Name ________________________________________________ Lab section ________

EAS1600 Fall 2018

Lab 07 “Earth Interior”
Objectives
In this lab you will investigate the interior structure of the earth using seismic waves in part
1. In Part 2, you will investigate the relationships between mass, volume, density, and
floatation in order to understand basic physical principles that determine topographic features
on Earth. After completion of this exercise you should be able to:
• Describe the basic structure of the Earth and how we determine this
• Outline how P-waves interact with matter
• Determine the density of an object using different methods;
• Understand how density determines the elevation of the floating objects above the fluid
level;
• Apply these principles to the Earth’s asthenosphere and crust.
Outline
• Part 1: Interior Structure
• Part 2: Isostacy
Theoretical Background: Interior Structure
Key Terms:
Ø Earth Structure – The specific ordering of the internal layers of the earth: Crust at the

Figure 1: Structure of the Earth based on physical properties (left) and chemical properties, or
composition (right).
 surface, mantle below, followed by the liquid outer core and solid inner core at the
center of the planet (see Figure 1).
1. Crust: Solid layer of rock covering the Earth composed of silicates (primarily
granite/andesite and basalt) and averaging 30 km thick.
2. Mantle: Semi-solid (plastic) layer below the crust made up of mostly olivine.
Increasing pressure causes the molten minerals to undergo phase transitions at
440 km and 670 km depths. The depth to the bottom of this layer is roughly
2900 km.
3. Outer Core: Molten layer of mostly iron and sulfur. It was discovered that the
outer core is liquid due to the fact that S-waves, a type of waves created by
earthquakes, do not travel through the outer core. It is also believed that this
layer causes the Earth’s magnetic field. Layer begins at 2900 km depth down to
5200 km depth.
4. Inner Core: The center of the Earth. A solid iron and nickel core.
Ø Earthquakes – shaking due to the release of energy built up from pressure within the crust.
For example, for two plates (cohesive chunks of the Earth’s crust) along a fault (break) pushing
in different directions, the stress will build up until actual slip occurs, at which point an
earthquake releases that built-up energy. Earthquakes can be used to study the Earth interior.
Ø Focus – the location of an earthquake within the crust (includes depth).
Ø Epicenter – the point on the surface directly above the focus.
Ø Energy released from the focus is transmitted as seismic waves. Seismic waves will curve
or change direction as they go progress through materials of different densities: gradual
= curve, sharp = refract, or change direction – see figure 2.
Ø Two forms of Seismic Waves:
1. P-Waves – “Primary waves” – waves move by compression and expansion;
sometimes referred to as “push” or “compressional” waves. P-waves propagate faster
through solid materials than S-waves and so are detected first.
2. S-Waves – “Secondary waves” – moves perpendicular to the direction of
movement. S-Waves cannot propagate through liquid (e.g. the liquid outer core)

Figure 2: Path of P-waves and S-waves through the Earth

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Ø P-wave shadow zone – a zone on the Earth surface further away from an earthquake focus
which receives no direct P-waves due to deflection from core boundary.
Ø S-wave shadow zone – occurs because S-waves cannot propagate through liquid media.
Ø Seismograph – an instrument that plots the intensity of shaking from an earthquake. Well
distributed seismic stations across the globe allows for subtle readings of changes to seismic
waves, therefore providing strong insight into Earth’s interior structure.
Ø Seismogram – the seismograph plot showing earthquake shaking; generally recorded in three
dimensions (x, y, and z) with one plot per dimension.

Figure 3: Example Seismogram (from UC Berkeley Seismological Laboratory)

Figure 4. A more idealized seismogram showing all three dimensions as shaking moves through
space: vertical, North-South, and East-West.

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Online exercises/activities
§ https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/workshops/plateTectonics/SubductingPlates.pdf
§ Visualize: http://ds.iris.edu/seismon/swaves/index.php

Theoretical Background: Density, Buoyancy, and Isostacy

Density, ρ , is a measure of how tightly matter is packed in a unit volume of an object.
Every day we handle materials with different densities and have an intuitive idea of how to
distinguish very dense substances, like metals, from less dense objects, like wood.
Mathematically, density is defined as the ratio between the mass (m) of an object to its volume
(V):
!
𝜌   = !
(1)

Density is usually expressed in units of kg/m3 or g/cm3. Water has a density of

approximately 1 g/cm3, while densities of gold and air (at normal atmospheric pressure) are
about 19.3 g/cm3 and 0.0012 g/cm3 correspondingly. Objects that are less dense than water
will float whereas objects that are denser than water will sink.
On the Earth’s surface the difference between densities of different kinds of rocks has
very important physical consequences. Both oceanic and continental rocks “float” on top of
the mantle. Why? Crustal rocks with density ρ ranging from ≈ 2.7 g/cm3 (continental crust) to
≈ 3.0 g/cm3 (oceanic crust) are less dense than the upper mantle (ρ ≈ 3.3 g/cm3) and therefore
they "float" in the mantle. Crustal rocks float in the mantle similar to the way icebergs float in
the ocean. The iceberg’s density is lower, but close to the density of water, so it floats with a
significant part submerged.
Archimedes' principle explains floatation: a body completely or partially submerged in
a fluid is pushed up by a buoyant force (uplift) equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the body. This is simply a balance of forces: the force exerted by the object (weight) on the
fluid is opposite and equal to the uplift force or the weight of the displaced fluid.
Let’s consider the details of the floatation physics. On the surface of the Earth, the force
of gravity that is acting on the object is called an object's "weight" (W). The force is equal to
mass times the acceleration or F = m× a and on the Earth the acceleration is due to Earth's
gravitational acceleration - “gravity” (g). Therefore we have W =F= mg.
Using the equation (1) we can replace m with ρ V:

W = ρ Vg, (2)

where g = 9.8 m/s2. Equating downward gravitational force acting on the object and upward
buoyant forces we will get:

ρ o Vo g = ρ f Vd g , (3)

ρ o Vo = ρ f Vd , (4)

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 mo = md . (5)

Here ρ o is the density of the object, Vo is the volume of the object, mo is the mass of the
object, ρ f is the density of the fluid, and Vd and md are the volume and mass of the fluid
displaced by the object.
From equation (4), the displacement volume of the floating object is proportional to the
ratio of the densities of the fluid and object:

ρo Vd
= (6)
ρ f Vo

From the equation (6) we see, that if density of the object is lower then density of the fluid
ρ o < ρ f , then displaced volume is less then total volume of the object: Vd < Vo and the object
will float. If ρ o > ρ f, then the object sinks and Vd = Vo (it can not displace more than its total
volume).

Since the displaced volume (Vd) must equal the volume of the submerged portion of the
object (Vs), then for a floating object, the ratio of densities also equals to the ratio of the
volume below water to the total volume:

ρo Vs
= (7)
ρ f Vo

From this equation follows the "iceberg" rule: The density of ice is 0.9 g/cm3 while the
density of water is 1.0 g/cm3, and therefore we understand that the submerged portion of an
iceberg is about 90% of its total volume - only 10% is above water and visible.
This way the Archimedes' Principle explains why continental and oceanic crusts sit on top
of the mantle at a height determined by their relative densities and thicknesses. The special
case of application of Archimedes' Principle to the Geology and Earth science is known as the
principle of isostasy: the thicker, less dense and more buoyant continental crust (the continents)
is topographically higher than ocean crust that is thinner and denser. It also explains why high-
elevation mountains have roots that extend deep into the upper mantle, similar to icebergs.
In the case of calculations for comparing Earth’s crust, the simplification of considering
equal areas is common, leaving the depth component as the critical aspect and the equation
reduces to:

𝜌! 𝑔ℎ! =   𝜌! 𝑔ℎ!

The two major approaches to isostatic equilibrium are the Pratt and Airy models. Airy
assumes all lithosphere is essentially the same density but varies in compensation depth (Figure
5a) while Pratt assumes an equal compensation depth for blocks of the crust with different
densities (Figure 5b) below.

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Figure 5. Two end-member approaches to isostatic equilibrium in regards to earth’s upper layers.

Online exercises/activities
https://globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/topography/topography.html
http://www.geo.cornell.edu/hawaii/220/PRI/isostasy.html
http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0072402466/student_view0/chapter17/animations_and_movies.html#

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 Name _________________________ Section________
Lab 8: Earth Interior
[Figure 6: Earth interior]

Figure 6. A cartoon circle for the Earth with an earthquake epicenter located at the top at 0° (blue star).
 Name _________________________ Section________
Lab 8: Earth Interior
Part 1: Earth’s Structure

1) Rotating counter-clockwise, chose the placement of your stations on Figure 6 and label
them A, B, C, D, E according to the following: (3 pts)
a) Place station A such that it creates an angle greater than 0° (do not use the epicenter
as station A),
b) Place station E at 180° (opposite side of the circle from the epicenter),
c) Ensure all other stations are between A and F such that no stations are beyond this
(all stations should be on the left half of the figure).
2) Calculate the scale of the model for Earth (show your work). Hint: Determine the radius of
the model (in cm). The radius of the Earth is 6371 km. Your scale should be expressed in
km/cm. Scaling is a concept used later in this lab. (3 pts)

Download the worksheet titled PwaveSeismicPlots_student.xls located in your Lab 8 Folder

on Canvas. The average velocity of P waves traveling through the Earth’s interior that we are
using is 10 km/sec; we will assume a constant velocity in your model. Using your paper model
and the Spreadsheet “P-WaveSeismicPlots”, complete Data Table 1 in the spreadsheet by
adding the following information:
a) Model radius (space highlighted in orange) in cm.
b) Station Distance - Place a protractor centered over the origin of your semicircle
(where the lines cross in the center of the circle) with zero degrees being lined up
with the epicenter (this orientation is known as the geocentric angle) to measure the
angle between 0° and your stations (spaces highlighted in yellow).
c) Distance Traveled: Model – Measure the line from your epicenter to each of your
Station locations. Measure the distance of this line in cm. This approximates the
travel path of a seismic wave – we are simplifying with a straight line, while in
reality changing densities will deflect or curve the travel path (spaces highlighted in
yellow).
d) The spreadsheet will calculate the actual distance in km from your model distance
and the travel time to each station in seconds then convert to minutes.

Carefully analyze the composite collection of seismograms of the 2012 Sumatra earthquake
located online here:
http://ds.iris.edu/seismon/recsec/tsplotForID.phtml?evid=3337497&useCache=1&epo=0&calle
r=map. When you hover your mouse over each plot, information on the station location (°) and
arrival time (in hr:min:sec format) will appear. In your excel spreadsheet, record the following
in the corresponding yellow cells (the two green rows are completed for you for reference):
 e) Station locations in degrees (°).
f) Travel Time: Identify the first arrival of seismic waves at each station and record
the travel time in your excel spreadsheet and record the minutes and seconds in the
appropriate columns. Try to be accurate, but don’t spend more than a 5 seconds
worrying about a difference of 5-10 seconds on the plot.
3) If all data is entered correctly you should see a dual plot (Plot 1) with Station Distance (°)
on the x-axis and Travel Time (min) on the y axis using the data from both Data Table 1
(theoretical curve) and the data from the Sumatra earthquake (measured curve) plotted
on same graph. Check this plot with the TA

TA sign off for Plot 1________________(5 pts)

4) In the column for Velocity, type the appropriate equation (=C22/F22) and copy to all
following cells (easiest by clicking and holding down the bottom left corner and pulling
down to all cells). Your worksheet should display a dual plot that shows Velocity (m/s) as a
function Station Distance (°) for the 2012 Sumatra earthquake and a theoretical velocity
of 10 km/s (from Data Table 1). Check this plot with the TA

TA sign off for Plot 2________________(5 pts)

Data Analysis:

Question 1: How does the velocity in Plot 2 at small distances (<20°) compare with large
distances and large distances (160 – 180°)? (2 pts)

Question 2: Using the information that an increase in material density increases P-wave speeds
and that the farther stations have P-waves traveling deeper through the Earth, what can you
hypothesize about density vs depth? (2 pts)

Question 3: Are there any distance ranges where the travel times and/or average velocities
change suddenly, and if so at what average distance (in deg)? (2 pts)

Question 4: What does this imply about the interior of the Earth? Hint 1: a change in velocity
implies physical changes in the Earth’s layers. (2 pts)

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Question 5: Notice that there is never a point where you don’t detect p-waves. This is due to
the detection of reflected waves – similar to how your shadow during midday isn’t pitch black
due to reflected light illuminating that area a little. However, reflected rays travel farther and so
take longer to be detected, producing a slow-down effect. As a result, the value you determined
in (7) is actually when you start detecting the direct waves again, where the path is shorter and
faster than for the reflected waves. (2 pts)

a) Do you see a point on Plot 2 where your estimated velocity decreases before the
point you identified in (Q3)? Note – this will be subtle! If so, report the
corresponding distance in degrees:

b) If not, confer with your TA and if still no resolution estimate by subtracting 35°
from your answer in (Q3).

5) We will now combine the data from the plots with Figure 6. (7 pts)
a) On Figure 6, center your protractor at the center of the model Earth and align the
protractors ‘0’ to point towards the epicenter.
b) Use your answer from (Q5) and locate the point on the surface that corresponds to
that angle.
c) Draw a line through the “earth” going from the epicenter to the point on the surface
that you just identified.
d) Repeat steps (b) and (c) but going the opposite direction (e.g. if you measured the
degrees going counter-clockwise, do a second measurement going clockwise). You
should now have two rays going from the epicenter to two other points on the
model Earth at the angle you determined in (Q5).
e) Align your protractors with ‘0’ pointing towards your Station A and repeat the
above steps, again using the angle you determined from (Q5).
f) Repeat for the remaining stations. You should have 12 different rays (2 for each
station and two for the epicenter), with an empty area in the center of the model
Earth. (6 of 7 pts)
g) Sketch the circle outlining the empty area in the center of the model Earth. (1 of 7
pts)
6) Identify the P-wave Shadow Zone (4 pts)
a) Darken the two rays associated with the epicenter to make them noticeably darker
than the rest and label the ends with the epicenter with the specific angle you used
to draw your rays (the value from Q3, in degrees). (1 of 4 pts)
b) Draw and darken two rays starting at the epicenter but this time using the angle
determined from (Q5) (1 of 4 pts)
c) Label the area between 6a and 6b (2 of 4 pts)

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 Part 1 – Conclusions:

Question 6: What does the circle surrounding the empty area represents and how do you know
this? (4 pts)

Question 7: Use your scaling factor from (Step 2) and calculate the actual distance from the
surface of the Earth to where this inner circle starts. Show your work and include units! (3 pts)

Question 8: How would using curves instead of linear rays change this depth? Does this mean
your answer for (13) is a little too shallow or too deep? (2 pts)

Question 9: More precise measurements in seismograms help identify the finer structure
within the crust and mantle of the Earth. Complete the following as predictive statements based
on hypothetical results:
a) Stations beyond ~30° from an Earthquake epicenter show a fairly steady increase in
velocity with minimal fine-scale structure while stations closer show significant
variations. What does this imply about the Earth’s interior near the surface versus
past the depth represented by stations past 30° (~700 km depth)? (2 pts)

b) Some deep-sourced volcanoes can eject parts of the lower crust and upper mantle
during eruptions. You find that for several of the fine-scale structures that the rock
composition doesn’t change much. What else might be changing to affect the P-
wave velocity? (2 pts)

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7) Using the table below and your answer to (Q2), label Figure 6 with where you expect to
find the following types of representative rocks. Hint, you can also use Figure 1. (4 pts)
Table 1: Representative rocks and associated color and density

Name Color Density g/cm3

Pink or Light-colored with

Granite 2.7 g/cm3
Gray

Peridotite Green 3.2 g/cm3

Basalt Black or Rusty Red 3.0 g/cm3

Iron Metallic Gray 7.8 g/cm3

Part 2: Isostacy
The process by which materials of different densities organize into layers with the higher
density components closer to the center of gravity and the lower density components on top is
known as differentiation. However, once this order is established, isostacy – the concept of
gravitational equilibrium through buoyancy – becomes important, notably for the crust.

1. Write down your block set number in the space above Table 2.
2. Determine the density of each block
a. Weigh each block (note: make sure your blocks are dry before you proceed),
i. Tare the electronic scale (0.0 g when nothing is being weighed).
ii. Place one block on the scale and record the mass (mo) into Table 2.
Repeat for each block.
b. Use the ruler to measure the length (l), width (w), and height (h) of each of the
blocks and record these values into Table 2. Note: metric measurements only!
c. Record the volume, Vo, (Vo = length × width × height) from the direct
measurements
d. Calculate the density of each block (ρ o) based on mo and Vo using eq 1.
3. Fill the tank with water to a level that causes slight overflow through the overflow tube
into a beaker. Let the water level equilibrate until there is no more overflow.
4. Place an empty 500 ml beaker under the outflow tube.
5. Choose 1 block for the following steps:
6. Hold the block horizontally (so that the scale attached to the block is facing you) and
carefully lower it into the tank. It is best to lower one side in first and then the other.

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 Avoid trapping air bubbles beneath the block or water being splashed on the top of
the block. Allow the block to stabilize and the water level to decrease until there is no
overflow. The volume of the water that was displaced will need to be measured.

Figure 7. Photograph of the experimental setup, step 5.

7. Record into Table 3:

a. The selected block
b. The volume (Vd) and mass (mDisp) of the displaced water. To do this, transfer
the displaced water from the beaker into a dry graduated cylinder to measure
(recall that the density of water is 1 g/cm3, and therefore 1 ml = 1 cm3 ~1 g).
c. The calculated density using 7b (ρd =mDisp/Vo) and the percent difference of this
value from that determined in Table 2.
d. The thickness of the portion of the block above the water (ha) using the small
scale attached to the block (record in cm to the nearest mm, note: 1 cm = 10
mm)
e. The portion of the block submerged by subtracting ha from the total height (h)
f. Calculate the density using 7e (ρd =mDisp/Vo) and the percent difference of this
value from that determined in Table 2.

Block Set # ____ (this is the number on your blocks)

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 Table 2. Section A (5 pts)
m0 l w h Vo ρo
Block
(g) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (g/cm3)
A

C
Vo = l· w· h; ρ o = m0/(Vo)

Table 3. Section B (5 pts)

Vd mDisp ρd % diff ρd ha hs VSub ρs % diff ρs
Block 3
cm g g/cm3 g/cm3 cm cm cm3 g/cm3 g/cm3

• Vd is the volume of water displaced by the floating block.

• mDisp is the mass of the water displaced by the floating block.
• ρd is the density calculated using displaced water volume (mDis) and volume of the object (Vo) from
Table 2 (ρd =mDisp/Vo).
• % diff ρd is the percent difference of the density determined from displaced water vs length and
scale measurements in Table 2 (% diff ρd =100% · ρo /ρd).
• ha is the height or thickness of the block above the water.
• hs is the height or thickness of the block submerged below water; calculate this from (h – ha).
• VSub is the volume of the block that is submerged (VSub = hs · l· w) – length and width from Table 2.
• ρs is the density calculated using submerged block volume (VSub) and volume of the object (Vo) from
Table 2 (ρd =mDisp/Vo).
• % diff ρd is the percent difference of the density determined from displaced water vs length and
scale measurements in Table 2 (% diff ρd =100% · ρo /ρd).

Data Analysis:
Question 10. In your experiment, which block floated highest out of the water? What was the
density of this block in comparison to the other blocks? (2 pts).

Question 11. In your experiment, part B, which block floated lowest in the water? What was
the density of this block in comparison to the other blocks? (2 pts).

Question 12. In the earth system, what do the wooden blocks and the water from the
experiment represent? (2pts)
Wooden blocks: ___________
Water: ____________

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Question 13. When working with earth’s crust, why does it make more sense to determine hs
using the method from Table 3 (hs = h – ha)? (2 pts)

Question 14. Consider a flat iceberg that is floating in a fresh water basin with 10% of it
above the surface of the water. What is the density of the iceberg? Assume fresh water density
is 1 g/cm3. (3 pts.)

Question 15. Assume that the total thickness of the iceberg from the above question is 75 m.
How many meters above the water is the flat top of the iceberg? (3 pts.)

Question 16. In the SE United States, the surface of the continental lithosphere is constantly
worn away by erosion. One hundred fifty million years ago, the thickness h of the crust was 60
km. Its density increased with depth and can be described by the following function:
ρ L (d ) = (0.0033 g ⋅ cm −3 km −1 ) × d + 2.6 g ⋅ cm −3 ,
where ρ L is the density of the lithosphere in g/cm3 at depth d in km. Plot the density as a
function of depth on the graph below, from d = 0 to 60 km in increments of 10 km. (7 points)

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Question 16. What is the average density of the crust (ρL average)? (Hint: Use the Graph!) (2
pts.)

Question 17. What was the elevation of the continental crust with respect to the mantle
(mantle density ρM = 3.3 g cm-3) one hundred fifty million years ago, when the thickness h of
the continental crust was 60 km? (Hint: Use Equations: ρL average = (ρM hs)/h to find the
percent submerged) (3 pts.)

Extra Credit:
Question 18. In Figure 7 below, use Airy-style compensation to complete the columns for
mountains and plains for what you would expect to see below the surface. Label your columns
a, b, c, d, and e, from left to right, with the plains as “a” and “e”. (4 pts)

Figure 8.

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