Heat Transfer Semester V - Mechanical Engineering /Automobile Engineering / Mechanical Sandwich Engineering (avitribai Phule Pune University) Strictly as per the New Credit System Syllabus (2015 Course) | Savitribai Phule Pune University w.e.f. academic year 2017-2018 B. L. Singhal B.Sc. (Engg.), M-E., FIE, M.S.E.L. Chartered Engineer Chief Engineer, (Retd.) Military Engineering Services Ex. Professor and head, Mechanical Engineering Department College of Military Engineering, Pune - 31 Ex. professor, Mechanical Engineering Department G.S,M. COE Balewadi, Pune - 411 045. Maharashtra, India ® PO280A, OP eae: ~|M Engineering DivisionHeat Transfer B.L. Singhal (Semester V - Mechanical Engineering /Automobile Engineering / Mechanical Sandwich Engineering, SPPU) Copyright © by Tech-Max Publications. All rights reserved. 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Printed at: Image Offset, Dugane Ind. Area Survey No. 2825, Dhayari Near Pari Company, Pune - 41, Maharashtra State, India, E-mail : rahulshahimage@gmail.com ISBN 978-93-5224-596-3 Published by ‘Tech-Max Publications Head Office : B/5, First flovr, Manitatna Complex, Taware Colony, Aranyeshwar Comer, Pune - 411 009. Maharashtra State, India Ph :91-20-24225065, 91-20-24217965, Fax 020-24228978. Email : info@techmaxbooks.com, Website : www.techmaxbooks.com [302042] (FID : TP493) (Tech-Max Book Code : PO280A)Preface My dear students, The subject of Heat Transfer is a part of curriculum by most of the university as basic engineering subject for undergraduate courses of Mechanical, Mechanical Sandwich and Automobile Engineering students, Though this text book on “Heat Transfer” has been written strictly as per the latest syllabus prescribed by the Savitribai Phule Pune University for BE, students of Semester V of Mechanical Engineering Discipline but the book also covers by and large the syllabus prescribed by other universities being the basic course. Thus, the BE. / B.Tech. students of other universities will also find this book very useful. We had two basic aims while writing, this book. Firstly, the aim was to meet the students requirements and the other aim was to develop the basic aspects of heat transfer in simplest possible manner with clarity and easy to follow language. The theory has been well illustrated by large number of application oriented solved examples. Wherever necessary, we have tried to give the approach to solve the problems. Main features of the book are : Text explained with the necessary self explanatory diagrams in simple and easy to follow language. Logical approach to the analysis of basic theory and its applications. Necessary inputs to approach the solution of a problem, Inclusion of formulae used in each chapter. It would help the students to apply themselves and approach in solving a problem. Inclusion of large number of solved examples including the problem asked in university examinations. Solution explained step by step. ‘A detailed summary has been added at the end of each chapter. It would help students to revise and comprehend the basic definitions and formulae including text just prior of the examination. An Exercise has been added at the end of each chapter with section numbers indicated as reference for their answers. I take this opportunity to thank Mr. Sachin Shah (Publisher) and other staff of Tech-Max Publications, Pune who have shown their extreme co-operation during the preparation of this book. ‘We shall be grateful to all readers of this book for pointing out any errors and omission and for their suggestions for further improvement of this book. - Author gaaSavitribai Phule Pune University, Pune ‘Third Year of Mechanical, M=chanical Sandwich & Automobile (2015 course) Course Code: 302042 Course Name : Heat Transfer ‘Teaching Scheme : Examination Scheme : TH : - 04 Hes/week : TH InSem:~30 End-Sem:~70 PR: - 02 Hrs/week : PR:~50 Course Objectives : [Identify the important modes of heat transfer and their applications. Formulate and apply the general three dimensional heat conduction equations. ‘Analyze the thermal systems with internal heat generation and lumped heat capacitance. ‘Understand the mechanism of convective heat transfer Determine the radiative heat transfer between surfaces. Describe the various two phase heat transfer phenomenon. Execute the effectiveness and rating of heat exchangers. Course Outcomes : CO1: Analyze the various modes of heat transfer and implement the basic heat conduction equations for steady one ‘dimensional thermal system. CO2:. Implement the general heat conduction equation to thermal systems with and without internal heat generation and ‘transient heat conduction. C03: Analyze the heat transfer rate in natural and forced convection and evaluate through experimentation investigation. CO4: Interpret heat transfer by radiation between objects with simple geometries COS: Analyze the heat transfer equipment and investigate the performance. Course Contents Unit 1 (06 hrs) Introduction and Basie Concepts : Application areas of heat transfer, Modes and Laws of heat transfer, Three dimensional heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates and its simplified equations, thermal conductivity, ‘Thermal diffusivity, Thermal contact Resistance. Boundary and initial conditions : Temperature boundary condition, heat flux boundary condition, convection boundary condition, radiation boundary condition. ‘One dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat generation : Heat conduction in plane wall, composite slab, composite cylinder, composite sphere, electrical analogy, concept of thermal resistance and conductance, three dimensional heat conduction equations in cylindrical and spherical coordinates (no derivation) and its reduction to ‘one dimensional form, critical radius of insulation for cylinders and spheres, economic thickness of insulation. (Refer Chapter 1) Unit2 (08 hrs) ‘One dimensional steady state heat conduction with heat generation : Heat conduction with uniform heat ‘generation in plane wall, cylinder & sphere with different boundary conditions. Heat transfer through extended surface : Types of fins and its applications, Governing Equation for constant cross sectional area fins, solution for infinitely long & adequately long (with insulated end) fins, efficiency & effectiveness of fins. (Refer Chapter 2)Unit 3 (06 hrs) ‘Thermal Insulation - Types and selection, Economic and cost considerations, Payback period Transient heat ‘conduction : Validity and criteria of lumped system analysis, Biot and Fourier number, Time constant and response of thermocouple, Transient heat analysis using charts (Refer Chapter 3) Unit 4 (06 hrs) Convection Fundamentals of convection : Mechanism of natural and forced convection, local and average heat transfer coefficient, concept of velocity & thermal boundary layers. Forced convection : Dimensionless numbers and their physical significance, empirical correlations for extemal & internal flow for both laminar and turbulent flows. Natural convection : Introduction, dimensionless numbers and their physical significance, empirical correlations for natural convection (Refer Chapter 4) Unit 5 : Radiation (08 hrs) Fundamental concepts, Spectral and total emissive power, real and grey surfaces, Stefan Boltzmann law, Radiation laws ~ Planks, Wiens, Kirchoff's and Lambart’s cosine law with simple applications, Irradiation and radiosity, Blectrical analogy in radiation, Radiation shape factor, radiation heat exchange between two black and diffuse gray surfaces, radiation shield. (Refer Chapter 5) Unit 6 : Heat Transfer Equipments (08 hrs) Condensation and Boiling : Boiling heat transfer, types of boiling, pool boiling curve and forced boiling phenomenon, condensation heat transfer, film wise and drop wise condensation (simple numerical treatment). Heat exchangers : Classification and applications, heat exchanger analysis - LMTD for parallel and counter flow heat exchanger, effectiveness- NTU method for parallel and counter flow heat exchanger, cross flow heat exchanger, LMTD correction factor, design criteria for heat exchanger, Introduction to ‘TEMA standards. Introduction to heat pipe, Introduction to electronic cooling - Discussion on active and passive methods, (Refer Chapter 6)we Heat Transfer (SPPU) 1 Table of Contents R 1 Tae 19 Lawsof Radiation 10 194 Wien'sLaw. 140 Chapter 1: Introduction to Heat Transfer and Heat 1.9.2 — Kirchoffs Law . 1-10, Conduction Without Heat Generation 1.93 Stelan-Botzmann Law 1. 1-10 1-1 to 1-67 (SPPU - Dec. 07, Aug. 15 (In Sem) Paar - a Basie ia ¥ ‘Syllabus Topic : Three Dimensional Heat Conduction ylabus: Introduction and Basie Concepts : Applicaton areas son in Catesian Coord ‘of heat transfer, Modes and Laws of heat transfer, Three eeeeeaee nates and dimensional heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates: neem a ‘and its simplified equations, thermal conductivity, Thermal |] 1-10 General Heat Conduction Equation in Cartesian diffusivity, Thermal contact Resistance. Boundary and initial Co-ordinates... “ 10 conditions : Temperature boundary condition, heat flux boundary || ‘Syllabus Topic : Simplified Forms of Three Dimensional condtion, convection boundary condkion, radtion boundary Heat Conduction Equation n Cartesian Coordinates. 1-12 condition. One dimensional steady stato heat conduction || 1.11 Special Cases of General Heat without heat generation: Heat conduction in plane wal, Condon Equation sens NB composite slab, composite cylinder, composite sphere, eleccal |] v Syllabus Topic: Thee Dimensional Heat Conduction analogy, concept of thermal resistance and conductance, tres Equation in Cylinical Coordinates and ts Reduction to 4000) 47 48 Thermal Boundary Layerin Circular Pipes. 48 ¥- Syllabus Topi : Dimensionless Numbers and thoir Physical Signicance 48 49°. Convective Heat Tansier Goeficint. 48 ¥ Syllabus Topic : Empirical Correlations for Extemal and Intem Flow for both Laminar and Turbulent Flows... 4-8 4.40 Physical Signfcance of Dimensionless Numbers... 4-8 {SPPU - Dec. 13, May 14, Dec. 2014, May 2015) 4.11 Forced Convection Corton : Flow though Circular Pipe (SPPU - May 07, May 09, Dec. 10). vesennndH10 4.1141 Corellon for Flow of Liquid Metals in PIPES ann dott 44112. Covelatin or Flow of Heavy Oils in Pps... 412. Covelations for Fid Flow Over the Pate 412.1 Diference betveen Local and Average Heat Transfer Cooticients(SPPU May 12). 412 419 Covelation for Flow Reross a Horizontal Cynder... 4-12 ¥ Syllabus Topic: Invoducton to Mechanism o Ntural Convection 431 4.14 Mechanism of Natural Convection (SPPU - May 13, May 14, May 15, 4a 418 Cooticint of Volumetic Expansion (8) (SPPU-Doc.12) 42 ¥ syllabus Topi: Dimensions Numbers and thoir Physica! Signiance 42 4.16 Physical Significance of Dimensionless Numbers in Natural Convecon 4 (SPU - Dec. 11, May 12, Dec. 12, May 14, Dec. 16, May 16) ¥ Syllabus Topic : Empirical Conlaons for Natural Convection +08 4.17 Conelations Applcabl to Natural Convection (SPPU- Dec. 16). 499 4.17.1 Diference between Natural Convecion and Forced Convection (SPPU May 14, May 15 May 16)....434 4417.2 Comparison of Heat Tranter Goefcient In Natural and Forced Convention (SPPU -Dec. 15) nh [unit v Chapter 5 :_ Thermal Radiation 5-110 5-47 Syllabus : Radiation : Fundamental conceps, Speck and tla emissive power, Real and grey surfaces, Stefan Bolmann lw, Radiation laws | iaw with simple applications. ‘radaton and radiosity, Electrical [analogy in radiation, Radiation shape factor, Radation heat exchange belween two blak and cuse gay sulaes, Radaton Planks, Wiens, Kirchoff's and Lambart's cosine | | hil = ¥ Syllabus Topic: Fundamental Concepts of Rasaton 5-1 51 Thermal Raiation 51 52 Theories of Radiation st 521 Wave or Maxwell Theory. st 522 Quantum Theory or Planck's Tony 52 Y Syllabus Topic: Total Emissive Powe 52EF Heat Transter (SPPU) 53 v 84 544 842 55 551 552 553 56 56.1 562 563 564 58 581 5814 582 5821 59 5.10 5.104 Total Erissive Power of a Surface (E).nennnrnnon 52 Syllabus Topic: Iraiation and Radios. 52 Iradation ofa Sulace (6) and. Radios (). (SPPU-- Dec. 08, May 13) radiation of a Sutace (8)... Radiosty ()(SPPU - May 13, May 16. Basic Concepts and Defntons Properties of Ratation nn 58 ‘Syllabus Topic : Real and Gray Surtaces, bt “Types of Sutaces/Badies (SPPU - Dec. 14, May 16). 5-4 52 ‘Surface Emission Properties (SPPU = DEC. 13) xeon 5-4 Syllabus Topic : Laws of Radiation 55 Laws of Radiation. 55 Syllabus Topie : Planck's law 56 Pranck’s Law. 56 {SPU - Dec. 06, Dec. 07, May 09, May 11, May 13, Dec. 13, May 14, Dec. 14, May 15, may 16) Syllabus Topic: Wiens aw... 56 Wien's Displacement Law 56 (SPPU-- Dec. 08, May 09, May 11,Dec. 1, Dec 12, May 13, May 14, Dec. 14, May 15, May 16) ‘Syllabus Tople : Stefan Boltzmann's Law. s7 ‘Stefan Boltzmann's Law (SPPU - Dee. 12, May 15)... 5-7 Syllabus Topic :Kichhots law, 58 kirchhot's Law (SPPU - Dec. 07, May 09, May 13, Dec.14, May 15, May 18).....0s 58 ‘Syllabus Topic : Spectral emissivity, 58 Emissivity of Real Surfaces 59 (SPPU - Dec. 05, Dec. 06) Intensity of Radiation ()) and Solid Angle (0)... 5410 ‘Sold Angle (a) (SPPU - May 06, Dec. 08, Dec. 10). 5-10 ‘Solid Angle between Two Elomentary ACS o.oo. S10 Intensity of Raiaton () oe 510 (SPPU- May 06, Dec. 06, May 08, Dec.12) Syllabus Topic : Lamberts Cosine Law with Applications : sat Lambert Cosine Law 7 sat (SPPU - Dec. 08, May 09, Dec. 10, May 11,Dec. 12, May 13, May 14, May 18, May 16) sti ‘Syllabus Tople : Radiation Heat Exchange Between Black Bodies. 7: st Heat Exchange between Two Finite Black ‘Surfaces by Radiation 51 Syllabus Topic : Radiation Shape Factor. 513 Radiant Shape Factor Algebra. 513 {SPPU- May 06, Deo. 08, May 09, May 12, Dec.14, May 18, DEC. 15).e.0cnn 543 Reciprocal Relation. 7 513 Table:of Contents 5.102 Important Points Regarding Shape Factor. 513 (SPPU - May 07, Dec. 07, Dec. 10, May 12, Dec. 14. {5.103 - Application Shape Factor fr Standard Configurations and Radiant Heat Exchange... 516 ¥ Syllabus Topic : Heat Exchange Between Gray Bodies and Electical Analogy with Applications... -17 5.41 Heat Exchange between Gray BOdeS sensi 47 (SPPU - May 14, Dec. 15) 517 5-114 Net Radiation Heat Exchange trom A Surtace and Electrical Analogy : (Radiosity-adlation Approach) 5-17 (SPPU- May 08, Dec. 11, Deo. 12, May 14, Dec. 15, Dec. 16)... we AT 5.11.2 NetHeat Exchange betwoen Two Gray BodiesSuraces (SPPU - May 08, Dec. 11, Dec. 12, May 13, May 14, Dec. 15, Dec. 15) 548 5.12 Applicaton of Electrical Analogy to Thermal Radiation Heat Exchange Problems (SPPU - Dec. 06) 519 5.121 Two Paral infrite Piane Suraces .. 519 5.122 Radiation Heat Exchange between Two Concenttic Infntoly Long Grey Cylinders (SPPU - Dec. 10).....5-19 5.123 Radiation Heat Exchange between Two Concentric Spheres. 520 ¥ Syllabus Topic : Radiation Shiels 520 5.13 Radiation Shields ss 520 (SPPU - Dec. 06, May 09, May 11, May 12, Dec. 13, Doc. 15, May 16, Dec.16) Unit VI Chapter 6: Heat Transfer Equipments (Heat Exchangers, Condensation and Boiling) 6-1106-72 Syllabus : Condensation and Bolling : Boling heat transfer, ‘ypes of boling, poo! boiling curve and forced baling phenomenon, condensation heat transfor, flm wise and drop wise condensation {simple numerical eatment. Heat exchangers : Classification and applications, heat exchanger analysis ~ LMITD for parallel and counter flow heat exchanger, | etfectveness~ NTU method for parallel and counter flow heat ‘exchanger, cross flow heat exchanger, LMTD correction factor, design citeria for heat exchanger, Introduction to TEMA standards, Introduction 0 heat pipo, Intaduction to electronic cooling ~ Discussion on active and passive methods. ¥ Syllabus Topic : Introduction to Heat Transfr in (Condensation and Boling een 64 a 64 Syllabus Topic : Condensation Heat Transfer, Film wise ‘and. Drop wise Condensation. 62 62 Condensation sees 2 (GPPU - Dec. 13, May 14, May 15, Doc. 15, May 16)[EP Heat Transfer (SPPU) Table of Contents 621 622 623 6231 6232 6233 6234 63 631 64 at 642 643 644 65 66 661 er ert 672 673, 68 69 694 610 Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate... 3 ‘Condensation of Inned Plate ‘Condensation on a Single Horizontal Tube.. ‘Condensation on Horizontal Tube Banks. Calculation of Reynol's Number. Fimwise Condensation in Turbulent Flow. 67 Influence of Presence of Non-Condensabie Gases in Condens. 5) Syllabus Topi : Boling Heat Transfer and Types of Boling. se 7) Boling... — 68 Modesiethods of Boing (SPU - DEC. 12) conn 68 Syllabus Tope : Poo! Boling CUM nen 6 Regimes of Po! Boling... =) {SPPU-- Deo. 08, May 09, De. 10, May 11, Dec. 11, May 12, Dec. 13, May 15, Dec. 15) 7) tical Heat Fx ett (SPPU-Dec. 13, Dec. 2014, May 15, Dee. 15) CCoxteaton in Pool Boling... en Cited Fins 4 OF a. so Bt2 ‘Stable Film Poo! Boling sn 62 ‘Syllabus Topic : Forced Boing Phenomenon on 642 Forced Convection Boling sen AB (SPPU-May 13, Dec. 16) Syllabus Topic : Classification and Applications of Heat Exchangers. see AB Definition and Appication of Heat Exchangers 618 Factors Considered in Design of Heal Exchangers... 6-18 Ciasstcation of Heat Exchangers. von 218 Heat Exchangers according o Flow Arrangements of Fis. a 618 Heat Exchangers According to Heat Transfer Process 619 Heat Exchangers according to Geometry of Construction (SPPU - May 06, May 07, May 08, May 09)... 620 “Torporature Distibuton in Heat Exchangers enn. 621 (SPPU- Dec.16) ‘Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) 62 (SPU - Dec. 08, May 09). Energy Balance Equation in Heat Exchanger n 6-24 Fouling Factor (SPPU - Dec. 05, May 07, Dec. 12)..6-24 Syllabus Topie : Heat Exchangers Analysis~ LMTD for Pralland Counter Flow Heat Exchangers, LMTD Correction Factor. 625 ent eats nz 6i13 Bald 6.12 6.124 6122 6.123 6124 6a 6.14 6141 6.15 6.151 6.152 6.183. ‘Analysis of Hoat Exchangers. 6.25 ‘Log Mean Temperature Diference for “Parallel Flow” (SPPU- Dec, 10. May 12, May 15, Dee. 16)... 6-26 Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference for *Countor- Flow" a sono RT (GPU - Dec. 06, Dec. 10, May 11, May 13, May 14, Dec.14, May 16) Logarithmic Mean Temperature Diference (LMTD) for Cross Flow and Mutipass Heat Exchanget8...... 6:28 ‘Special Cases and Comments... 629 Syllabus Topic : Etfeciveness ~ NTU Method for Parallel Flow, Counter Flow and Cross-fow Heat Exchangers sn BO ‘The Effectiveness ~ NTU Method 6-30 (SPPU-- Deo. 13, Dec. 14, May 15, Dec. 16) Effectiveness ofa Paral! Flow Heat Exchanger {SPPU- Dec. 13. May 16)... 632 Etfectveness of Counter low Heat Exchanger... 633 (SPPU - Dec. 11) Charts of Finding Effectiveness for Various “Type of Heat Exchangers... 6-34 Special Gases of Heat Exchangers 6-36 Syflabus Topic : Irroducton to Heat Pipe 637 Heat Pipe (SPU - Dee. 11, May 12, May 14, May 16) 637 ‘Syllabus Topic : Design Grteria for Heat Exchangers and ftrodution fo TEMA Standart... 6-38 Design Aspects of Heat Exchanger ‘and its Selection 6-38 TEMA Standard 6-39 Syllabus Topic: Inroduction o Electonic Coating - ‘Active and Passive Methods. 40 Cooling of Electronic Systems. 6-40 Ciasstcation of Cooling Systems. sent Passive Cooling Systoms.. son Al Active Cooling SyStEM8. nme sontIntroduction to Heat Transfer and Heat Conduction Without Heat Generation Syllabus : Introduction and Basic Concepts : Application areas of heat transfer, Modes and Laws of heat transfer, Three dimensional heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates and its simplified equations, thermal conductivity, Thermal diffusivity, Thermal contact Resistance. Boundary and initial conditions : Temperature boundary condition, heat flux boundary condition, convection boundary condition, radiation boundary condition. One dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat generation: Heat conduction in plane wall, composite slab, composite cylinder, composite sphere, electrical analogy, concept of thermal resistance and conductance, three dimensional heat conduction equations in cylindrical and spherical coordinates (no derivation) and its reduction to one dimensional form, critical radius of insulation for cylinders and spheres, economic thickness of insulation. Section I : Introduction and Basic Concepts Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer with Application Areas of Heat Transfer 141 and Heat Transfer Tn day to day life, we are encountered with transfer of various forms of energy and their conversion from one form to another. We have defined energy as its capacity to do work ie. its capacity to produce an effect especially to change of motion. The conversion of energy from one form to another may be partial or complete. It is based on the laws of thermodynamics. ‘The science of thermodynamics deals with the energy transfer and its effect on the condition of the system. Though the energy exists in various forms, however in engineering applications we are more concerned with the conversion of heat energy into work and vice-versa, However, in this text, we are primarily concemed with transfer of heat energy. ‘The heat is defined as the form of energy which can be transferred from one system (o another system across their boundaries due to temperature difference existing between the two systems, The amount of heat energy transferred across the system can be determined by the application of first law of thermodynamics involving work and other forms of energies. During heat transfer, it is observed that the heat energy always flows in direction from higher temperature medium to lower temperature medium and the transfer of heat energy stops once both the mediums reach to their equality of temperature. Thus the driving force of transfer of heat energy is temperature difference and the rate of heat transfer increases with the lemperature gradient/difference. However, there are many engineering applications where it is essential to know the rates of heat transfer and the temperature distribution under steady and transient conditions in designing the various components of a system. The science which deals with the determination of rates of transfer of heat energy is known as heat transfer, From the above discussions, it is evident that there exists a major difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer. ‘The thermodynamics deals with the relation between the heat energy and the other forms of energy especially the work and internal energy. While the heat transfer is primarily concerned with the rates of heat transfer only. ‘The knowledge of the subject of heat transfer helps us to determine the following : (The rates of heat transfer at given temperature difference. increase inFP reat ‘Transfer (SPPU) 1-2 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. Gi) Time taken to affect the desired amount of heat | All modes of heat transfer require the existence of energy. temperature difference and the heat is always ii) The surface area needed to transfer given amount of heat énergy and (Gv) The temperature distribution across the system. This knowledge gained ultimately leads us to the design of various components/systems. Syllabus Topic : Application Areas of Heat Transfer 1.1.1. Applications of Heat Transfer ‘The knowledge of the heat transfer is applicable to all branches of engineering. Some of the engineering applications where the design of systems are based on the rates of heat transfer are 1. Design of heat exchangers, ducts ete in refrigeration and air conditioning. 2. Design of cylinders, radiators ete in internal combustion engines. 3. Design of combustion chambers and cooling of blades for gas turbine power plants. Design of motors, generators, transformers etc 5. Design of steam generators, condensers, cooling towers and other heat exchangers in thermal and nuclear power plants. 6. Design of solar collectors and other related equipments. 7. Design of furnaces, space vehicles and various components of chemical processes ete. 8. Various electronic systems like computers, TV, VCR ete. 9, To prevent creation of thermal stresses in concrete structures during curing. 10. Heat treatment of metals to obtain the desired properties of materials etc. Syllabus Topic : Modes of Heat Transfer 1.2 Modes of Heat Transfer @.. How does the heat conduction diets trom convection? (Dec. 08) ‘The heat can be transferred from one substance to another substance by the following three modes : 2. Convection’ 1. Conduction; Radiation transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. Conduction of heat can be defined as the transfer of heat from one part of the substance to another part of the same substance without appreciable motion of ‘molecules, The conduction can take place in solids, liquids and gases. The process of heat convection is due to the capacity of moving matter to carry heat energy. The transfer of heat by convection takes place between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas layer that is ‘in motion. In case the fluid is at rest then the transfer of heat between the solid surface and the adjacent layer of fluid is purely by conduction. ‘The process of heat transfer by radiation is due to the electromagnetic radiation emitted in a wavelength band between 0.1 y. to 100 yp (11 = 10° m) solely as a result of the temperature of a surface. Therefore, the transfer of heat energy of radiation does not require the presence of any material medium as in case of heat transfer by conduction or convection. Tn a physical problem, rate of heat transfer is controlled by the combined effect of all the modes of heat transfer ie, by conduction, convection and radiation in varying degree. However, solution of a problem on heat transfer involves the identification of the major modes of heat transfer as compared to other modes of negligible heat transfer. To illustrate how all the three modes are involved, let us consider the case of transfer of heat from the furnace of boiler to the water flowing in the tubes. In this case the heat is dissipated by the flue gases to ‘metal surface of tube both by radiation aind convection. ‘This heat is further transferred by conduction across the thickness of tube to its inner surface and further it is transferred by convection and radiation to water in the tubes. 1.3 Mechanism of Heat Transfer by Conduction ‘The process of heat conduction has been defined as the transfer of heat energy through the substances without any appreciable motion of the molecules from the region of high temperature to the region of lower temperature(BF peat Transfer (SPPU) 13 Intro. to Heat Tran, & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. This mode of heat transfer by conduction is have large number of free electrons which accomplished via the following two mechanisms : move and vibrate in their lati. These solids : are called metals. For this reason the (By Lattice Vibrations materials which are good electric conductors (i) By Transport of free Electrons are also good heat conductors eg. silver, copper, aluminium etc. (By Lattice Vibrations 1.4 Basic Definitions Relating to Heat © The molecules of a substance continuously Transfer vibrate in random orientation about same | ——S*St 4 ____ mean position. These vibrations are called as lattice vibrations. © We know that the kinetic energy (K.E.) of the molecules in case of liquids and gases is due to their random translational, rotational and vibrational motions. However, the solids | 4.4.1 Heat Transfer Rate and Heat Flux only vibrate in their lattice. The temperature of the substance corresponds to its K.E. ic. higher is the average K.E. of molecules, higher will be the temperature of the substance. 1. Heat Transfer Rate and Heat Flux 2. Steady State 3. Unidirectional Heat Flow ~ Heat has been defined as the form of energy in transit, for which the driving force is the temperature difference. Heat is never contained in a body, it is only recognized when it crosses the boundaries of a system, - The amount of heat energy transferred during a process over a given period of time is denoted by etter Q (Joules) while the amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat transfer rate, Q (J/s). Therefore, t © The molecules of solid materials while vibrating, they collide with each other and the molecules having higher K.E., transfer some its energy by impact to adjacent molecules having lower K.E. This type of energy transfer will continuously takes place through substance as long as there exists a temperature gradient. Therefore, Q = [Q-dt Soules 4.) © “The rate of heat transfer due to lattice 0 vibration depends upon the rate of collision where, ‘t'represents the time interval during which between the molecules.” the total heat transfer Q is to be determined. (ii) By Transport of free Electrons ~The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to . the direction of heat transfer is called the heat flux © The mechanism of heat conduction and the mechanism of transport of electric current are both highly dependent upon the flow of free a= Q (Wim?) 1.4.2) electrons, A where ‘A’ represents the heat transfer area. rate, ic © The valence electrons in the outer most orbit of an atom get excited on availability of |[ Note: “Q’ has been used in general in the text as heat transfer rate until itis specified. energy. They overcome the binding force to become free and move within the boundaries | 4.4.9 Steady State of the solid, These electrons are called free or electrons. A large number of free electrons move about in their latice and import their energy from higher level to lower level. ©The process of heat conduction occurs in all substance viz solids, liquids and gases. The pure conduction is found only in solids. The solids which are good electric conductors 13, May 14 (Q. Differentiate between steady state and unsteady state heat transfer. Give examples of each. (Dec. 13, May 14) ~ A system is said to be under steady state if.the temperature within the system at any specific location or surfaces remains constant and it does not change with time.EEF teat Transfer (SPPU) 14 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. - Since the internal energy of a system is the function of temperature, it implies that the internal energy of the system remains constant under steady state. It also suggests that the rate of heat energy into the system must be equal to the rate of heat energy out of the system. For example the cenergy transfer in heat exchangers, flow of current in conductors, flow of fluids in pipes ete. - Under unsteady state heat transfer, the temperature varies with time, thus it is the function of both location and time. For example the cooling of automobile engine, and freezing of food in refrigerators, heat treatment of metals by quenching etc. 1.4.3 Unidirectional Heat Flow — _Assystem said to have unidirectional heat flow if the heat transfer in other directions is negligible eg. transfer of heat in a slab or plate whose temperature depends on time and varies only in one direction. — Other examples are the heat flow in pipes and spheres in which the temperature varies in radial direction. — Thus we can define the unidirectional heat flow as the flow of energy along any one of the axes with respect (0 the co-ordinate system used for evaluation of heat transfer rates. Syllabus Topic : Laws of Heat Transfer and Thermal Conductivity 1.5 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction SEA (2. Stale and explain Fourie’ law of heat conduction. (Aug. 15 (In Sem), Fourier in 1822 had proposed the emperical law of heat conduction based on general observations which is called as the Fourier’s law of heat conduction. Statement It can be stated as follows : ae ate normal to the direction the feniperatire oe in the: For the heat flow in X-direction, mathematically it ccan be expressed as : Qaead 15.1) where, Q = Heat transfer rate (1/6 or W) in given direction. A " ‘Area of heat flow normal to heat flow direction (m’). aT = Temperature difference between two faces of a block of thickness dx (°C ot K). dx = Thickness of solid body (m). a a = Temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow (K/m).. Thus, Q =- (1.5.2) Heat flux, q = y 15.3) where k is the sign of proportionality called coefficient of thermal conductivity of material. Negative sign in Equation (1.5.2) appears due to the fact that dT is negative in the direction of heat flow ile. +ve X-direction because the heat always flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. It also implies that the value of k is positive (Refer Fig. 1.5.1). Fig. 15.1 1.5.1. Units of Thermal Conductivity, k ‘Thermal conductivity k has units which can be determined from Equation (1.5.2) as follows : Q-(W) x dx (m) EUS A (im) xdT Cor K) =k AG =-(1.5.4)[Br Heat Transter (SPPU) 15, Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. 1.5.2 Definition of Thermal Conductivity of a Material ‘Thermal conductivity is the ability of material to conduct heat through it. It can also be defined as the amount of heat flow rate per unit area normal to the direction of heat flow through unit thickness of the material per unit temperature difference. 1.5.3. Thermal Conductivity of Materials Thermal conductivity varies widely for various engineering materials and it is the function of temperature, density, structure etc ‘Thermal conductivity of few materials is given in Table 1.5.1. Table 1.5.1 : Thermal conductivity of materials, k at 0°C Sr. ‘Material °° Thermal No. conductivity | OWimk) 1. | Metals Silver (pure) 417 Copper (pure) 386 Aluminium (pure) 202 Magnesium m Tungston 166 Zine (pure) 2 Brass 108 Iron (pure) B Tin 65.9 ‘Wrought-iron (0.5% C) 9 Steel (C= 05%) 55 Steel (C = 1%) 4B Steel (C= 1.5%) 36 Lead 35.1 2._ | Non-Metallic solids Marble 2.11029 Brick common 134 Brick, fire clay 0.96 Concrete 0.88 Glass 075 3. | Liquids Mercury 8.20 _ | Water 0556 Engine oil (SAESO) 0.147 Freon-12(CClyF, ) 0.073 Gases Hydrogen 0.169 Helium 0.141 ‘Water vapour (Saturated) 0.0205 Carbon di-oxide 0.0146 Air 0,024 5. | Insulations Asbestos 0.046 Glass fibre 0.043 Cork 0.039 Felt blanket 0.03 Polystyrene 0.027 Urethanefoam (RUF) 0.026 Silica powder 0.0017 15.4 Important Points Regarding Thermal Conductivity of Materials '@. Write a note on : Variable Thermal Conductivity (Dec. 11, Dec. 13)| Following important points may be noted with regard to thermal conductivity of various materials under different conditions : Thermal conductivity in materials Order of thermal conductivity in various materials . Mechanism of heat conduction Effect of Variation of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity of gases Effect of Temperature on Thermal conductivity of liquids Anistropic and isotropic Materials Dependence of Thermal conductivity k on Temperature Assumptions in Fourier’s law of heat conductionEF oat Transfer (SPPU) 1. 2 3. CeIn la. How does the thermal conductivity of an insulating ‘Thermal conductivity in materials ‘Thermal conductivity of metals is mainly due to flow of free electrons while in case of other solids and fluids it is due to molecular vibration/collisions. (Refer section 1.3) Order of conductivity in various materials Thermal conductivity of materials in decreasing order is as follows (Refer Table 1.5.1) Metals -> Non-Metallic solids + Liquids > Gases Mechanism of heat conduction co The heat transfer in solids is both by transport of free electrons and by lattice vibrations o But the transfer of thermal energy in solids (metals) mainly depends upon the transport of free-electrons, for this reason, the materials which are good electrical conductors are also good heat conductors. Effect of Variation of Temperature on ‘Thermal Conductivity SEM ‘material vary with temperature ? Explain with the help of suitable examples and sketches, (May 12) © The heat conduction in solids is both by transport of free electrons and lattice vibrations, When the temperature of metals increases, the lattice vibrations impede the motion of free electwons. © Due to this the thermal conductivity of most of the pure metals decreases with increase in temperature. ‘© Most non-metals are poor conductors of heat transfer thus they have low thermal > conductivity and are called as thermal insulators. ‘0 Whereas the thermal conductivity of alloys and insulating materials, having few free electrons, increases with increase in temperature because their heat conduction largely depends upon the lattice vibrations. It 1 implies that (K)peui & 7 804 (K)gop need © T: 16 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. “Teal conductivity. OWING Fig. 15, Note that mercury is an exception for the above statements. The thermal conductivity of mercury increases with the increase in temperature. ‘The variation of thermal conductivity of metals and non-metal with change in temperature is shown in Fig. 1.5.2(a) and (b) respectively. ‘Aur, 0 100° 200° 300 400 500 Temperature "C (a) Metals Ferrel Fro Dock [aasbestoa 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 860 lemperature (b) Non-metals Variation of thermal conductivity of solids with temperature 5, Effect of temperature on thermal conduc ity of gases The transport of heat energy by conduction in liquids and gases is due to random motion of molecules exchanging energy and momentum. The kinetic energy of molecules is the function of temperature. When the molecules of higher temperature region collide with ‘molecules of lower temperature region, they loose their K.E by collisions.FP eat Transtr (SPPU) M17, Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen, © Therefore in case of gases the thermal conductivity of ideal gases increases with the increase in temperature since at higher temperatures the molecules will have higher rate of collisions. © The variations of thermal conductivity of gases with change in temperature is shown in Fig. 1.5.3(@) ae rosy Thermal conductivity, k (Wink) 100 200 300 400500 Temperature (°C) (a) Gases, cagreal ae : ees 0 5 i010 200250 Teapot (6) (b) Liquids Fig, 1.5.3 : Variation of thermal conductivity of gases and liquids with variation in temperature 6. Effect of Temperature on Thermal conductivity of liquids © The mechanism of heat conduction in liquids is complex but it is similar to gases. However, the molecules of a liquid are more closely spaced compared to gases and the molecular force field exerts a strong influence on energy exchange between molecules. Thus the thermal conductivity of liquids is both the function of pressure and temperature. © _Itis observed that the thermal conductivity of liquids tends to decrease with increase in ‘temperature (water being an exception) due to decrease in density with increase in tempetature. The variation of thermal conductivity of liquids with change in temperature is shown in Fig. 1.5.3(b). 7. Anisotropic and Isotropic Materials SPPU - May 09, Dec.11, May 12, Dec. ST 1Q.. Explain the aitference between isotropic and an isotropic materials, (May 09) |Q. "Explain : Isotropic and Anisotropic Materials (Dee. 12, May 14) © Thermal conductivity also depends on grain structure of materials. Some materials like wood have different thermal conductivity in X, Y, Z directions. Such materials are called an-isotropie materials. rm o The materials having same thermal conductivity in all directions are called isotropic materials. 8 Dependence of Thermal conductivity k on Temperature can be written as k = K(l+a-T) -AL5.5) where ky = Thermal conductivity at 0°C (W/mK) = temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity (per °C) T temperature (°C) ‘a’ is positive for non metals and insulating materials and ‘ais negative for pure metals. 9. Assumptions in Fourier’s law of heat conduction are (i) Heat flow is unidirectional under steady state conditions. i) The temperature gradient is linear and constant, (iii) There is no internal heat generation (iv) The material is homogeneous and isotropic. 1.6 Heat Conduction Through a Wall/Slab_ Consider a wall of surface area A of thickness x as shown in Fig. 1.6.1. Let Q be the heat transfer rate in X-direction as shown and ‘k’ be the the conductivity of material.a Heat Transfer (SPPU) Fig. 1.6.1 : Heat conduction through a wall Rewriting the Fourier’s law of heat conduction from Equation (1.5.2), ar Heat transfer rate, Q = —k-A- Gy Integrating between boundary conditions : () Atx=0,T=7, Gi) Atx=x,T=T, or, Heat flux, 1.7 Convection It is observed that the fluids are always in direct physical contact with solids. Due to this, heat transfer always takes place from the heated solid surface to the colder fluid or from the hotter fluid to the cold solid surface as a consequence of the motion of the fluid relative to solid surface. ‘The process of heat transfer between the solid surface and a fluid flowing past the surface is called convection. In order to understand the concept of convective heat transfer, let us consider a hot vertical wall in contact with cold air as shown in Fig. 1.7.1. Heal Fig. 17.1 : Natural or free convection intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond, Without Heat Gen. To Fhe = ea tow ee = Whe by foce WZ Fig. 1.7.2 : Foreed convection 1.7.3 : Heat conduction through a fluid film It will be observed that with the lapse of time, the layer of cold air in contact with surface is heated by hheat conduction through the wall surface and the density of air decreases. Due to density difference, a buoyant force results and it causes the heated air to rise which is replaced by the fresh cold air . This process is repeated continuously and sets up natural convection current, This method of heat transfer is called the natural or free convection which is due to the circulation of fluid by virtue of natural difference in densities of cold and hot fluids To improve upon the rate of convective heat transfer, the external force such as fan and blowers are used to set up convection currents as shown in Fig. 1.7.2. In this case the heat transfer is called by Forced convection. . 1.7.1 Coefficient of Convective Heat Transfer In case of heat transfer by convection (natural or forced), there exists a very small fluid film adjacent to the wall surface of thickness 5, where the temperature varies from wall surface temperature, Ty to outer film temperature, T., as shown in Fig. 1.7.3. Heat is transferred by conduction through film from wall surface to cold air. Let fy be the thermal conductivity of this film. ‘Then we define the coefficient of convective heat transfer or film conductance, h as the ratio. of thermal conductivity of the film to its thickness. ‘Therefore, coefficient of convective heat transfer, ‘Thermal conductivity of film , ky h =~" Film thickness, 8 (LTD)Heat Transfer (SPPU) 19 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen, The value of 6 decreases with increase in fluid velocity. For this reason the convective heat transfer by forced convection is more than the heat transfer by natural convection, ‘The value of ky is low for gases as compared to the liquids. 1.7.2 Newton’s Law of Cooling Sa May 12, May 14, Bn TEES la. State and explain Newton's law of cooling (May 12, May 14, Aug. 15 (In Sem.)) The rate of convective heat transfer between a surface and the fluid was first suggested by Newton and is known as Newton’s law of cooling. ‘The Newtons law of cooling states that the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the surface area perpendicular to heat flow direction and the temperature difference between the wall surface temperature T,, and the fluid temperature, T_, in the dicection perpendicular to heat flow direction. Q = A(Ty-T.) (Assume T, > T..) or = Q = h-A-(Ty-T.) (1.7.2) ‘Where ‘h’ is the constant of proportionality called the coefficient of convective heat transfer or film conductance. Units of hare W/m’K. Rewriting the Equation (1.7.2) in the form, (1-T.) * (4) (@) Convective thermal resistance, ToT. 1 R= "QO “ha Where, jr represents the thermal resistance, Roe offered by the film due to heat transfer by convection. ‘The film conductance, h is the function of many variables such as shape, dimensions of the surface, velocity of fluid, density, temperature, viscosity and specific heat of fluid, coefficient of thermal expansion and coefficient of thermal conductivity i.e. h = f(p,V,LD,u,C,,k) (1.7.3) (1.7.4) The range of convective heat transfer coefficient for liquids and gases is given in Table 1.7.1 ‘Table 1.7.1 : Coefficient of convective heat transfer, h (W/m'K) <2) {Process | n (Wink) 1. Natural convection Stil gases 41025 (i) iquids 40010900 2. Forced convection Air 2510 100 i) Liquids 100 to 3600 (i) Boing tiuids 2000 to 25000 (v) Condensation of vapours | 4000 to 25000 1.8 Radiatior All bodies radiate heat. Radiation is the rate of heat transfer by means of electromagnetic waves that are emitted in the wavelength band between 0.1 and 100 micrometer solely as a result of the temperature of its surface. Thermal radiation being the propagation of electromagnetic waves, it does not require any medium for this propagation. If two bodies are at different temperatures, the hotter body sends radiations to colder body and the colder body sends radiations to hotter body. As a result the hot body gets cooled and the cold body is heated ‘The intensity of radiations emitted by a body depends on the nature of the body and its temperature. Out of the total radiations falling on a body, a part of its is reflected at the surface. (the fraction being indicated reflectivity, p) a part of it is absorbed while travelling along the depth of the body and produces heat ( denoted by absorbtivity, o ) and the remainder radiant energy is transmitted through the body (denoted by transmissivity, y ) Therefore, p+a+y = 1 (1.8.1) A body which absorbs entire radiations is called a black body. In this case, p 0, hence o = 1, A black body is also best radiator. ‘The bodies which are opaque (usually, solids), the radiant energy falling on it is either absorbed or reflected. In this case y = 0, therefore, a + p = 1. In certain materials like gases and glass, the entire radiant energy falling on them is transmitted. In this case, =p =O and y= 1.EEF Heat Transter (SPPU) 1-10 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond, Without Heat Gen. The body which reflects the entire radiant energy is called the white body. For such bodies, o = y = 0, thus p = 1. Such bodies are also called as diathermanous bodies. 1.8.1. Emissive Power (E) ‘The emissive power of any surface is defined as. the energy emitted by the surface per unit area per unit time. It's unit are W/m’, 1.8.2 Emissivity (¢) Emissivity is defined as the ratio of emissive power of any surface to the emissive power of a black surface at the same temperature, The value of emissivity ranges between 0 to 1. 1.9 Laws of Radiation 1. Wien'slaw ; 2. Kirchoff’s Law 3. Stefan-Boltzmann Law 1.9.1 Wien’s Law It states that the wavelength, 2,, corresponding to maximum energy is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the hot body. 1 Therefore Ay 7 ie. Age T = constant =0.0029mK — ...(1.9.1) 1.9.2 Kirchoff's Law It states that the emissivity of the body at a particular temperature is equal to its absorbtivity from the body at the same temperature. 3 Stefan-Boltzmann Law Baa te and explain Stefan Boltemann law of radiation, (Aug. 15(In Sem.) PAT ES) This law states that the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to fourth power of its absolute temperature ie. a= ForareaA, Qe A-T* Q=aA-T (1.9.2) q_ = Emissive power or heat flux ( W/m? ) A. = Radiating area (m°) Q_ = Rate of heat energy radiated (W) 0 = Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant = 5.67x 10 * Win -K* Equation (1.9.2) holds good for black body only. A body having emissivity less than 1 and it is same for all wavelength is called gray body. Its absoptivity is equal to emissivity. Fora gray body Q =e0-a-T (1.9.3) here, € is called emissivity as defined in section 1.8.2 Now consider a body of surface area A at temperature T, kept in infinite surroundings at temperature T, (‘T, > T, ). The exchange of energy by radiation from a solid to its surroundings can be written as : Q=e-0-A(T,-T,) Algo, Q = €-0-A(T,-T, )(T)+T;)(T)-T) —-)__ agg Ue-o- A(T 47, )(T4T) (1.9.4) In the above equation, the denominator represents the radiation thermal resistance, Note : The emissivity for black body, ¢ = 1 Syllabus Topic : Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation in Cartesian Coordinates and Thermal Diffusivity 1.10 General Heat Conduction Equation in Cartesian Co-ordinates ;PPU - Dec. 08, Dec. 10, Dec. 12, May 14, May 15} Tae Z 10. Derive three dimensional general heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates. for anisotropicFig. 1.10.1 : Volume element for determining general heat conduction equation Refer Fig. 1.10.1. Consider'a small rectangular volume of sides 8x, Sy and Sz parallel to the three axes in medium, in which temperature is varying with location and time. Let T denote the temperature at centre of this elemental volume. Also, let there be internal heat generation at the rate of g watt per unit volume (W/m) due to heat source. Let the material be anisotropic implying that thermal conductivities have values k,, k, and k, in x, y and z directions respectively. Consider that heat is entering and leaving this volume through its six faces. Consider the heat flow in X-direction : Heat entering the elemental volume per unit time normal to the area/face By &z at ‘x’ be dQ, and heat leaving the volume from opposite face Sy 8z at (x + dx) be Qa ane ‘As per Fourier’s aT Q=-kA ax Heat entering, dQ, = ~k, (By 52) 3T/Ax ‘The value of heat flow out of the element from right face can be obtained by expanding dQ, in Taylor's series and retaining the first two terms only. . Heat leaving, dQ.,5, =4Q, + /8x (dQ,) 8x + So, net heat flow into the element in X-direction/time, 6, AQ. = - 2 O,)8 a(, 5 a 2455 Sox af, ary, 5 26.3) ix By & (i) law of heat conduction (EP teat Transfer (SPPU) 144 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. Similarly, net heat flow into the element per unit time in y and z directions respectively are : a or 0,-0.5, = 2 (6, 2) bby 8 60,00. = 2 (eZ) bey 60 ‘Thus, net heat flow in to the element from all directions by conduction in certain time 8t will be, af, aT) a af, 7 F [rica Fl) ee Be.) Now consider that there is some heat source within the element which generates heat given as : & = heat generated per unit volume per unit time Volume = 8x-8y-8, Therefore, internal heat generation in time 8t. g- bx By Bz 5t (vy) Heat gained by the element from above will result into energy storage and will increase its temperature. C, = Specific heat of element material p= density 8T = Rise in temperature in time 6t The net heat storage in the element in time &t will be, (mC, AT) = (pV)C,8T = pC, ST &x by dz Let, o(vi) Energy Balance Equation Net heat conducted in to the element from all directions + Heat generated within the element = Energy stored in the element. [2D +3632 (oR)o By bz bt +g: 5x by 525t=pC, 8T- 8x By bz ...(1.10.1) Dividing the equation by 3x By 52 - Bt we get, 9(, TH), 9(, 2), 2, © a BCG AG a) Equations (1.10.2) is the three dimensional heat conduction equations in Cartesian co-ordinates for anisotropic material under unsteady state conditions. For isotropic material, k, =k constant. Equation (1.10.2) reduces to, az k = aaEPP rieat Transter(SPPU) 41412 Intro, to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. ( 1 P <) ‘The heat conduction Equation (1.10.3) becomes : where, == 4 (L103) ak a. a oe ) {Poisson's Equation) ...(1.11.1) : Where, ot represents the thermal diffusivity of the material, Itis given as : k ‘Thermal diffusivity, a = (1.10.4) pC, Significance of Thermal diffusivity The units of thermal diffusivity, a are m’/s. It indicates that larger the value of o, faster will be heat diffusion through a material. ‘The thermal conductivity of metal is many times greater than that of gases but the density of gases is much smaller than metals, for this reason the heat diffuses through gases almost at the same rate as it passes through the metals. Syllabus Topic : Simplified Forms of Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equatior Cartesian Coordinates 1.11. Special Cases of General Heat Conduction Equation ‘SPPU - lay 07, Dec. 08, Dec. 12, Dec. 13] ENED TSE! 1. Derive @ generat three dimensional heat conduction ‘equation jn Caitesian’ coordinate systetn. Reduce it as| (a) Poisson equation —(b) Fourier equation and (6) Laplace equation. (Dec, 12, Dec. 13; May 14, Dec. 14) Equation (1.10.2) represents the general heat state for (1.10.3) conduction equation under unsteady anisotropic materials and Equation represents the equation for isotropic materials (ie. kk, =k =k). This equation can be reduced for certain special cases as follows (il) No heat sources In absence of any heat generation or release of energy with in the body ie. g = 0, the Equation (1.10.3) reduces to : gr dt drt ar Bet tt enw a Mourier’sEquation)..(1.11.2) (iii) No heat source and steady state conditions In this case, g = 0 (no heat source) and a =0 (steady state), the Equation (1.10.3) reduces to : or ar ar ax ay ae or 0 [Laplace Equation} ...(1.11.3) vT =0 (L114) (iv) One dimensional heat conduction equation without heat generation under steady state Consider the heat flow in X-direction only with no heat generation (g = 0) and under steady state @ at ‘The Laplace Equation (1.11.3) reduces to : er eT ral 0 peli Bt ax’ ear a Syllabus Topic : Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates and Its Reduction to One Dimensional Form 1.12 Heat Conduction Equation in lindrical Co-ordinates Sa (i) (ii) (iii) ‘Steady state conduction No heat sources No heat source and steady state conditions One dimensional heat conduction equation without heat generation under steady state (iv) (I) Steady state conduction The system is said to be in steady state if the temperature of material at any point does not change with time i.e. 5 ‘oylindrcat oemne Consider an element having polar co-ordinates (, 8, 2). Three sides are dr, dz. and r- 48 as shown in Fig. 1.12.1. By substituting x = r- cos 8, y =r- sin 8 and z = z, the three dimensional heat conduction, Equation (1.10.3) reduces t #r1(ar). 1 or a Bear ara t (L121)[BF teat Transfer (SPPU) LA eee ‘Fig. 1.12.1 : Elemental volume in cylindrical co-ordinate for three dimensional heat conduction equation 1.12.1 Steady State One Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation (Poisson's Equation) Sa |Q. Writ three dimensional heat conduction equations tical reduce ito one dimensional form, (Dec. 11)| With a = 0 (Steady state) Equation (1.12.1) for one dimensional heat conduction for isotropic material reduces to : (1.12.2) or a a) a In case no heat generation ic. g = 0, Equation (1.12.3) reduces to : 1 af. ar th(eg) =o g (1.12.3) (L124) Syllabus Topic : Three Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation in Spherical Coordinates and Its Reduction to One Dimensional Form 1.13 General Heat Conduction Equation in Spherical Co-ordinates |@. Write three dimensional heat conduction equations in} ‘spherical coordinates and reduce it to one dimensional form, ee (Dee. 11) Consider a cylindrical differential element of isotropic material as shown in Fig. 1.13.1. It's co- ordinates are (r, 8, 6). By substituting x = rsinO-cos6, y in - sing and z =rsin@ 143 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen, in Equation (1.10.3) we get, nal 2) 1 Pat a)" Ping” 1 aT 8 oT = (130 + Fino age tk (1.13.1) For isotropic material with k = constant. Poisson's Equation : df pat) & nal? i) * (1.13.2) Equation (1.13.2) is applicable to one dimensional, steady state heat conduction with heat generation. ea ¥ Fig. 1.13.1 : Element for general heat conduction equation in spherical co-ordinates Section Il: Boundary and Initial Conditions Syllabus Topic : Temperature Boundary, Heat Flux Boundary, Convection Boundary and Radial Boundary Conditions 1.14 Boundary and Initial Conditions There will be the requirement of determining temperature distribution through a solid or fluid to design thermal systems. To work out this requirement, some physical conditions existing at the boundaries (faces) of the thermal systems should be known or measurable. Minimum two conditions would be required in any one direction of heat transfer, which are under steady state conditions and minimum one condition shall be necessary at the initial stage of time for thermal systems under transient condition of heat transfer. The two conditions specified for systems under steady state heat transfer, are called boundary conditions as there are specified at boundaries (faces) of the system. When a system is under transient conditions, the condition specified shall be at the commencement of heat transfer and is known as initial conditions.FP Heat Transfer (SPPU) 114 1.15 Types of Boundary Conditions ‘There are generally four types of boundary conditions, These are : (1) ‘Temperature boundary conditions {2) Convection boundary conditions ((3) Flux boundary conditions {4)_ Initial boundary conditions 4.15.1. Temperature Boundary Conditions SEE a mee : : 1a. Write a note on temperature boundary condition. (Aug. 15(1 sem.) May 16, Dec. 15) Ifthe heat conduction is taking place across a wall of thickness L (Fig. 1.15.1), then to find out heat flow rate and temperature distribution through wall thickness L, we should be able to either measure the temperatures T, and ‘T, of isothermal faces or these should be specified Hence these boundary conditions can be written for x-direction as ()Atx=0,T=T, 2) Atx=L,T= T, Time t is not applicable to steady state condition, Tek ; : |Q..- Write a note on convection boundary conditions. (Aug, 14(In sem,), Aug, 15(n sem) ‘When face temperatures (T, and T;) are not known, 1 specified, convection boundary conditions are to be considered. In this case, fluid temperature Ty , Tuy. and convection heat transfer coefficients hy and h, are supposed to be known, In. this case, boundary conditions can be written as, Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. (dy Atx = 0, Heat convected _ Heat conducted into wall into wall hA(T1-T)heo = -a(Q) x20 0) Atrightfacex = L, Heat conducted __ heat convected upto face out from face —Tadeet a Fig. 1.15.2 1.15.3 Heat Flux Boundary Conditions Saal la. Write a note on heat ux boundary cor Heat flux is given as, ‘Two boundary conditions can be specified as : (1) Atlleft face, x =0 Heat flux entering the wall. 4 Fig. 1.153 (2) Atright face, x=L Heat flux leaving the wall, fi a =-k &) nL[teat Transfer (SPPU) 1.15 Intro, to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen, =0, is insulated, Suppose, one face, say Then flux qy =0 1.15.4 Initial Boundary Conditions Initial boundary conditions are applicable to transient heat transfer, when conditions are specified measured at the commencement of heat transfer i.e. at time t= 0. Time is not required to be considered in steady state heat transfer. Initial boundary condition can be specified, for example, in heat treatment of metal process, where metal piece has been heated to certain known temperature T; and it is suddenly placed in fluid at temperature T_, for quenching (T,. > T.), then boundary condition Written as; at time t= 0, T=, Section Ill : One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction without Heat Generation Syllabus Topic : One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction without Heat Generation 1.16 One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction without Heat Generation Previously we have discussed the three modes of heat transfer. In actual heat transfer problems, the heat transfer usually takes place by all the three modes of heat transfer ie. by conduction, convection and radiation. In case the heat conduction is considered in one ditection only with negligible heat transfer in other directions, the problem is considered as one dimensional heat transfer problem. We shall now discuss the problem of rate of heat transfer as combined modes of heat transfer under steady state (je. the temperature within the system at any point remains constant and it is invariant with time) without heat generation within the system. Problems associated with combined heat transfer can easily be solved by using the concepts of electrical analogy and the overall heat transfer coefficient. Syllabus Topic : One Dimensional Heat Conduction in Plane Wall 1.17. Analysis of One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction without Internal Heat Generation ‘The cases in which there is no internal heat generation have already been dealt in previous sections. However, we shall now verify those results by using the differential equations derived above. 1.17.1 One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction through Plane Wall or Infinite Slab without Heat Generation Consider a plane wall or infinite slab of thickness “L’ of material having thermal conductivity k with its faces maintained at T, and T,. (One dimensional heat conduction equation [Using Laplace Equation (1.11.3) with heat conduction in X-direction only} can be written as at oo i ex i, On integration, g 2G ) On integrating again, © T = C,x+C, Equation (ii) represents the slope of temperature profile ie. slope is constant and Equation (ii) represents the temperature profile which is linear. x20 bi Fig, 1.17.1 : Infinite slab Boundary conditions are: (Refer Fig. 1.17.1) e Using boundary condition at x = Equation (iii) we get T, =C,x0+G ie. Applying boundary condition at x = L, T =, in Equation (iii), Cay[€2T Heat Transfer (SPPU) 1416. Intro, to Heat Tran, & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen T = OxL+C,=CxL+T, Inner surface of eylinder is at temperature T, and T-1, outer atT;. G =e AV) On substituting the values of C, and C) in Equation (ii) we get, ) x+T, T= (2 L This equation gives the temperature distribution in the slab. From Fourier’s law of heat conduction, aT kA dx But {jy = Cy from Equation (i). On substituting the value of C, from Equation (v) we get, at _ oh rian =kA e117.) Thermal resistance, R= (147.2) Heat flux, (1.17.3) ‘Above Equations (1.17.1) and (1.17.3) are same as obtained by using Fourier’s law of heat conduction in the previous chapter. 1.17.2. One Dimensional (Radial) Steady State Heat Conduction through Hollow Cylinder without Heat Generation [SPPU - Dec. 10 Refer Fig. 1.17.2 Consider a hollow cylinder of inner radius 1, and outer r, of length L of a material having conductivity k. Fig. 1.17.2: Heat conduction through hollow cylinder Conduction equation for one dimensional (radial) Heat flow (without g) will be : [Refer Equation (1.12.4)]... (a) On integrating the above equation with respect (i) d ar ie. (ii) tor a 0 oe ae On integrating the above equation again, T =CinrtC, Boundary conditions are : (a) At r=n, T=T, @) On substituting the above boundary conditions in Equation (iv) we get, (iii) Cy «--(iv) At ren, T=T, T, =Cjinn+C, w) T, =Clnn+C, vi) On subtracting Equation (v) from Equation (vi), : on ee , & =iesmns vii) ng, Using the value of C, in Equation (v) we get, _-T) 7 xin, +C, aG}) - G =T- (viii)[BP Heat Transter (SPPU} 117 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. On substituting the values of C, and C, in Equation (iv), (%-T) T= ln wG oG) Xi -1, T Inr+T,~ f - 2 tan n off) 1-1, “aon t ALITA) tn Equation (1.174) gives the temperature distribution in hollow cylinder in radial direction without heat generation. From Fourier’s law of heat conduction, Q =k ad where A = 2nrL C a => From Equation Gi] c Q = -k-2erh-—=-2kL-C, On substituting the value of C,, (LTS) Hence, thermal resistance for hollow cylinder n) a) 1.17.21 Logarithmic Mean Area (LMA) for Hollow Cylinder Tn Fourier law of heat conduction equation is, aT Q =-k AG R= --(1.17.6) In this equation the heat transfer area, A = 2nr- L changes with change in radius r unlike in case of infinite slab where heat transfer area remains constant. ‘Therefore, it is convenient to work out the mean area A,, for use in analogous formulae for slab, Rewriting Equation (1.17.5), 2nkL-AT_ AT i (3) a ) 1c fy ea(L177) ‘Where, A,, is the mean area which can be utilized in the formulae for slab. Multiplying and dividing the Equation (1.17.7) by (~1) we get, 2nkL (=n) 3 Gee Inf} fy _ KP @-n) AT a ‘Comparing the above equation with aT Q=k: Aa Gea py we ave, 2nL(e—ty oA Ag a at (1.17.8) ol) »() 1.17.3 One Dimensional (Radial) Steady State Heat Conduction through Hollow Sphere without Heat Generation Refer Fig. 1.17.3, consider a hollow sphere of inner radius 1, and outer r, of a material having conductivity k. Inner surface of sphere is at temperature T, and outer at T). Conduction equation for one dimensional (radial) Heat flow (without g) will be (Refer Equation (1.13.2)) TT Fig. 1.17.3 : Heat conduction through hollow sphere She) Padr\ dr, 0 @[GT Heat Transfer (SPPU) 1-18 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. d (adi ay | ie. (rf) =0 * then the heat transfer rales across the system can be calculated, ‘Syllabus Topic : Concept of Thermal Resistance and Conductance And Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 1.20 Thermal Resistances and Conductance ‘SPPU - May 16 |Q. Explain the concept of thermal Resistan 1.20.1 Heat Transfer in Plane Wall by Conduction From Fourier’s law of heat conduction in a plane wall shown in Fig, 1.20.1 Where, Conductive resistance, R aT Q =k AG Q-dx =-k-A-dT +) Boundary conditions are = (@ Atx=0, T=T, (b) Atx=xorL,T=T, el Fig, 1.20.1: Heat conduction in plane wall ‘On integrating the above equation within specified limits, (1.20.1) i x UL kATKA 1.20.2 Heat Transfer by Convection Consider the heat transfer by convection from a surface to fluid in the direction normal to surface of area A as shown in Fig. 1.20.2. Fig. 1.20.2 : Heat transfer of convection From Newton's law of cooling, he A+ (Ty-T.)BF teat ransier (SPPU) 1-20 Where, convective thermal resistance, nt (May 13, May 14, May 15) Heat flow rate through a composite wall and considering all modes of heat transfer (ie. by conduction, convection and radiation) can be expressed as : A -T) T-T Q=U-AT,-T)=—~ T= SR (1.20.3) UA Where, ‘T, and T, are temperatures at inner and outer sides of composite wall respectively and T, > T,, U — Overall heat transfer coefficient ER= zk = Overall or combined thermal resistance of the wall ‘The overall heat transfer coefficient, U can be defined as the ability of a composite wall to transfer heat rate through it Syllabus Topic : One Dimensional Heat Conduction in Composite Slab 1.21 Heat Transfer Problem for Composite Wall having Resistances in Series _ Consider a composite wall of thickness x, and x, of surface area A in the perpendicular direction to heat flow having hot fluid at temperature T, on one side and cold fluid of temperatire T, on other side (T, > T,) at shown in Fig. 1.21.1(a). (@) Heat transfer system Gt) (b) Equivalent electrical system Fig. 1.21.1 : Composite wall in series Let h, and h, be the coefficient of heat transfer of films for hot fluid and cold fluid respectively. ‘The heat transfer from hot fluid to cold fluid is subjected to four resistances as shown in equivalent electrical system in Fig, 1.21.1(b). KA’ RRA Total resistance, ER ~R,+R,4R,+R, T= T-%, “ Q=SR RAR AR AR, T, (1.21.1) (0.21.2) 1.21.1 Estimation of Intermediate ‘Temperatures in the System Since the heat transfer rate remains the same actoss the section under steady state, it follows that : KAM -T) Q= hA(E-T) =-— — 1 k, A(T,-T,) aS ER AM-T) ...(1.21.3) Using the above Equation (1.21.3), the intermediate temperature T,, T, and T; can be calculated. Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen.[FF teat Transfer (SPPU) 421 Intro, to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen 1.22, Heat Transfer Problem for T,-T, Composite Slab having Resistance | rR in Parallel ple ee ie TR RRR (1.22.1) Neglecting Convective Heat Transfer Composite slab with convective Heat transfer (combined resistance in series and parallel) 1) (b) Equivalent electrical system Fig. 1.22.1 : Composite wall in parallel Consider a heat transfer system as shown in Fig. 1.22.1(a) and its equivalent electrical system is shown in Fig. 1.22.1(b). Various resistances in the system are : x x Re GA “BA Let Q,, Qs, Q, be the heat transfer rates in slabs 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Then, x R=pa, ®& - ee Q B® “ But total heat transfer rate, Q = Qt QeQ ii) on Q = sR iii) Substituting the values from Equation (iii) and set ‘of Equation (i) in Equation (ii), we get, 1.22.2 Composite Slab with Convective Heat Transfer (Combined Resistance in Series and Parallel) (a) Heat transfer system (b) Equivalent electrical system Fig. 1.22.2 : Composite slab with convective heat transfer Refer Fig follows: 1.22.2. Various resistances are as R R =pA Where, A =A, +A, Equations for heat flow rate are : T-T, Q Q Combined resistance of the system can be calculated as follows : For resistances in parallel, 1 4 4 Ro+Ry r eee A)EF teat Transfer (SPPU) 1-22 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. 2 ER =R +R +R, (1.22.2) ‘The expanded view of the interface is shown in ae Fig. 1.223. The direct contact between the solid Q ie (1.22.3) | surfaces takes place at a limited number of spots and Syllabus Topic : Thermal Contact Resistance ———— 1.22.3 Thermal Contact Resistance STEER om |@. Explain Thermal contact resistance (Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 14, Dec. 15) Consider one dimensional heat flow through a ‘composite slab having two solid surfaces as shown in Fig, 1.223. The temperature profile through the solid surface at their interface experiences a sudden drop in temperature between two bodies as shown. This temperature drop across the interface is as result of thermal contact resistance. ‘This thermal contact resistance at the interface develops when the two surfaces do not fit tightly together and a thin layer of fluid (air or surrounding fluid) is filed between them. This contact resistance is the function of surface roughness, the pressure holding the two surfaces, the property of fluid and the interface temperature. psoas ‘Sold 2 Gas ‘between solds Expanded or ricepscopic view of inertace Fig. 1.22.3 : Contact resistance between two solid surfaces the void is filled by the surrounding fluid. The heat conduction through the fluid filling the voids is mainly by conduction, since there is no convection in such a thin layer of fluid and the radiation effects are negligible. In case the thermal conductivity of fluid filled in voids is less than the thermal conductivity of the solids, the interface acts as a resistance to heat ‘flow, called as thermal contact resistance. Syllabus Topic : One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction in Cylinder 1.23. Heat Transfer in an Infinitely Long Hollow Cylinder Consider a hollow cylinder of internal radius ry and external radius r, with respective internal and external temperatures of T, and T,, as shown in Fig. 1.23.1 Let, L be the length of cylinder and k is the thermal conductivity of eylinder. Heat transfer takes place radially. Consider a ring of radius r and thickness dr. 1.23.1 : Heat transfer in an infinitely Jong hollow eylinder From Fourier’ s law of heat condition Q =-bkaZ (But, A = 2nr-L) ar Q = -k- nny by 1, Q)S = -k ome Sar y T, Inkl. (1,—T,) on log. Be[€PP peat Transter (SPPU) Ty, =e Jona gi] 2meL (1.23.1) * Where, log, 2) | 2nkL represents the thermal resistance. Syllabus To} ne Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction in Sphere 1-23 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen, Syllabus Topic : One Dimensional Heat Conduction in Composite Cylinders 1.25 Heat Transfer through a Composite Cylinder with Conduction and Convection Paes ra TE |Q. Derive an ‘expression for heat transfer through] composite cylinder. with conductions and convection. | (ay 12) 1.24 Heat Transfer through a Hollow Refer Fig. 1.24.1 ~ Consider a hollow sphere of internal and external radius as r, and r, respectively with respective temperature T, and T,. Heat conduction isin radial direction. = Consider a ring at radius r of thickness dr. Surface area of sphere, A = 4° at 2aT Q =-k AG = ok ane Hence, 22 mee RS Ak Ey represents the thermal resistance! Fig. 1.24.1 : Heat transfer through a hollow sphere Refer Fig. 1.25.1 Cylinder 1 —oytnder 2 <> Fig, 1.25.1 : Heat transfer through a composite cylinder with conduction and convection Heat transfer can be determined for a composite wall by considering the thermal resistance of convective heat transfer at inner layer, thermal conductance of cylinder 1 and 2 and convective heat transfer at outer layer of cylinder length L. Resistance due to convection R, and Ry and conduction R, and R, are as follows 7,2 Gas trperature “T= Outside surrounding temperatuce Ry he Inn Ink L 5 ee R= (2) R 1 egeon in at Heat transfer rate through various layers is as follows 2nk L(T)-T) Q=h 2nr,L(-T)= (1.25.1) i -T.) Q= RAR, FR IR, (1.25.2)(Peat Transfer (SPPU) 1-24 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. Syllabus Topic : One Dimensional Heat Conduction in Composite Spheres T-T. «0 = RGR, (1.26.2) 1.26 Combined Heat Transfer by Conduction and Convection in Compound Sphere Refer Fig. 1.26. Consider a hollow sphere having gas a temperature T; and outside temperature is T,. Let Ty, Ty, Ty be the temperatures on inside surface, at interface of two spheres and T; at outer surface of sphere respectively. Fig. 1.26.1 : Compound sphere having heat transfer by conduction and convection 4nk, 1-7) Q Shea == r fi o, = Q Ah Gann -T) T-Ty = — (1.26.1) 4k; tt Be Ay where Aj=4mr, and A,=4a1, ae ck ee te Ah? 2S amtky tty (j-1) 1 = aes and R= iy Syllabus Topic : Critical Radius of Insulation for Cylinders and Spheres 1.27. Thermal Insulation EE ED EA aA eA ES |. Explain different types of insulating materials. (May 13) |Q. Explain desirable properties of Thermal insulating material (Dec. 13, May 14) — A heat insulting material is one which has low thermal conductivity. Thermal insulation is provided in thermal systems to reduce the heat losses For example, the steam generated in the boiler is, taken into pipes upto the steam turbine. To reduce the heat losses, the pipe is lagged with some form of insulating material. Required properties of insulating materials are: (tis able to withstand high or low temperatures. (i) Itshould have Jong life and could withstand rough handling ii) It must be easy to apply. (iv) Itis economical. (v) Itshould not have any fire risks. Various insulating materials used in practice are asbestos, glass and rock wool, cork, a man made plastic material like expanded polystyrene, magnesium carbonate etc. Coefficient of thermal conductivity of various ‘materials is given in Table 1.27.1. Table 1.27.1 : Coefficient of thermal conductivity (k) [Substance | k Substance | k |e | W/mK) (WimK) Asphalt | 0.75 Marble 13 Fire brick | 0.14 Cement 0.29 | | Glass 0.038 | | Glass 07s | wool | | Mica | 058 | [Asbestos | 0.15 | FGypsum | 030 | [Cork 0.042_| [Brick 07_| [Fibre 0.049 _| Wood 11_| [Cy 103 Concrete | 1.38 | [Sawdust | 0.07 | Plaster 0.80 _| -EP Heat Transtor (SPPU) 125 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen, 1.28 Critical Thickness of Insulation SEEMED 2. Application of insulation on cylinders la. eee ISPPU - May 07, Dec. 13, Dec. 1 [Q. Derive an expression for crtical racus of iaualon feral coyfinder using standard notations. (Deo. 13, Deo. 15) (May 15, Oct. 16 (In Sem.)) la. “What do you mean by critical radius of insulation ? : (May 13, Aug. 15 (In Sem.)) Purpose of insulation is to reduce the heat transfer rate but is it always true ? Let us examine. 1. Insulation in case of plane walls 2. Application of insulation on cylinders 1. Insulation in case of plane walls Consider the case of heat flow across a steel plate with a layer of insulation applied on it as shown in Fig. 1.28.1. Heat transfer rate without insulation, ears a= RH @ (Caria) Heat transfer rate with insulation, T,-T. . Cr rr ii) k-ATK-A ThA ‘Due to increase in thermal resistance of insulation equal to (a/k,- A), the value of Q, is always less than Q. It implies that the heat transfer rate will always reduce with insulation in case of plane walls. Fig. 1.28.1: Insulation on plane wall Consider heat flow from steel tube of outside radius of r,. This is insulated by a layer of insulation so that outer radius of insulation isn, Let the temperature of outside surface of steel tube be T,, conductivity of insulation be k (W/mK) and let this insulation be ‘exposed to atmospheric air at temperature T., with convective heat transfer coeflicient as h (Wim’K) and length of tube L meters. Refer Fig. 1.28.2. ‘mosphere ais " To Feet Pee Fig, 1.28.2 : Critical thickness ‘Now heat transfer rate from this insulated steel tube, (1.28.1) From the above equation it can be seen that ‘on increase of insulation i.e. ry heat flow rate Q may decrease or increase with increase in r, since conductive resistance n Wu 2nkL increase logarithmically but Jee . 1 linearly.[@2) Heat Transfer (SPPU) 1.26 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. ° as Fig, 1.28.3 : Variation of heat transfer w.rt. insulation radius © If we plot Q as a function of r, (Refer Fig. 1.283), we see that Q first increases with increase in r, and then decreases passing through a maximum value. © To find the value of r, for which Q is 4Q maximum, J should be equated to zero or 2 denominator of Equation (1.28.1) should be minimum, hence differentiating denominator with respect to r, and equating it to zero, we: have (*) ala) + ay [Oak thome-t| =? (1.28.2) 1; is called critical radius of insulation. 1.28.1. Important Aspects of Critical Radius of Insulation See) z Fea lo. Explain why an insula “higher current. carrying on la. Explain cittal radius of insult = With the increase in thickness of insulation (c,), conductive resistance increases logarithmically and convective resistance decreases linearly, hence total resistance first decreases, attains minimum value (corresponding to maximum Q) and then increases. = Critical radius is independent of tube/pipe radius. It only depends on conductivity of insulation and ‘n’ between exposed surface of insulation and its soundings (=!) = If the purpose of insulation is to reduce the heat transfer rate then outside radius of tube (¢,) should be greater than critical radius (t.). Example : Steel tubes carrying steam from boiler to turbine. = If purpose is to increase the heat transfer rate, then outer radius of tube (r,) should be less than critical radius (¢,). Example : Insulation over current carrying electric conductors/cables. = Heat transfer will always reduce on application of insulation on wall or similar structure as conductive resistance will increase with thickness of insulation while convective resistance will remain unchanged. Hence aspect of critical radius is not applicable. 1.29. Critical Thickness of Insulation in case of Spheres SACS PS Oct. 16 (In Sem.) 1@. Derive an expression for critical radius of insulation of ‘sphere. (Dec. 12, May 14, May 16, Aug 14 (in Sem), Oct. 16 (In Sem.)) Referring to Fig. 1.29.1, Consider of hollow sphere at outer radius 1, at temperature T, which is covered with an insulation of thickness (r, —r,) So that its outer radius in ry Iis subjected to convective heat transfer h having fluid temperature T,,.. Let k be the thermal conductivity of insulation.EF teat Transtor (SPPU) 1.27 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. Fig. 1.29.1 : Sphere with insulation Heat transfer rate across the sphere can be expressed as : \ =T.) Q (0.29.1) (=n) 1 tr 4nk-nn 4ngh ‘Where, conductive resistance due to insulation, mhoh = Gnknh R 1 Convective resistance to atmosphere, Rp = 7-7 mr, dQ For maximum heat transfer rate, = 0 2 d T-T Therefor, 3) Teme) 4nktn 4noh 4 T)-T. #) TOD, ak) * Geek Differentiating the denominator for its minimum value, 2k fom Sete (129.2) where, r, is called the critical radius of insulation. a Syllabus Topic : Economic Thickness of Insulation ————————— 1.30 Economic Thickness of Insulation Economic thickness of insulation is based on the net operating cost which is the sum of fixed operating cost and the production cost. When the insulation is provided for certain amount, The money is borrowed. The cost of depreciation and its cost of maintenance is called the fixed operating cost. This cost will obviously increase with increase in thickness of insulation. As the thickness of insulation is increased, the heat losses are reduced. It is corresponding to saving in cost of heat energy loss. It is called the production cost. Net operating cost Cost Foxe operating cost Production cost “Thickness oF station Fig. 1.30.1 : Economic thickness of insulation ‘A graph can be plotted between the cost taken on ‘Y-axis and thickness of insulation on X-axis as shown in Fig. 1.30.1 As discussed above, the fixed operating cost is almost linear which increases with increase in thickness of insulation while the production cost decreases. Tf we superimpose these two costs we get the net operating cost as shown in Fig. 1.30.1 The thickness of insulation, at which the net operating cost is minimum, is known as Economic thickness of insulation r,, 1.30.1 Pay Back Period The simple pay back period represents the time required in number of months years to recover the initial investment (first cost i.e. the capital cost) by considering the net annual savings. It is calculated as follows : . Simple Pay Back period (SPP) in year, First Cost or Capital Cost SPP = Yearly Benefits ~ Yearly Costs (130.1) Example If the capital cost is Rs. 100000/-and the yearly savings are at the rate of 25000/-. Then the simple pay back period equals ooo =4 years.EP Heat Transfer (SPPU) 1-28 Intro, to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. Smaller the payback period, more desirable is the project proposal. Advantages 1. It is simple in concept and easy to apply to various project proposals. Shorter the pay back period better is the proposal. 2. This concept is useful to energy managers. Note that this concept is a measure of projects capital recovery and not the profitability 3. This concept is useful in selecting the best investment out of the various proposals in respect of energy efficient technology, maintenance and other charges. 4. It favours those projects which generate more cash flow in the earlier years of investment as compared to projects which generate more cash flows in later years. Limitations L. It fails to consider the time value of money. 2. It ignores the cash flow beyond the pay back period, Explanation of time value of money Cash inflows in the payback calculations are simply added without discounting. However the principle of financial analysis requires that the cash flows occurring at different ; times can be added or substracted only after suitable compounding or discounting. Concept of Time value of money is referted to two evaluations i.¢. L. Present value (PV) of future money. 2, Future value (FV) of present money Let i = Rate of annual interest in percentage = Number of years in future. ‘Then the relation between FV and NPV is given by the equation. iY FV = nev (14755) e.g. Rs 1000 received one year from now at (FV) at 10% interest will have its present value as : -.-(1.30.2) nev = FE 1000 (1435) (i) = Rs, 909.09 only. Table 1.30.1 : List of Formulae k:A(T-T,) (QT). QE wee 6S Tay 2 where, jag = Conductive resistance, R Q=h-A(Tyw=T.) (4) 1 5 where, = = Convective resistance, Ry, Qee-o- ATS where Stefan Boltzmann's constant Q=e-0-AC-T) 1-1) © Ufe-o- A(T, +7) (T+T) ]=Rew Ra = Radiation thermal resistance. Fourier’s law eA -T)_ x Q=h-A(T,~T;) Heat Transfer through composite wall with convection 1 1 1 1 URSA * Gk A) Salk A) TRA =Rt Rt RR, Ty Q= RFR FRR, T,- Ty: Ty=T, TTR TOR Resistances in parallel alee Ry Ri Rate of heat flow in a hollow cylinder of length L(A = 2411) f ToT Take o> in) RaKL -T i-th id RgeR31-29 FF teat Transfer (SPU). ORS then anak 13. Critical thickness of insulation (@) In plane walls : Heat loss always reduces due to. additional ‘thermal resistance of insulation, hence, no critical thickness. k (b) Long cylinders : t= 1, =, = critical radius. | To reduce heat losses :r) > r, To increase heat transfer rates : t,< t, (© Spheres: 1, ak 1.31_ Solved Examples Example 1.31.1 The wall of a oven is 40 cm thick having its thermal conductivity of 0.7 WimK. The interior surface of the oven is maintained at a temperature of 800°C and the outside wall temperature is 200°C. The total surface area of wall of the oven is 2 m*. Find the thermal resistance, heat flow rate and the heat flux. Solution : Given : Thickness, x = 40 em =0.4 m; ‘Thermal conductivity, k= 0.7 WinK ; =2m. T, = 800°C; T, = 200% (i) Thermal resistance, R (ii) Heat flow rate, Q Mt) Th * (8) kx 800-200 = 80-200 no0W Ans. (ii) Heat flux, q Q_ a a= = p= 1050 Win? Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. Example 1.31.2 A boller is made of iron plates 12 mm thick. The temperature of outside surface is 120°C and that of the inner surface is 100°C. Calculate the mass of water ‘evaporated per hour if the heating surface area is 5 m° land thermal conductivity, k for iron is 84 WimK. Assume enthalpy of evaporation of water at 100°C is 2257 kJikg. Solution : Refer Fig. P.1.31.2. Given: Plate thickness, x = 12 mm = 12x 10? m. Outside temperature, T, = 120°C ; Inside temperature, T, = 100°C ; A=Sm';k=84WimK: Enthalpy of evaporation h,, = 2257 ki/kg. Heat will flow from outside to inner surface of boiler. This heat will be utilized to evaporate water inside the boiler at T, = 100°C. A=bm? outside 20°C x= 12mm Fig. P1312 Heat transfer rate, KA(T,-T,) _84x5 (120-100) x 12x10 = 700 x 10° W or I/s = 700 k's Let th = Rate at evaporation of water . fie utilized by water during exaporaton} = Heat transfer rate, Q mxhg =Q Q_ 700 700 = 3957 KWS= 357 x 3600 kg/hr 3 = T1165 kg/hr wo Ans,[BP Heat Transter (SPU) 1-30 Intro. to Heat Tran, & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen Example 1.31.3 Caloulate the heat transfer rate per unit area through a copper plate 0.045 m thick whose one face is maintained at 350°C and the other face at 50°C. ‘Thermal conductivity of copper is 370 Wim°C. Solutio Given : Thickness of plate, x = 0.045 m; T,=350°C; 7,=50°C; k=370 Wim°C Q Heat transfer rate per unit area, kA(T,-T,) a= Q 370350 50) =A 0.045 = 246.667 x 10° Wim? = 2466.667 kW/m? sw Ans, Example 1.31.4 Bia A plane wall is 15 om thick of surface area 4.5 m Thermal conductivity of the wall is 9.5 Wimk. The inner and outer surface temperatures of the wall are maintained at 150°C and 45°C respectively. Determine, () Heat flow rate across the wal. (i) Temperature gradient in the heat flow direction and (ii) Temperature of surfaces at 5 om and 10 om away from the inner surface. Solution : Given: Thickness, x = 15cm =0.15 m; A=45m’, k=9.5 Wink ; T, = 150°C; 1, = 45°C. Refer Fig. P. 1.314. (Heat flow rate across the wall, Q kKA(T,-T,) 95x45 (150-45) Qe = 015 Ams. Fig. P1314 Gi) Temperature gradient in the heat flow ion, aL direction, « From Fourier’ law of heat conduction, ar Q =-kAG 29925 95x45 = ~700°C/m (ii) Temperature of surfaces at x, and at x, = 10 cm = 0.1 m from inner surface. a _ @ dx ~ ~kKA~ Let Ty, and Ty, be the temperatures at respective surfaces at a distance x, and x. Since the heat transfer rate Q is constant throughout, under steady state conditions, it implies that : kA(T-Ta) 7 95x45 (150-Ty) fe 29925 = Ty = 115°C wAns, KA(T|-To) Q % 95x45 (150-T.) 29925 = Te = 80°C sn AnS. Example 1.31.5 ~ The wall thickness of the oven is 8.25 cm and thermal ‘conductivity of wall insulation is 0.044 WimK. The temperature of inner surface of the wall is 175°C. The energy dissipated by the electric coil within the oven is 40.5 W. Determine the area of wall surface needed perpendicular to heat flow so that the temperature on the other side of the wall does not exceed 75°C. Solution : Given : Wall thickness, k= 0.044 WimK ; 25 em = 0.0825 m; T, = 175°C; Q=405W; T= 75°C. Let A be the surface area needed. Energy dissipated by coil, Qin oven = Heat transfer rate by conduction across the wall kA(T,-Th) Q x(BF teat Transtor (SPPU) Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. 0.044 A (175 - 75) = 0.0825 A = 0.7594m* " ‘Example 1. ‘A hot plate area 1.5 m’ is maintained at 300°C. The air at 20°C blows over the plate. If the convective heat transfer coefficient is 20 Wim'k, calculate the rate of convective heat transfer. Solution : Given :Plate temperature, Ty = 300°C; A= Sm; Film temperature (air), T= 20°C ; h = 20 Wim’K. Rate of convective heat transfer, Q =h-A(Ty-T.) = 20x 15 (300-20) 8400 W ANS. Example 1.31.7 EEE RE ‘An immersion water heater of surface area 0.1m and rating 1 kW is designed to operate fully submerged in water. Estimate the surface temperature of the heater when the water is at 40°C and hy. = 300 Wim'K. If this heater is by mistake used in air at 40°C with h,,= 9 Wim’k,, what will be the surface temperature? Solution : Given: A= 0.1m’, Q=1kW T, =40°C, bh, =300 Wim’K 1, = 40°C, 2 Water: Q = a 1000 == hA — 300x0.1 T, = 7333°C Ans. Air: 1000 = =" 9x01 T, = usi°c ANS. ‘Example 1.31.8 A wire 2.0 mm in diameter and 18 cm long is submerged in water at atmospheric pressure. An electric current is passed through the wire until the water boils at 100°C. in case the wire surface temperature is needed to be maintained at 125°C, determine the electric power supplied to the wire. Assume, convective heat transfer coefficient as 4000 Wim? K. Solution : Given : Diameter of wire, d= 2 mm=2x 107? m Length of wire, L= 18 em =0.18 m; Wire surface temperature, Ty = 125°C ; ‘Water (fluid) temperature, T., = 100°C ; h=4000 Wink. Surface area of wire exposed, A = tL mx (2x 10°)x 018 1.131 x 107° m Electric power needed to be supplied to wire Q =h-A(Ty-T.) Q_ = 4000 x (1.131 x 10°?) x (125 - 100) 113.1 W Ans. A brick wall (k = 1.5 WimK) 0.20 m thickness separates hot combustion gases of a furnace from outside ambient air which is at 25°C. The outer surface temperature of brick wall is found to be 100°C. If natural convection heat transfer coefficient on the outside surface of brick wall is 25 Wim'k, ¢ = 0.85, calculate inner surface temperature of brick wall Soltuion : Rate of convective heat loss Given: k= 1.5 W/mK Ax =0.20m; T,=25°C;T,=100°C h =25 Wim’ ; 85; ri Furnace inside ro Fig. P.131.9 Heat flow rate Q =QtQ Tels Qa 100- 25 _ 1875 Wim? 5x1 Q =e0ATi-T!) = 0.85 x 5.67 x 10°* x 1 {(100 + 273)* ~(25+273) = 4.8195 x 10°* (193.569 x 10° = 18.86 x 10°) = 552.84 Wim"(EP Heat Transter (SPU) 4-82 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen. ‘Total heat transfer rate Q = 1875 + 552.84 = 2427.85 Win! 100 Now, Q = 242785=—T— 15x] T = 423.7°C vwAns, Example 1.31.10 EGgUBDEeEMCNIEICS A horizontal steel pipe having a diameter of 5 om is maintained at a temperature of 50°C in a large room where the air and wall temperature are at 20°C. The ‘surface emissivity of the steel may be taken as 0.8 and the convection heat transfer coefficient as 25 wim’k. Calculate the total heat lost by the pipe per unit length. Solution Given : T,= 50°C, d= 5.cm=0.05 m; h=25 Wim'K 6208, Heat transfer by convection : Q =hAaT = 25x mx 0.05 x 1x (50-20) = 117.75 W Fig. P.131.10 Heat loss by radiation : Q =oeA(ti-T!) = 5.67 107° x0.8xmx 0,05 x1 x [(50 +273)* - (20 +273)'] = 25 W ‘otal heat loss rate from pipe per meter : Q = Q+HQ 117,75 +25=142.75W —...Ans. Example 1.31.11 Air at 27°C blows over a hot plate of 0.5 m x 1m surface which is maintained at 227°C. The film conductance is 25 Wim*K. There is a heat loss of 280 W by radiation from surface of the plate. The plate is 2.0m thick. Caloulate : (). Heat transfer rate. (i) The temperature of the other side of the plate. Assume thermal conductiviy of plate material as 43 WimK. Solution Given : Refer Fig. P. 1.31.11. Heat loss by radiation, Q.=280 W Air (fluid) temperature, T., = 27°C Surface temperature, Ty = 227°C Film conductance, hh = 25 Wim’K, Thickness of plate, x= 2em,=0.02m; k=43 Wink, Surface area of plate, x05=05m Fig.P.131.11 (Heat Transfer rate : Heat from upper surface is lost both by radiation and convection. However, other side of the plate is being heated so that the upper surface temperature of plate could be maintained at T,, = 227°C. It implies that the heat conducted through the plate thickness must be equal to heat lost by convection and radiation. Heat lost by convection, Q@ =hATy~ = 25x 05x (227-21) Q = 2500W - Total heat lost or heat transfer rate, Q. = Heat lost by convection, Q. + Heat loss by radiation, Q, = 2500 +280 = 2780 W Ans, (ii) Temperature of other side of the plate, T, k-A-(T-Tw) a 43x05 x(T,~227) 2780 = am = 229.586°C AMS, Example 1.31.12 Bia) Using approximate assumption, calculate the radiation heat transfer coefficient for a small hot surface having temperature of 152°C with emissivity of 0.85 dissipates, area.(GF teat Transfer (SPPU) 1-33 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond. Without Heat Gen, Solution : Surface temperature, T, = 152°C = 425K, Emissivity, ¢ = 0.85 Let surrounding temperature, T.,= 25°C = 298 K ‘The heat transfer rate by radiation from body to surroundings, Q = &A-0(Ti-T!) efi) Let h, be the radiation heat transfer coefficient similar to convective heat transfer coefficient. A(T,-T.) Then, Q= ii) On equating Equation (i) and (i) we get, e-A-o(T.-T.)=h-A(T,-T.) 1. 0.85 x A x (5.67 x 10") (425° — 298°) = h,x A (425 — 298) bh, = 9.39Wim'K, AMS, ‘Example 1.31.13 A horizontal plate (k = 30 W/mK) 600 mm x 900 mm x: 30mm is maintained at 300°C. The air at 30° C flows over the plate. If the convection co-efficient of air over the plate is 22 Wim’ K and 250 W heat is lost from the plate by radiation, calculate the bottom surface temperature of the plate. Solution : Area of plate transfering heat ‘A = 600 mm x 900 mm > 54x10» = 54x 10! mm’ = 55m’ =0. ‘Thickness of plate, L = 30 mm = 0.03 m Surface temperature of plate, T, = 300°C; Temperature of air, T. = 30°C k=30 W/mK ; h=22 Wim? K, Qusion = 250 W Let bottom surface temperature be T, In this case the heat is conducted through the plate which is lost from the plate surface by a combination of convection and radiation. Qconduction = Q convection + Q radiation K-A(T-T,) SS eh act, 1.) +Q radiation 30x0.54(T, -30) 008 2 540(T, ~300) 2 7 22 x 0.54 (300 - 30) +250 = 3207.6 + 250 = 3457.6 = 306.403°C Ans, Example 1.31.14 In an air conditioned room, the wall of the house measures 2 m x 6 m. It consists of 1 cm thick wood paneling of thermal conductivity 0.06 WimK and 20 om thick concrete wall having the thermal conductivity of 1.2 WimK. The inside temperature is maintained at 25°C and the atmospheric temperature is 40°C. Find the gain of heat transfer rate by the room and the ‘temperature at interface of wood and concrete wall. Solution : Refer Fig. P. 1.31.14. Wood Concrete ‘surounsings Fig. P, 13114 Since ‘h’ values on inner and outer surfaces note given, we will have to ignore convection and temperatures of 25° and 40° C will have to be taken as wall surface temperatures Surface area of wall, A=2x6=12m* % Olm k, = 0.06 Wink; k, = 1.2 W/mK; Total resistance, lem ER =R+R, . 0.01 = [2x12 *006x 12 2 — 02 0278 K/W () Gain of heat transfer rate by room, Q Heat will be transfered from surroundings to inside the room since T, > T,, Therefore, T.-T =R Heat transfer rate, Q Ans.[EP Heat Transfer (SPPU) 4-34 Intro. to Heat Tran. & Heat Cond, Without Heat Gen. (il) Interface temperature, T, at the concrete and wood surfaces k,AG,-T) x 1.2x12(40-T) 540 = 5 T, = 325°C Ans, CU CREABLISPPU - May 09.8 Marks] In a furnace, temperature at hot gases is 2100°C. Ambient temperature is 40°C. Heat flow by radiation from hot gases to inner surface of the wall is 23 kWim®. Convective heat transfer coefficient between hot gases and the inner surface of the wall is 12 Wim? K. Thermal conductance of the wall is 58 Wim’ K. Heat flow by radiation from external surface of the wall to surroundings is 10 kW/m’. Temperature of inside surface of the wall is 900°C. For the external surface of the wall, find surface temperature and convective heat transfer coefficient. h To Fig. P. 131.15 Solution : Refer Fig. P. 1.31.15. Let Q,, and Q,, be the rates of heat transfer by convection and radiation respectively from gases to inner surface of the wall maintained at temperature T, Let T, be the temperature on outer surface of the wall from where the rate of heat transfer by convection and radiation be Q, and Q,, respectively to the surroundings at T.,. Given : Temperature of hot gases, T,= 2100°C, T.= 40°C, Q, = 23 kW/m’, h, ‘Thermal conductance of wall, Q,,= 10 kWim, T, = 900°C. To find : T, and h, , Assume, A = 1m’. (l) Temperature at outer surface of wall or slab, T, 4 A(T, -T) = 12x 1x (2100-900) = 144x 10 Wim? = 14.4 kW Total heat transfer, Q to inner wall is by radiation and convection. Therefore, Q = Q,+Q= 144423 =37.4 kW" This heat is conducted through the slab. Hence, T-h Q =R=O Since 374x10° = 58x 1x (900-T;) T, = 255.2°C swAns. (ii) Convective heat transfer coefficient at outer surface, h, Q =Q,+Q,, asunder steady state Qwill remain same. 314 = 10+Q, Q, = 274kW But, Q, =h, A(T.) 27.410" = hx 1x (2552-40) sw Ans, h, = 127.32 Wim’ K Example 1.31.16 A wall of size 3m x 2m consists of 2 cm thick steel plate (k = 15 W/mK) followed by 50 cm thick asbestos insulation (k = 0.2 W /mK) and 4 cm thick layer of wood (k = 0.3 W /mK). These three layers are held together with the help of mild steel bolts (k = 40WimK), each of 12 mm diameter. Find the rate of heat flaw through this composite wall when the temperature of hot gases on the outside of steel plate is maintained at 500°C with convective heat transfer coefficient of 40 Wim’K and the wooden layer is exposed to ambient air at 20°C with convective heat transfer coefficient of 12. Wim’ K. Solution : Refer Fig. P. 1.31.16(a) and (b). Given : Wall surface area, A=3x2=6 m'; steel plate, k = 15 W/mK. Ten bolts made of steel, k = 40 W/ mK h, =40 W/m K, h,=12 Wim'k Asbestos insulation, k, = 0.2 W/mK Given quantities are as shown in Fig. P. 1.31.16(a)