500 km should be destroyed within 3 years a member of NATO
- Dispute which had lasted over 10 years brought to an end - USSR supported UN decision in the Gulf war supported Americans in the conflict showing cold
war was over
1988
- Agreement between superpowers made at Geneva on the ending of Afghan war 1991
- Gorbachev announced that soviet armed forces should be reduced to 500 000 soldiers - January local branches of KGB and armed forces work together to seize TV tower in Lithuania
(unilaterally) most likely without any for knowledge of Gorbachev
- Announced gradual withdrawal of troops from GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary - 14 civilians killed
- Gorbachev announced that USSR would no longer interfere with affairs of satellites → Brezhnev - Made new Union treaty even more important to Gorbachev
Doctrine dead - Boris Yeltsin elected President of Russia June 1991 and question of Russia’s willingness to sign a
- Reagan visits Moscow for fourth summit → said he didn’t think of USSR as an evil empire new union treaty key question
anymore - without Russia membership in the USSR, would be dead
- August hardliners attempted coup before Union Treaty → Yeltsin took leadership
- Coupe seen as collapse of old system
- Yeltsin gained authority from coup while Gorbachev in hands of president
- December – leaders from Russia Ukraine and Belarus declared that the USSR no longer existed
and founded the commonwealth of independent States
- Later 11 former Republics joined
- 25th of December Gorbachev had to resign
- without Soviet Union Gorbachev had no political platform
- 31st of December USSR cease to exist
Effect on the development Reagan had resigned when communism collapsed in 1991. Many have argued that his policies, Gorbachev wanted to reform the Soviet system in order to make it survive. For different reasons this failed
of the Cold War systematic challenge, led to fall of USSR. Yet USSR did not accelerate spending after Reagan’s buildup. and the Empire collapsed. the war in Afghanistan was brought to an end. Soviet control of Eastern
Reagan who was a fierce communist must be credited for his open dialogue, Gorbachev and Reagan Europe ended and the USSR cease to exist. Cold War had been brought to an end. Gorbachev
ended a conflict that had lasted for 40 years. witnessed process without using violence probably the most important individual to bringing the end of the
Cold War
Cuban Missile America had placed nuclear weapons in Turkey - very close to Escalation of conflict, nuclear warfare seems imminent. Phone-line between USSR and USA is created.
Crisis (1962) the USSR. USSR retaliated by placing weapons in Cuba. Closed-doors meetings between USSR and USA. USSR forced America wins Propaganda War (for CMC at least)
Tension between Cuba-America as USA tried to oust Castro to take blame (USA wins propaganda). The world is saved. Castro feels left out, but closer to USSR (vs USA).
through failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. America’s tactic of Mutually Assured Destruction prevailed
Causes ● Kennedy’s national security assistant, McGeorge Bundy ● USA had more than 250,000 nuclear missiles ● US tried to reverse revolution through covert means
took photos of Soviet U2 planes flying over Cuba ○ USSR did not have half as much ● Diplomatically isolated Cuba
○ Showed Soviet soldiers setting up nuclear-armed ● Believed that the US had no right to intervene in Soviet ● Put military pressure on Cuba by training near them
missiles relations with Cuba ● Attempted assassinations on Cuban leaders
● Berlin Blockade and Berlin Wall ○ No right to impose quarantines
● Soviet Union continued to build missile bases in Cuba ○ Believed that US were violating terms written in the
despite objection from the US UN Charter
Goals ● Protect the security of the western hemisphere ● To prevent US invasion of Cuba. ● Prevent US invasion of Cuba.
● Minimum action to protect the West ○ Help Cuba’s self-defence ●
● Protect half a million of West-Berliners under Soviet threat ○ Solely for offensive purposes
behind the Berlin wall ● Believed that “It is high time that America learned what it
feels like to have her own land and her own people
threatened.”
● Wanted to improve image after Berlin Wall
● ‘Bargaining chip’ against US missiles in Europe
● Believed that US intervention was a threat to international
trade and national sovereignty
Actions ● ExComm and the secret tapes ● Ignored the US quarantine and sent ships to Cuba ● Cuban militants lead by Raoul Castro shot down U-2 plane
○ Assembled a small group to discuss Cuba situation ● Later, 6 ships turned back over Cuba without Soviet permission, escalating tensions.
and nuclear exchange ● Demanded that US agree not to invade Cuba in a telegram ● Wasn’t really included in any of the negotiations (so
○ Secretly taped meeting ● Later demanded that the US also remove missiles from couldn’t take much action)
● Quarantine Turkey
○ US announced that USSR had installed missiles in
Cuba and requested to order a blockade
○ Demanded that the Soviets remove the missiles
immediately
● Authorised day-time surveillance and continued U-2 flights
○ Also agreed to night-time coverage
○ Had US navy plans to stop Soviet submarine from
crossing quarantine line
Consequenc ● Quarantine constituted as an ultimatum for Khrushchev - ● Humiliation for Kruschev ● Angry at not being included in negotiations
es felt threatened ○ Angry that he backed down ○ Castro was not included
○ US would air-attack Cuba in 1-2 days if Khrushchev ○ Military already angry about cuts ● Became determined not to be a ‘pawn’ in the East-West
did not take action ○ Managed to maintain and keep peace struggle and to have independent foreign policies
● Deteriorated relations with the USSR because Khrushchev ● Had to rebuild relationship w Castro and Cuban regime and ● Havana became a centre for revolutionary training for other
felt that US actions were unnecessary to prevent Sino-Cuban alliance countries
● Contributed to his fall from power in 1964 ● Threatened to create Sino-Cuban alliance
International Consequences:
● France left NATO after missiles in Turkey were removed, angry at lack of protection from USSR
Causes Consequences/Significance
Similarities Both initiated by the West in order to strengthen their sphere of influence USSR was humiliated (Stalin/Khrushchev backed down)
- BB: bizonia formed, Deutschmark implemented, to prevent the spread of - BB: Stalin took down the blockade when he realised it was insignificant, West
communism placed embargoes on strategic exports from Eastern Germany
- CMC: put missiles in Turkey, in striking-distance of Moscow, to expand sphere of - CMC: Khrushchev took down the missiles in Cuba (it wasn’t known that Turkey
influence missiles were removed until 1996)
USSR justification: taking defensive measures against the West, US, capitalism Ended peacefully, did not escalate into violence
- BB: Felt that the economic security of East Germany was threatened, wanted to - BB: The Soviets did not disrupt the airlift for fear this might lead to open conflict,
take West Berlin in order to strengthen it Stalin retreated in the end without conflict
- Felt threatened by U.S. policy of containment (Truman doctrine, Marshall - CMC: No one died/no clashes except for that one U-2 pilot
Plan) and alliances with Britain and France (Bizonia → Trizonia)
- CMC: USSR felt they needed missiles similar to those in Turkey, and also wanted to
defend Cuba
Differences Type of motivation: One had outcomes detrimental to relations, one had outcomes that were beneficial
- BB: Economic, due to Deutschmark - BB: Separated Germany (East and West), formation of NATO
- CMC: Military, ICBMs - CMC: More negotiation, formation of the USSR US direct line of communication
Length of altercation (Moscow-Washington hotline)
- BB: 232 days
- CMC: 13 days
International involvement
- BB: International aid sent to West Berlin, European leaders more involved
- CMC: Only US, USSR and Cuba involved
6-day War 1967 Egypt, Jordan, Syria VS Israel - Change of Syrian Government in 1996 - Israel had control of Gaza Strip, Golan - USA saw Israel as a valuable asset in
USSR/USA supported respective parties (Ba’thists were extremely hostile, Heights, Sinai Peninsula the Middle East, brought Israel/USA
Israel/Syria clashed in Sea of Galilee) - Demonstrated power of Containment closer
- Syrian & Egyptian Defence Pact 1996 - Estimated 20,000 deaths - USSR’s prestige was damaged as they
- Syrian & Israeli air clash in 1967 were supporting Arab Nations
- Egyptian President Nasser blockaded - Increased tension between USSR/USA
Straits of Tiran, led to hostilities between
Israel and Arab world
Korean War PRC, North Korea, South Korea, USSR, USA Caused by South Korean President (Syungman - Estimated 2.5 million deaths, over 4 - Opened the Cold War to the
1950-1953 Rhee) boasting he could destroy the North million wounded (American Policy of international stage as Vietnam War
Korean army (led by Kim Il Sung). Previously, “Scorched Earth”) came next
Stalin had split North Korea (Potsdam). Kim Il - Affirmed America’s “Domino Effect” fear, - Heightened distrust between
Sung retaliated, invaded South Korea. South showed the world it was ready to do PRC/USSR (as USSR “loaned” Chinese
Korea pleaded for America help (and Soviets anything to stop Communism equipment and supplies)
helped the North). Started a war, USA disguised Established China as a global - Increased tension between USA and
its military effort through a UN Peacekeeping superpower USSR
Intervention. Pushed above 34th parallel, made - Increased American military expenditure - USA increased support for CSK/KMT in
it to China (who then felt threatened and pushed by almost 300% during years of the war Taiwan
America back down to the 34th parallel). - start of “Massive Retaliation” policy to
follow
- Soviets facing economic difficulties - war
made this worse
US LEADERS COLD WAR (POLICIES/BIG EVENTS)
Truman Eisenhower Kennedy Johnson Nixon Ford Carter Reagan
(1945–1953) (1953-1961) (1961-1963) (1963-1969) (1969-1974) (1974-1977) (1977-1981) (1981-1989)
Policies ‘Iron fist’ Eisenhower Doctrine ‘Flexible response’ Hard-line communist “Ping pong diplomacy” Continuation of Nixon’s Continued friendly “Tear down this wall”
1957 policy that US would Less conventional forces, approach, especially in Normalisation of Sino-US Policies relations with USSR 1987 West Berlin
Truman Doctrine economically assist any more nuclear weapons. Asia relationship August 14 1974 Ford met Negotiated the SALT II
Political, military, Middle eastern country Expanding available Defend South Vietnam with Soviet FM Anatoly Treaty in 1978-9 and Continued tough-line
economic assistance to all against communism means of fighting against from Communist Public pressure to reduce Dobrynin and joint test agreed on limited stance esp in Asia
democratic nations under ($200 million to Middle it. aggression. risk of war after Vietnam flight of warheads. Aimed to make the
threat. Eastern economies) led Nixon to begin USSR’s nuclear missiles
Led to: Gulf of Tonkin Detente Helsinki Accords Tough-line with USSR obsolete
Marshall Plan New Look Brinkmanship Resolution (Signed Salt I, European 1975 diplomatic Economic embargo
American initiative to aid National security policy, Aggression from both Legal basis for Vietnam Security Conference) agreement to reduce against USSR (banned INF Treaty
Europe (13$ billion to 17 stress weapons parties to the threshold of War tension grain imports to the 1987 Intermediate- Range
countries) to rebuild deterrence and prevent confrontation to gain a USSR) Nuclear Force Treaty
economies after WW2. Soviet extension outside more advantageous (USSR abandoned their
Leftist parties in Western of established areas position over the other, to Continued Nixon’s INF Forces)
Europe lost support the edge of potential policies in Asia
disaster. Anti-nuclearism
Korean War
Supported SK with
economic & military aid,
left SK by 1949
How put Potsdam Lebanon Crisis Cuban missile crisis Vietnam War Vietnam and China Vietnam Halted arms sales to Increased military
into Went worse than Yalta 15,000 troops to Lebanon Brinkmanship in action Began withdrawing troops Ended American Taiwan, established full spending between
practice where Roosevelt, friendly to quell a communist Rolling Thunder from Vietnam, involvement in Indochina. diplomatic relations with 1981-1988
with Stalin, was in power uprising. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Intensive aerial bombing emphasised Vietcong succeeded in PRC 117 billion to 290 billion.
(issues with German Agreed with Khrushchev campaign to weaken Vietnamisation. taking Saigon in 1975 USSR could not keep up
division, German to limit nuclear testing to military potential of Chose not to ratify the with his spending, for
reparations, Polish reduce environmental People’s Army of Vietnam Began to end involvement Helsinki Accords SALT II Treaty due to USSR reforms.
government) damage and health risks. in Taiwan, ‘not a matter Helsinki with leaders → Soviet invasion of
Berlin Airlift for US to decide’ signed accords which Afghanistan Hardline approach to
Vietnam War eased tensions USSR in Afghanistan
Extended war to difficult for USSR to
communist sanctuaries in Fall of Southeast Asia: continue war
Cambodia. In the late 1975 Laos,
Cambodia and Vietnam
all fell to communism.
Policie Spread the world Revolution: Secret Speech (beginning of Sino-Soviet Split) Brezhnev Doctrines: Perestroika: restructuring the economy - initiative that
s Comintern (Communist International) The actions of one socialist country were recognised as allowed limited market incentives to Soviet citizens.
Expansion of Marxist-Leninist ideology Peaceful coexistence affecting all - collective action to deal with any threat to
Idea of peaceful coexistence introduced Khrushchev in the socialist community was viewed as justified and Glasnost: openness - principle that the regime should
Satellite States 1956: “You do not like communism. We do not like necessary be open to public scrutiny
Stalin’s foreign policy was based in the aim of taking Capitalism. There is only one way out – peaceful
advantage of the military situation in Europe to coexistence” USSR had the right to intervene in any communist state Proposed the introduction of multi-party democracy
strengthen Soviet influence and to prevent another USA and USSR systems might compete in the where the ‘Eastern bloc’ where ‘socialism’ was under
invasion from the west. international market or for influence over other countries threat. Sinatra Doctrine
The west was afraid of a worldwide communist → but would avoid war with each other because it would An attempt to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia In 1989, Gorbachev jokingly mentioned that he would let
revolution mean the destruction satellite states do things “their own way”.
However we know now that Russia just wanted a buffer Creation of the Brezhnev Doctrine not initially seen as
zone, De-stalinization threatening by the West → saw it was a policy behind Foreign Policy
Saw the survival of his state much more important Consisted of a series of political reforms in the Soviet the Iron Curtain, did not threaten the international - Based on cooperation not confrontation
Union after the death of long-time leader Joseph Stalin balance of power - Conciliatory
in 1953, and the ascension of Nikita Khrushchev to - Withdraw USSR from Afghanistan
power. De-Stalinization meant an end to the role of Repression - Signed INF treaty
large-scale forced labour in the economy. Brezhnev's stabilisation policy included ending the
liberalising reforms of Khrushchev, and clamping down Nuclear Policy
on cultural freedom. The trial of the writers Yuli Daniel - Reduce weapons
and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966 — the first such public - End arms race
trials since Stalin's day — marked the reversion to a - “Reasonable sufficiency”
repressive cultural policy.
Détente
Détente is the idea of releasing tension under political
circumstances, the name was given to a period of
improved relations between the United States and the
Soviet Union that began around 1971. It took decisive
form when President Nixon visited the Secretary
General of the Soviet Communist Party, Leonid I.
Brezhnev in Moscow, 1972.
How it Salami Tactics: Provoking splits and divisions among Peaceful coexistence: Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968) Perestroika 1980s-91:
was coalition partners who were then accused of being Designed to defuse the arms race with the USA, After increased liberalisation of Czechoslovakia, USSR Started with the overhaul of the top members of the
put anti-soviet or fascists. Control was imposed on Eastern signifying a change in Soviet attitude. USSR and allied sent in Warsaw Pact troops to ‘quell (non-existent) communist party. Also replaced the centralised
into Europe countries such as Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland, socialist states applied this to nations of the western unrest’. government planning with a greater reliance on market
practic Romania, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia. world (NATO, Warsaw Pact). It was designed to reduce forces.
e tension between the two superpowers in fear of nuclear Invasion of Afghanistan:
Security in Europe through the establishment of satellite war. He demonstrated it by attending peace In 1979, the Soviets invaded and occupied the country. Glasnost 1985-9:
states → alarmed the US and led to the formation of the conferences such as the Geneva summit as well as Initially stationed 50,000 troops but results in >100,000 Eased strict social controls – gave greater freedom to
US policy of containment visiting abroad (Camp David in 1959). The World troops. the media and religious groups, while also allowing
Peace Council was founded in 1949 was largely funded citizens to express divergent views.
by the Soviet Union. SALT I
Cominform (The Communist Information Bureau): - Geneva Summit - ABM Treaty By 1988 Gorbachev had expanded his reforms to
Countries of Eastern Europe were expected to fall into - Interim Treaty include democratisation, moving the USSR toward an
line behind Soviet foreign policy. The Warsaw Pact 1955 - Basic Principles Agreement elected form of government.
The pact was USSR’s response to the admittance of
It encouraged the adoption of the Soviet model of West Germany into NATO. It was a military alliance SALT II Move away from Satellite States:
economic development, such as collectivisation in formed in 1955 coordinating defense of the Eastern - Limit on the # of strategic nuclear delivery Gorbachev refused to send military support to defend
agriculture and nationalisation of industry, rejecting the Bloc. In reality the pact was dominated by the USSR. vehicles (ICBMs, SLBMs, and heavy bombers) the previous satellite states of the USSR, greatly
idea that there could be alternative routes to “socialism”. - Ban on testing/deployment of new types of weakening their Communist regimes.
De-stalinization: ICBMs, heavy mobile ICBMs, and rapid reload
Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance): Gave his de-Stalinization speech in Feb 1956 which led systems Refusal to use Force:
Founded in 1949 as a reaction to the Marshall Plan. It to challenges to Soviet control in the Eastern bloc.soc - Abandoned Brezhnev doctrine
attempted to support collectivisation and development Moscow Treaty 1970: - Wanted to loosen grip on Eastern Europe
of heavy industry. However, in the early years the plan Invasion of Hungary (1956) Signed by USSR, West Germany and Poland December 1988 Gorbachev made a speech at the UN
did not do much in terms of financial aid. After Imre Nagy rebelled against the communist - Accepted border between East/West Germany where he declared that all nations should be free to
government, won, and attempted to withdraw Hungary - Formally accepted the post-World War Two choose their course without interference.
Korean War 1950-3 from the Warsaw Pact, Khrushchev sent 1,000 Soviet border in the East with Poland By the summer of 1989, Eastern Europeans were given
June 25 1950 the war began when 75000 soldiers from tanks into Hungary, killed 4,000 Hungarians, executed more degrees of freedom. Gorbachev refused to use
NKPA invaded South Korea. By July American troops Nagy and installed new government. The Final Quadripartite Protocol 1972: force to put down demonstrations. By November, the
had entered the war – Americans saw it as fighting the Agreed to the maintenance of the ‘status quo’ in Berlin Berlin Wall was pierced.
force of communism. July 1953 Korean War came to an The Berlin Crisis 1961 - Confirmed that the West had a legal basis for its 1989 Communist regimes fell in Poland, Hungary, East
end. By July 1961, 30000 East Germans were fleeing each access routes to the city Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania.
month and nearly 3 million people had left from East - Gave West Berlin greater degree of security Reunification of Germany in October 1990. 1990
Germany to the West. The country was experiencing Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize.
brain drain and the survival of East Germany was Basic Treaty 1972: - Peaceful collapse
threatened. As a response, Khrushchev ordered the Signed by East and West Germany
construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961 that stops - Accepting the existence of each other Ending the Arms Race
East Germans from fleeing the country. It was a huge Gorbachev and Reagan took part in 5 summits between
propaganda victory for the Western bloc as East Helsinki Agreement 1973: 1985 and 1988, which resulted in the signing of the
Germany was depicted as a country whose population - Recognised that Europe’s frontiers were Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in 1987.
had to be penned in to stop them from escaping. ‘inviolable’ and cannot be altered by force
- Called for closer ties and collaboration in
economic/scientific fields
- Signatories agreed to human rights/individual
freedoms → conflicted with Soviet control
- 3 Baskets → security, co-operation and human
rights (respectively)
Aggression in Africa:
In Africa, USSR funded and supported revolutionary
movements that looked to upset the balance of power in
the region. In 1975, USSR massively increased its
funding for Popular Movement for the Liberation of
Angola (MPLA) during the Angolan Civil War.
- Looked as if USSR was seeking to increase its
influence in Africa
Repeated by the USSR in 1977
- Sent military supplies to Ethiopia during its
invasion of Somalia - Seemed to confirm Soviet
intentions in Africa
HL Content (Asia and Oceania)
REFORM MOVEMENTS
Compare and contrast different attempts at reform – why were some successful and others not?
Causes Actions Taken Success/Failure + Results
Self- Qing on brink of collapse following First Acronym: NICoFT (like Nic Choi coughed) FAILURE, only extended Qing’s lifetime by roughly 50 years
strengthening Opium War Conservatives didn’t believe in Western values or Western technology
Treaty of Nanking (First) and Convention of National Defense: Arsenals, shipyards, military schools built Cixi was corrupt (spent 50 million pieces of Silver on her summer palace)
Beijing (Second) were deeply embarrassing Industry: new enterprises set up, focus on mining coal Officials were incompetent
and damaging Communication: railways, lighthouses, shipping lines all improved Farmers resisted some industrial work being done as it was against Feng Shui
Similar treaties had been signed with France Foreign Office: Formal foreign office was set up. Prince Gong promoted diplomatic Conservative Bloc formed by Cixi resisted significant government/societal
(Whampoa) and others missions on behalf of Qing Government restructuring
Trade: Trade in/outside of China was promoted
100 Days Reforms Followed Taiping Rebellion, exact same Acronym: MENUP (like man-up but men-up) FAILURE
(1898) reasons as Self Strengthening Movement None of this happened. These discussions were held in court but no action was
above. Military: Increase military capacity, build new schools, more $ spent ever taken.
Lost Sino-Japanese War Education: Reform education, have more modern/conventional subjects Qing neither had the will nor the budget at this time to enact reforms.
Newspaper was published
Universities were to be established
Progressive-minded officials were to be appointed
4 Modernisations - Enacted by Deng Xiao Ping, known to - Implementation of Open Door Policy (success seen in Singapore and SUCCESS
be pragmatic (“it does not matter if the Taiwan encouraged Deng) Steel production increased 300% between 1985 and 1999
cat is white or black, if it catches the - Implementation of Household Responsibility System (farmers own land, Coal production doubled
mouse, it is a good cat” can sell excess production for a profit) Electricity production increased 10% each year
- Failure of Great Leap Forward - STEM research (800,000 new scientists) Grain production topped 400 million tons for the first time
- New military schools, 300 billion USD expenditure on military by 1985. Expendable income grew by 11%
Improved salaries. Inflation around 15% => emergence of new classes
- State owned enterprise => collective ownership Income inequality (urban workers earned 40 USD a month, rural earned 7).
- Special Economic Zones (Shenzhen, Zhuhai) introduced Dissatisfaction with this (led to Beijing Bus Drivers Protest in 1990s)
- Land could be leased out for 50 years Crisis of confidence (younger generation not so sure about
REBELLIONS
Compare and contrast causes and effects of different rebellions.
Causes Events Short-term Consequences Long Term Consequences
Taiping Hong Xiu Quan - charismatic speaker, advocated Civil War - estimated 30 million deaths. - 30 million dead - Weaken chinese imperial government
for removal of Manchus from power (perpetrator of Western intervention protected Qing Dynasty - - Power was decentralised (warlords had - Reliance on foreign countries to defeat
anti-Manchu, pro-Han sentiments). Claimed he was prevented collapse, however, were able to “carve power) taiping
brother of Jesus up” China . - Humiliation of Qing + China on an - Taiping also led to many other rebellions
international level which further weakened the government
Emerging sense of Dynastic Decline (the Qing had Yuan Shi Kai was able to lead warlords - who were - Country was economically drained. - Opened china to the west
“lost their mandate from Heaven). This was all given essentially full autonomy from Qing Central Damage and rehabilitation efforts were too
because: government - to resist Taipings for 14 years. great
- Lingering sympathy for Taiping’s Cause in
- Economy was stagnating (0.6% in lower/farmer class of China. They were still
production) not satisfied.
- Population was booming, agricultural
production was not enough = resulting in
famine/malnourishment
- Corruption in the Qing Court (Grand
Council in particular)
- High taxes (up to 70% for some regions of
China)
- Propaganda attracted peasants and
working-class who were frustrated with
Qing Dynasty
- Opium Wars - brought shame and unequal
treaties
- Importance of secret societies (Qing
Government spent almost 50% of annual
budget fighting White Lotus + Heavenly
Reason Sect, and White Lotus Rebellion)
Tonghak - Similar to Boxer Rebellion. Koreans did not - Joseon Dynasty leadership could not - sparked the first Sino-Japanese War - China’s defeat in first S-J war was deeply
Rebellion like foreign intervention, sought to maintain handle the Rebellion, requested for (1894–95) humiliating, upset tributary system
Confucian Ideals. Rebelled against Korean Chinese assistance. Qing sent army in, as - Estimated 70,000 deaths (numbers vary - Announced Japan’s arrival to the
(1894-1895) Government. Korean Government was in a did Japan (without an invitation) greatly) international arena
similar position to Qing Government prior to - Donghak Rebellion was quickly crushed,
Boxer Rebellion (confucian, stagnant but China vs Japan started
economy, corrupt)
Boxer Rebellion - Operated under Motto “fight the foreigners, - Battles started in 1900, Christians were - Boxer Protocol (China could not have arms, - 330 million USD in reparations to Western
protect the Qing”. Sought to rid China of targeted (close to 1 million killed) land conceded once more) nations
foreign influence and presence - September 1901 50,000 foreign troops - Russia occupied significant parts of - Highlighted Qing Decadence
- Dissatisfied with Unequal Treaties, (Russia, America, Britain, Japan) arrived in Manchuria - Provided momentum for SYS to spark
humiliation of China, famine, poor harvest, China, destroyed Boxers in Battle of Beijing - New Policies Reform implemented Xinhai Revolution
foreign monopoly over Chinese industry - Cixi fled, Beijing was captured (essentially changing education). Nothing
- Claimed to be “bullet-proof” happened from this.
- Cixi secretly supported Boxers
(supplies/weapons)
JAPAN ANNEXATION OF KOREA AND TAIWAN
Causes Results
Korea - Qing cession of Taiwan (Fermosa) and Korea following First Sino Japanese War Elimination of Korean culture:
- Japanese wanted colonies for international prestige - newspapers censored (only one allowed), korean not taught in classrooms, military police,
- Japan wanted colonies for their resources (people and natural resources, especially food and labour) 170k Japanese bought Korean land. Historical sites (Inner Court) destroyed. Japanese
surnames had to be adopted by all Koreans
Modernisation of korea:
- Railways, foreign ministry, moved away from feudal system. Education. Productivity and
output increased (Kabo Reforms enacted in 1894)