DMiT, HWRE Ac/Program Construction Materials 1

CHAPTER FOUR
BUILDING STONE
4.1. Introduction
Stone is a naturally occurring material and is usually obtained from quarries for construction
purposes. It is used to construct different parts of building such as foundations, floors, walls, and
lintels and to construct retaining walls, bridges and dams.
4.1.1 Classification of Stone
Rocks from which building stones are obtained are classified on the basis of:
I. Their geologic nature
II. Their chemical composition
I) Geological Classification
Rocks are divided into three classes according to their geologic formation.
Igneous rocks ---------------e.g. Granite, Trachyte, Scoria, Basalt, Pumice
Sedimentary rocks-------- e.g. Sandstone, Limestone
Metamorphic rocks------- e.g. Marble
a) Igneous rocks are the product of heat and pressure, such as that caused by volcanic activity and
pressure exerted by the shifting of the earth’s surface. At great depth inside the earth the
temperature often reaches such a high degree those silicates (quartz), feldspar and other
constituents of the earth melt. The molten mass, which is known as magma, is at times forced up
due to pressure build-up and solidification into rocks. If the solidification takes place near or at the
surface of the earth, the magma forms trap rocks that include the imperfectly crystallized basalt
and the usually completely crystallized trachyte. If, however, the magma solidifies at greater depth
after forcing its way into existing strata (hence its name of intrusive rock) it forms a solid
crystalline rock known as granite. Depending on the rate of cooling of the magma, these igneous
rocks could be coarse or fine grained. The more rapid the cooling, the smaller the crystals formed.
In the process of cooling, the crystals inter-lock with each other, giving the rocks great toughness
and strength.
b) Sedimentary rocks are formed as a result of sedimentation either from the disintegration
products derived from decayed rocks or from accumulations of organic origin.
c) Metamorphic rocks are formed by the gradual change in the character and structure of igneous
and sedimentary rocks.

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II) Chemical Classification

Chemically, rocks are classified on the basis of their major constituent mineral.
▪ Argillaceous rocks are composed primarily of alumina (Al2O3)
▪ Calcareous rocks are those where the constituent is lime (CaCO3)
▪ Siliceous rocks are composed primarily of silica (SiO2)
4.1.2 Properties of Different Stones
1. Granite
It contains silica in the form of quartz, feldspar and mica. These crystals often result in very
attractive coloring blue, green, red, black or white. The coloring depends on the account of the
range of the minerals they contain.
2. Basalt
Basalt is generally fine grained rock is mostly black or very dark in color. At times it contains iron-
bearing minerals that make it deflect a magnetic needle. It is a very hard stone and a useful material
for construction.
3. Trachyte
Trachyte varies from dark to light gray in color. It is usually coarse grained and contains large
crystals of feldspar. It could give medium to high strength and is a useful material for construction.
While trachyte could give high to medium strength, both basalt and granite are very hard stones;
hence all the three are useful materials for construction.
4. Pumice and Scoria
Pumice is formed as a result of steam or gas bubbling out of molten lava leaving behind empty
pockets that give the solidified lava spongy appearance. It has a granular texture and is very light
to the extent it can float on water. It is usually white-gray to yellow in color, but may be red, brown
or sometimes black, according to the oxides, or impurities it contains. Scoria or volcanic ash (red
ash), has generally a porous rough surface, and is usually red to black in color.
5. Sandstone
Sandstones are solid and generally coherent rocks that consist of grains of sand cemented together
by natural cementing agents such as clay, iron oxide, lime carbonate or silica. They are the result
of the solidification of sand beds that either contained the cementing substance or were
impregnated with it during the process of solidification. Hence the major constituent mineral of
sandstone is quartz, making as much as 95% of the whole rock. The rest is the cementing material,
gravel, broken shells and other minerals.

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6. Limestone
Limestone is sedimentary rock that contains carbonate of lime (CaCO3), the remains of shells, or
the skeletons of prehistoric animals, and certain other essential elements. In most lime stones, the
lime plus magnesium carbonate content exceeds 75%; however, when the silica content is high the
stone might be classified as sandstone. In its pure form, limestone is white, generally however, it
is found in brown, reddish-brown or other color depending on its content of clay, iron oxide or
other impurities. The main problem with limestone is acid attack, mainly from the atmosphere in
the form of sulphurous or sulphuric acids found in polluted atmospheres: H2O (rain) +SO2 (gas of
combustion) =H2SO3 (Sulphurous).
7. Marble
Marble is a metamorphic, crystalline, limestone, recrystallized by heat or pressure.
Marble has a wide range of colors, textures, grains, working qualities, and finish properties. The
attraction of marble results from the presence of impurities that form into veins or mottled bands
during the process. Marble may be white, black and white, green, blue, gray, pink or yellow
colored.
With proper methods of manufacture, all the marbles are considered equivalent in performance,
durability, and utility. Marbles vary greatly in their ability to withstand the elements. Some
crumble under severe weather conditions or pollutants in the air (like limestone). Certain very
beautiful marbles will disintegrate in the presence of water and can be used only for interiors.
4.1.3 Production of Stone
The process of removing stone from its natural bed is known as quarrying, and the method of
quarrying will depend to some extent on the nature of the stone.
Some stone is stratified horizontally, and the horizontal demarcations between the strata are known
as bedding planes. In other stone, the vertical separations are more visible, and they are called joint
planes. In some stone both are apparent, where both bedding planes and joint planes are clearly
visible. The ancient Egyptians drove wooden wedges into natural faults of the stone and then
poured water onto them. The swelling of the wooden wedges split the rock into sizes suitable for
the mason to work into final shape with a hand tools.
Sandstone and limestone are stratified, which simplifies their removal from their natural beds. In
stratified rocks a series of holes is drilled perpendicular to the stratification, and the material
between the holes is removed. Stones are then split from the quarry along the lines of stratification.

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In rock that is not stratified, such as granite, holes must be drilled both horizontally and vertically
into the bed.
In quarrying of softer stones, such as limestone, sandstone, etc, channeling machines or wire saws
may be used to remove the stones. Harder stones must still be removed by drilling and wedges.
The stone blocks thus produced are transported from the quarry by truck.
4.1.4 Building-Stone Requirements
Despite the abundance of rock, relatively few stones satisfy the requirements as building stones.
The important requirements are:
➢ Strength ➢ Color and grain
➢ Hardness ➢ Porosity and texture
➢ Workability ➢ Ease of quarrying
➢ Durability ➢ Accessibility
4.1.5 Common Stones for Construction Purpose
Basalt and Trachyte are very common in Ethiopia and are mostly used for stone masonry work
and as bolder or crashed stone for road construction and crashed aggregates for concrete making.
Owing to its beautiful colors, its roughness and durability, granite is used as polished floor
finishing material or cladding to external walls. Granite and basalt should never be used in place
where they will be subjected to great heat owing to their tendency to explode due to the different
rates of expansion of their constituent minerals.
Other rocks that are made from magma and are included in the family of igneous rock are those
that are commonly known as volcanic rocks. They are formed from magma that poured out from
the craters of volcanoes and spread as molten lava over the earth’s surface. These include the
porous lightweight rocks pumice and scoria.
Some standard code of practice for concrete include pumice and scoria among the several types of
dense and lightweight, natural as well as manufactured aggregates considered to be admissible for
subsidiary members, including wall panels, floor and roof slabs on condition that they are free of
impurities such as iron components, clay lumps and coal. Although pumice and scoria are found
in Ethiopia in large quantities especially along the rift valley, their use has been limited to the
manufacture of partially compacted or non-compacted light weight masonry blocks. Owing to its
lightweight, pumice concrete is also used for forming slopes on flat concrete roofs.
Sandstone and Limestone are used for external and internal walls and as polished floor finishing
materials.
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Marble has a wide range as building material. It is used for external walls and representative of
internal walls, and as well as polished floor finishing material.
There might be much more possibilities of using natural stones as Building Materials.
This could be done on recommendation of the experienced engineer.
7.1.6 Tests on Building Stone
In practice building stones are used for construction purposes as quarried and are rarely tested.
However, it is at times useful to known some of the characteristics of a particular stone and tests
on water absorption and specific gravity are recommended.
The ASTM method of test, ASTM C97-47 (2), covers tests for determining the absorption and
bulk specific gravity of all types of natural building stones, except slate. Specimens for these tests
may be cubes, prisms, cylinders, or any regular form with least dimension not under 50mm and
greatest dimension not over 75mm, and the ratio of volume to surface are not less than 0.3 nor
greater than 0.5. The percentage of absorption by weight of specimen is calculated as follows:
B− A
Absorption by weight , percent = *100
A
Where
A = Weight of specimen after oven drying at 105± 2 oC for 24 hours.
B = Weight of the surface dry specimen after complete immersion in filtered or distilled water at
20 ± 2oC for 48 hours.
A
Bulk specific gravity =
B −C
Where
A = Weight of the dried specimen at 105 ± 2 oC for 24 hours
B = Weight of the soaked and surface dried specimen in air (soaking is done for 1 hour on the
specimen that has been oven dried for 24 hours)
C = Weight of the soaked specimen in water
It is generally observed that the strength of building stones increases with increasing specific
gravity. Also, the higher the specific gravity the greater the stability of a hydraulic structure built
of the stone.

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