CHE428

Dr. Hamada Mohamed Gad

2020 - 2021

Chapter I Fuel Technology

Chapter II Physical Properties of Fuels

Chapter III Hydrocarbons and Classifications

Chapter IV Chemical Reaction and Combustion

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 Chapter I Fuel Technology

What is the fuel?

Requirements of a good fuel

Classification of fuels
Coal

Petroleum

Oil Shale and Kerogen

Natural Gas

Biodiesel production 3
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Chapter II Physical Properties of Fuels

The Specific Gravity
The Flash Point
The Fire Point
The Pour Point
The Cloud Point
The Volatility Point
The Fuel Viscosity
The Surface Tension
The Freezing Point
Oil Fuel Advantages and Disadvantages
Calculation of heating value of Gaseous Fuels
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 Chapter III Hydrocarbons and Classifications

Hydrocarbons
Types of Hydrocarbons
Refining Process of Petroleum
Fractional distillation
Petroleum-based Liquid Fuels
Non-petroleum-based Liquid Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Fuel Characteristics
Usage of Hydrocarbons
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Chapter IV Chemical Reaction and Combustion

Introduction
Combustion and Flame
Combustion Applications
Combustion of Solid Fuel
Combustion of Liquid Fuel
Combustion of Gaseous Fuel
Chemical Reaction Equations
Enthalpy and Enthalpy of Formation
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Caloric Heat Value Measurement
Gas Analysis Measurement
Boilers and Combustion Chambers
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 Fuel Technology and Combustion
Degrees
Mid-Term 10
Section 6
Exercises Attendance 9 30

Reports 5

Final 70

Total 100 7
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References
1- “Fuel Combustion Energy Technology”, Dr. S.N. Saha,
Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company, (2003).
2- “Future Energy Improved, Sustainable and Clean
Options for our Planet”, Trevor M. Letcher, Elsevier,
(2008).
3- “Food and fuel”, Marcos Fava Neves, Mairun
Junqueira, Alves Pinto, Marco Antonio Conejero and
Vinicius Gustavo Trombin, Wageningen Academic, 2011
4- “Combustion”, Irvin Glassman, Richard A. Yetter,
Elsevier, 2008.

5- Lectures notes, Dr. Hamada Gad, (2020)

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 CHE428

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Chapter I Fuel Technology

What is the fuel?

Requirements of a good fuel

Classification of fuels
Coal

Petroleum

Oil Shale and Kerogen

Natural Gas

Biodiesel production 10
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 What is the fuel?
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as main
constituent, which on proper burning gives large amount of
heat, which can be used economically for domestic and
industrial purposes. Eg., Wood, Charcoal, Coal, Kerosene,
Petrol, Producer gas, Oil gas, LPG etc.,

The processes used to convert fuel into energy include

chemical reactions, such as combustion, and nuclear reactions,
such as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.

Hydrocarbons are by far the most common source of fuel in

current use, but many other substances can be used as well.

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Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic

chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied
by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species.

The release of heat can result in the production of light in the

form of either glowing or a flame.

Fuels of interest often include organic compounds (especially

hydrocarbons) in the gas, liquid or solid phase.

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 HEAT

HEAT POWER
ENGINE

COMBUSTION

Some Heat must

be Rejected
AIR FUEL
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Requirements of a good fuel:
High calorific value.
Moderate ignition temperature.
Low contents of non-combustible matters.
Low moisture content.
Free from objectionable and harmful gases like CO, SOx,
H2S and NOx.
Moderate velocity of combustion.
Combustion should be controllable.
Easy to transport .
Low cost.
Storage cost in bulk should be low.
Should burn in air with efficiency without much smoke. 15
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 1-

2-

or

or

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1-

2-

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 or

or

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Any material or substance that can be used as fuel,

other than conventional fuels.
1 2

4 ETHYL TERTIRY BUTILE METHYL TERTIRY

ETHER BUTILE ETHER
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6 7 8

9 10
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 Any material or substance that can be used as fuel,
other than conventional fuels.
1 2

6 7 8

9 10
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Gasohol
Gasohol is a blended of gasoline and alcohol
Alcohol is Ethanol or Methanol
Gasohol is a blended of gasoline and Ethanol or Methanol

Example:
* E10 is, Gasohol fuel is a blended of

10% Ethanol + 90% gasoline

* M15 is, Gasohol fuel is a blended of

15% Methanol + 85% gasoline 22

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Advantages of gasohol fuel:
OCTANE
NUMBER

1- Increasing the ON
Octane number of a fuel is the percentage of the Iso-octane
fuel in a fuel mixture of Normal heptane and Iso-octane which
give the same detonation

2- Increasing the volatility,

i,e, increasing the mixing then increasing the combustion.

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Oxygenated Gasoline

ETBE or MTBE is a relatively new high octane, oxygenated

fuel additive made by the chemical reaction of ethanol (or
methanol) with isobutylene. Environmental Protection
Agency

Currently, the EPA allows a 12.7% ETBE blend with

gasoline to form the ETBE oxygenated gasoline.

The pertinent properties of ETBE are given in the following

Table.
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TABLE: Pertinent Physical Properties of Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (ETBE) and
Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE) to Produce Oxygenated Gasoline as an
Alternative Transportation Fuel
Properties ETBE MTBE
Formula• (CH3)3COC2H5 (CH3)3COCH3
Molecular Weight 102.2 44.1
Density at 150C (lb./gal) 6.26 6.18
Heating Value (BTU/lb.) 15,615 15,056
Energy Density (BTU/gal) 97,750 93,046
Air/Fuel Stoichiometry•
Mass Ratio 12.1 11.7
Octane Number 110 108
Energy of Stoich. Mix.1
BTU/lb. st. mix 1.191 1,185
BTU/ft3 st.mix. 96.3 93.9
Latent Heat Vap. (BTU/lb.) 108 138
F)  Boiling Temp. ( 158 131
Vapor Pressure (psi)5 4.3 7.7
Flammability Limits
Lower (% vol.) 1.5 1.6
Higher (% vol.) 8.0 8.4 25
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TABLE: Physical and Chemical Properties for Propane, Butane,

Ethane and Methane

Property Methane Ethane Propane Butane

Chemical formula CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4 H10
Density, ton/m3 - 0.3 0.5 0.58
Gas density, Kg/m3 0.717 1.356 2.019 2.703
Net caloric value, Kcal/m3 8550 15370 22350 29510
Stoichiometric air/fuel 9.52 16.7 23.8 31
ratio
Flammability limits 4.75 8 11 12
(air/fuel ratio) 18 30 47 54
Lean flammability limit
Rich flammability limit
Latent heat, Kcal/Kg - - 84 92
Ignition temperature,0C - - 500 450
Boiling temperature, 0C - - 40 5.5

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 (ETBE) Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether
(MTBE) Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether

How to get ETBE ?

From the chemical reaction of ethanol with isobutylene.

Define, Oxygenated gasoline

Oxygenated gasoline fuel is

gasoline + 12.7% of ETBE or MTBE.

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Advantages of ETBE or MTBE

OCTANE NUMBER
1- Higher ON,

2- Higher evaporation rate ,

3- Gasoline not separated in water existence

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 Biomass
Biomass — Renewable Energy from Plants and Animals

Biomass Basics

Radiant Energy

Chemical Energy

CO2 O2
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Biomass
Biomass — Renewable Energy from Plants and Animals

Biomass Basics

Radiant Energy

Chemical Energy

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Biomass energy production, at its core, is the use of: photosynthesis
to capture solar energy, organic carbon compounds to store the
energy, chemical and/or biological processes to extract and convert
the stored biomass energy into fossil equivalent fuels called biofuels,
and finally, combustion of the biofuels.

Biofuels are fuels that are derived from the biological material of
living or recently living organisms called 'biomass‘.

In the modern era most biofuels are derived directly from the
biomass of photosynthetic organisms, such as ethanol from the stalks
of the sugarcane plant, whereas in centuries past biofuels were
sometimes derived from photosynthesis indirectly, such as from
animal biomass, e.g. oils from the blubber of whales.
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Some biomass can be used directly as biofuel without further

processing, such as the dry cellulose from trees used in wood stoves.

However, most biofuels with higher energy densities such as

ethanol, require processing of the raw biomass into biofuel. In cases
where the biomass has to be processed, it is called 'feedstock‘.

For ethanol, common feedstocks are sugarcane, corn, and sugar

beet.

For diesels, common feedstocks are rapeseed (eg; canola),

soybeans, and palm nuts. For bio-oil the feedstock can be a wide
array of hydrocarbon containing materials.
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Biomass is organic material made from plants and animals
(microorganisms).

Biomass contains stored energy from the sun. Plants absorb the sun's
energy in a process called photosynthesis.

The chemical energy in plants gets passed on to animals and

people that eat them.

Biomass is a renewable energy source because we can always grow

more trees and crops, and waste will always exist. Some examples of

biomass fuels are wood, crops, manure, and some garbage.

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When burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat.

If you have a fireplace, the wood you burn in it is a biomass fuel.

Wood waste or garbage can be burned to produce steam for making

electricity, or to provide heat to industries and homes.

In the United States, wood and wood

waste (bark, sawdust, wood chips, and
wood scrap) provide about 2% of the
energy used today.

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 BIOMASS

BIOGAS BIODIESEL

WOOD CROPS

GARPAGE
LANDFILL
MANURE
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Biogas
Landfills can be a source of energy.

Organic waste produces a gas called methane as it decomposes, or

rots.

Methane is the same energy-rich gas that is in natural gas, the fuel
sold by natural gas utility companies.

It is colorless and odorless. Natural gas utilities add an odorant

(bad smell) so people can detect seeping gas, but it can be dangerous
to people or the environment.

New rules require landfills to collect methane gas as a pollution and

safety measure.

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Some landfills simply
burn the methane gas in
a controlled way to get
rid of it.

But the methane can

also be used as an
energy source.

Landfills can collect the methane gas, treat it, and then sell it as a
commercial fuel.

It can then be burned to generate steam and electricity.

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Biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat.

Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g.,

vegetable oil, animal fat (tallow)) with an alcohol.

Lipids includes fats, waxes, sterols.

Vegetable oil fuel

Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus

distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to
fuel converted diesel engines.

Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petrodiesel.

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Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel
are products most commonly distributed for use in the retail diesel
fuel marketplace.

Much of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state
the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix:

100% biodiesel is referred to as B100, while

20% biodiesel is labeled B20
5% biodiesel is labeled B5
2% biodiesel is labeled B2

Obviously, the higher the percentage of biodiesel, the more

ecology-friendly the fuel is.
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Bus run by biodiesel fuel Car run by biodiesel fuel

Biodiesel sample

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Using biodiesel instead of petroleum diesel is better for the
environment and its better for us.

Overall, biodiesel is a fairly renewable fuel. If crops are grown for

the purpose of making biodiesel (generally called energy cropping),
then any emissions given off by combusting the biodiesel will be
sequestered by next year's crops.

In this sense, biodiesel is a carbon neutral

product.

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In this sense, biodiesel is a carbon neutral

product.

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However, energy must be expended to produce it, and methanol, a
catalyst commonly used in biodiesel production, is generally derived
from natural gas.

With these considerations in mind, biodiesel represents a

transitional fuel that can help reduce emissions from diesel
consumption and lessen our dependence on the finite supply of
petroleum.

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Overall, biodiesel significantly reduces emissions of almost every

major pollutant when compared to conventional diesel.

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Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source
fuels, that is, carbon or hydrocarbons found in
the earth’s crust.

Fossil fuel range from volatile materials with low

carbon/hydrogen ratios like methane, to

liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of
almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal.

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Fossil fuels:

Coal

Petroleum

Natural Gas

Oil Shale and Tar Sands

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Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground by
underground mining or open-pit mining (surface mining).

It is a readily combustible black or brownish-black

sedimentary rock .

It is composed primarily of carbon along with assorted

other elements, including sulfur. Often associated with the
Industrial Revolution, coal remains an very important
fuel .

It is the largest single source of fuel for the generation of

electricity world-wide 51
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Coal is a highly carbonaceous matter that has been formed

as a result of alteration of vegetable matter (eg., plants)
under certain favorable conditions. It is chiefly composed
of C, H, N and O besides non-combustible inorganic
matter.

The successive stages in the transformation of vegetable

matter into coal are – wood, peat, lignite, bituminous coal,
steam coal and anthracite. Anthracite is probably the
purest form of coal and contains 95 % carbon.

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Coal was formed from plant remains that were protected by water
and mud against oxidization and biodegradation, thus trapping
atmospheric carbon in the ground.

Over time, the chemical and physical properties of the remains

were changed by geological action to create a solid material.

Types of coal

1- Lignite ( brown)
2- Sub-Bituminous Volatile
Matter
Carbon
3- Bituminous
4- Anthracite 53
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Analysis of Coal:

The composition of coal varies widely and hence it is

necessary to analyze and interpret the results from the
points of view of commercial classification, price fixation
and proper industrial utilization. The quality of a coal is
ascertained by the following two types of analysis.

Proximate Analysis and Ultimate Analysis

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Proximate Analysis:

It is called ‘proximate’ because the data collected vary

with the procedure adopted. It is an empirical but
important analysis dealing with the determination of:

Moisture content
Volatile matter
Ash content
Fixed carbon.

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Determination of moisture content in coal:

It is the loss in weight of coal caused by heating a weighed

quantity of coal sample for one hour at 105 °C.

𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

% 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚

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Significance of Moisture:
High moisture content of the coal is undesirable for the
following reasons:

1) Reduces the calorific value of coal

2) Increases the consumption of coal for heating purpose.
3) Lengthens the time of heating.

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Determination of volatile matter in coal:

It is the loss in weight of moisture free powdered coal when
heated in a crucible fitted with cover in a muffle furnace at
950 °C for seven minutes.

𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

% 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

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Significance of volatile matter:
During burning of coal, gases like CO, CO2, CH4, N2, O2,
hydrocarbons etc. that come out are called volatile matter
of the coal.

It has been found that the coal with higher volatile matter
content ignites easily has lower calorific value burns with
long yellow smoky flame will evolve more coal gas when
heated in the absence of air.

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Determination of ash in coal:

It is the weight of residue obtained after burning a known
weight of coal in an open crucible in the presence of air at
750 °C for 30 minutes.

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒂𝒔𝒉 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅

% 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

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Significance of ash content:
1) Ash in the combination product of mineral matter in the
coal. It consists mainly SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 with varying
amount of other oxides such as Na2O, CaO, MgO etc.
2) Ash containing the oxides of Na, Ca and Mg melt easily.

3) High ash content in coal is undesirable because it

i) increases transporting, handling and storage costs
ii) is harder and stronger
iii) has lower calorific value

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Determination of fixed carbon:

It is determined indirectly by deducting the sum total of
moisture, volatile matter and ash percentage from 100.

% 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − % (𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 + 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 + 𝒂𝒔𝒉)

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Significance of Fixed carbon:

It is the pure carbon present in coal. Higher the fixed

carbon content of the coal, higher will be the calorific
value of the sample.

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Ultimate Analysis:
Ultimate analysis refers the determination of weight
percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulphur of pure, dry coal.

This analysis gives the elementary, ultimate constituents of

coal.

This analysis is essential for calculating heat balances in

any process for which coal is employed as a fuel.

It is useful to the designing of coal burning equipments

and auxillaries.

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Determination of carbon and hydrogen in coal:
A known amount of coal is burnt in presence of oxygen
thereby converting carbon and hydrogen of coal into-

respectively. The products of combustion CO2 and H2O are

passing over weighed tubes of anhydrous CaCl2 and KOH
which absorb H2O and CO2 respectively.

The increase in the weight of CaCl2 tube represents the

weight of water formed while the increase in the weight of
KOH tube represents the weight of CO2 formed.
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The percentage of carbon and hydrogen in coal can be

calculated in the following way-
The weight of coal sample taken =xg
The increase in the weight of KOH tube = y g
The increase in the weight of CaCl2 tube = z g
Consider the following reaction

44 g of CO2 contains 12 g of carbon

𝒚
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒚 𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝑶𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔 = × 𝟏𝟐 𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏.
𝟒𝟒
𝟏𝟐
𝑿 𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔 = × 𝒚 𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏
𝟒𝟒

𝟏𝟐𝒚
% 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟒𝟒𝑿
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Significance of Total Carbon:

It is the sum total of fixed carbon and the carbon present

in the volatile matters like CO, CO2, hydrocarbons. Thus,
total carbon is always more than fixed carbon in any coal.
High total carbon containing coal will have higher calorific
value.

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Determination of hydrogen:
Consider the following reaction.

18 g of water contains 2 g of hydrogen.

𝟐
𝒁 𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝒛 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝟏𝟖
𝟐
𝑿 𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝒛 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏
𝟏𝟖

𝟐𝒛
% 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟖𝑿

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Significance of Hydrogen:

It increases the calorific value of the coal. It is associated

with the volatile matter of the coal. When the coal
containing more of hydrogen is heated, it combines with
nitrogen present in coal forming ammonia. Ammonia is
usually recovered as (NH4)2SO4, a valuable fertilizer.

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Determination of nitrogen:
This is done by Kjeldhal’s method.
A known amount of powdered coal is heated with
concentrated sulphuric acid in the presence of K2SO4 and
CuSO4 in a long necked Kjeldhal’s fask. This converts
nitrogen of coal to ammonium sulphate. When the clear
solution is obtained (i.e., the whole of nitrogen is converted
into ammonium sulphate), it is heated with 50 % NaOH
solution and the following reaction occurs:

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The ammonia thus formed is distilled over and is absorbed
in a known quantity of standard 0.1 N H2SO4 solution. The
volume of unused 0.1 N H2SO4 is then determined by
titrating against standard NaOH solution. Thus, the
amount of acid neutralized by liberated ammonia from
coal is determined using the formula.
𝟏𝟒 𝒙 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒙 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
% 𝑵𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑿

𝟏. 𝟒 𝒙 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒙 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝑶𝒓 =
𝑿

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Significance:

Presence of nitrogen decreases the calorific value of the

coal. However, when coal is carbonized, its N2 and H2
combine and form NH3. Ammonia is recovered as
(NH4)2SO4, a valuable fertilizer.

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Determination of sulphur in coal:
A known amount of coal is burnt completely in Bomb
calorimeter in presence of oxygen.

Ash thus obtained contains sulphur of coal as sulphate

which is extracted with dil. HCl.

The acid extract is then treated with BaCl2 solution to

precipitate sulphate as BaSO4.

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The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and weighed.

From the weight of BaSO4, the percentage of sulphur in
coal is calculated in the following way.
The weight of coal sample taken = x g
The weight of BaSO4 precipitate = y g

Consider the following equations

𝑩𝒂𝑪𝒍𝟐
𝑺(𝟑𝟐) + 𝟐𝑶𝟐 → 𝑺𝑶𝟒 ⎯⎯ 𝑩𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 (𝟐𝟑𝟑)

233 g of BaSO4 contains 32 g of sulphur.

𝟑𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒚 𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝒚 𝒈 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝟐𝟑𝟑
𝟑𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒙 𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝒚 𝒈 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝟐𝟑𝟑
𝟑𝟐𝒚
% 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒖𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟑𝟑𝒙
74
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37
Significance:
It increases the calorific value of the coal, yet it has the
following undesirable effect-

The oxidation products of sulphur (SO2, SO3) especially in

presence of moisture forms sulphuric acid which corrodes
the equipment and pollutes the atmosphere.

75
75

Determination of oxygen in coal:

It is calculated indirectly in the following way-

% of oxygen in coal = 100 - % (C + H + N + S + ash).

Significance:

The less the oxygen content, the better is the coal. As the
oxygen content increases, its moisture holding capacity
also increases.

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38
 77
77

78
78

39
 79
79

80
80

40
 81
81

82
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41
Coal Handling:

83
83

Coal Handling:

84
84

42
Coal Handling:

85
85

Coal Handling:

86
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43
Coal Handling:

87
87

88
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44
(Petroleum) (Latin petra Rock-oleum –oil ) or crude oil is a black,
dark brown or greenish liquid found in porous rock formations in
the earth .

Petroleum have many names used,

Oil, Crude Oil, Raw Oil and Rock
Oil ( this the direct meaning )
The American Petroleum Institute ( API ) defines it as “a substance,
generally liquid, occurring naturally in the earth and composed
mainly of mixtures of chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen
with or without other nonmetallic elements such as sulfur, oxygen,
and nitrogen”
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89

Petroleum or crude oil is a dark greenish-brown, viscous

oil found deep in earth crust. It is composed mainly of
various hydrocarbons (like straight-chain paraffins,
cycloparaffins or naphthalenes, olefins and aromatics),
together with small amounts of organic compounds
containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.

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45
Oil was formed from the remains of animals and plants that lived
millions of years ago in a marine (water) environment before the
dinosaurs. Over the years, the remains were covered by layers of
mud. Heat and pressure from these layers helped the remains turn
into what we today call crude oil. The word "petroleum"
means "rock oil" or "oil from the earth."

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91

There are many different theories as to the origins

of fossil fuels.

The most widely accepted theory says that fossil

fuels are formed when organic matter (such as the
remains of a plant or animal) is compressed under
the earth, at very high pressure for a very long
time.

This is referred to as thermogenic methane.

Thermogenic methane is formed from organic
particles that are covered in mud and other
sediment.
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46
Over time, more and more sediment and mud and other
debris are piled on top of the organic matter.

This sediment and debris puts a great deal of pressure on

the organic matter, which compresses it.

This compression, combined with high temperatures found

deep underneath the earth, break down the carbon bonds
in the organic matter.

As one gets deeper and deeper under the earths crust, the
temperature gets higher and higher.

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93

At low temperatures (shallower deposits), more oil is

produced relative to natural gas.

At higher temperatures, however, more natural gas is

created, as opposed to oil.

That is why natural gas is usually associated with oil in

deposits that are 1 to 2 miles below the earth's crust.

Deeper deposits, very far underground, usually contain

primarily natural gas, and in many cases, pure methane.

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47
Mining of petroleum:

It is done by drilling holes in the earth’s crust and sinking

pipes upto the oil-bearing porous rocks.

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95

With natural gas trapped

Impermeable under the Drilling
earth Rig
sedimentary
itrockcan be recovered by drilling a hole
Note that the
through in reservoirs that contain
impermeable rock. Gasoil andin
gas,
thesethe reservoirs
gas, being theis least dense, isNatural
typically found
under
closest to the
pressure, surface,
allowing it with the oilfrom
to escape Gas
beneaththe
it, typicallyonfollowed
reservoir
Water its own. by a certain amount of
water. Oil

The natural gas and oil can be trapped under impermeable

sedimentary rock, in what is known as an anticlinal formation
96
96

48
 Impermeable Drilling Rig
sedimentary
rock

Natural
Gas
Water
Oil

The natural gas and oil can be trapped under impermeable

sedimentary rock, in what is known as an anticlinal formation
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97

With natural gas trapped under the earth it

can be recovered by drilling a hole through
the impermeable rock. Gas in these reservoirs
is typically under pressure, allowing it to
escape from the reservoir on its own.

Note that in reservoirs that contain oil and gas, the

gas, being the least dense, is found closest to the
surface, with the oil beneath it, typically followed
by a certain amount of water.
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49
 99
99

Petroleum is found in porous rock formations

in the upper strata of some areas of the
Earth's crust .

It consists of a complex mixture of

hydrocarbons, mostly alkanes, but may vary
greatly in appearance and composition .

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50
Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for
producing:
Fuel Oil and Petrol ( gasoline ), both are
important “Primary Energy ”sources .
Petroleum is also the raw material for many
Chemical products, including
Solvents ,
Fertilizers,
Pesticides, and
Plastics .
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101

Refining of crude oil:

The crude oil is separated into various useful fractions by

fractional distillation and finally converted into desired
specific products. The process is called ‘refining of crude
oil’ and the plants set up for the purpose, are called the oil
refineries. The refining involves

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51
Step 1: Separation of water (Cottrell’s process):

The crude oil from the oil well is an extremely stable

emulsion of oil and salt water. The process of freeing oil
from water consists in allowing the crude to flow between
two highly charged electrodes. The colloidal water-droplets
coalesce to form large drops, which separate out from the
oil.

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Step 2: Removal of harmful sulphur compounds:

This involves in treating oil with copper oxide. A reaction

occurs with sulphur compounds, which results in the
formation of copper sulphide (a solid), which is then
removed by filtration.

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52
Step 3: Fractional distillation:
The crude oil is then heated to about 400 °C in an iron
retort whereby all volatile constituents, except the residue
(asphalt or coke) are evaporated. The hot vapours are then
passed up a fractionating column, which is a tall
cylindrical tower containing a number of horizontal
stainless steel trays at short distances. Each tray is
provided with small chimney, covered with a loose cap. As
the vapours go up, they become gradually cooler and
fractional condensation takes place at different heights of
column. Higher boiling fraction condenses first, while the
lower boiling fractions turn-by-turn.

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105

Refineries including ,products fuel-non produce also

petrochemicals, asphalt, road oil, lubricants,
solvents, and wax .
Petrochemicals and ,benzene ,propylene ,ethylene)
used are they where ,plants chemical to shipped are (others
plastics and chemicals manufacture to.

An oil refinery is an industrial process plant where crude

oil is processed and refined into useful petroleum
products ,such as gasoline and diesel fuel.
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53
A refinery is a factory. Just as a paper mill turns lumber
into paper, a refinery takes crude oil and turns it into
gasoline and hundreds of other useful products .

A typical refinery costs billions of dollars to build and

millions more to maintain a refinery runs twenty-four
hours a day, 365 days a year and requires a large number
of employees to run.

After crude oil is removed from the ground, it is sent to a

refinery by pipeline, ship or barge.
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107

The world needs gasoline and petroleum products to move

merchandise and people; help make plastics; and do many
other things.

Today, some refineries turn more than half of every 42-

gallon barrel of crude oil into gasoline. How does this
transformation take place? Essentially, refining breaks
crude oil down into its various components, which then are
selectively reconfigured into new products.

All refineries perform three basic steps:

separation, conversion, and treatment.
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54
 A typical Refinery Photo
109
109

At a refinery, different parts of the crude oil are

separated into useable petroleum products.

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55
 Oil Refinery Simple Tower
111
111

 Products of Oil Refinery

Liquid petroleum gas(LPG)
Gasoline
Kerosene
Diesel fuel
Fuel oils
Lubricating oils
Paraffin wax
Tar
Asphalt 112
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56
 Products Made from a Barrel of Crude Oil (Gallons)

Crude oil is measured in barrels (abbreviated "bbls").

A 42-U.S. gallon barrel of crude oil provides slightly more

than 44.6 gallons of petroleum products.

This gain from processing the crude oil is similar to what

happens to popcorn, it gets bigger after it is popped.

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113

42 gallons ( bbl ) of crude oil

produces
44.6 gallons of oil products
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57
 115
115

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58
 117
117

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59
 119
119

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120

60
 121
121

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61
 Liquid Fuel Transportation
• Manufacturer ’ s Original Containers
• Safety Transport Cans (UN 3A1 and UN 1A1)
• Military-Style Metal Jerricans (UN 3A1)
• Safety Cans (UL or FM Two-Compartment Fuel and Oil
Containers (UL)
• Pump Fuel Plastic Fuel Containers
• Drip Torches That Meet DOT (Department of
transportation )Specifications (UN 3B1)
• Drip Torches That Do Not Meet DOT
• Aluminum Fuel Bottles
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123

Manufacturer’s Original Containers

Manufacturers’ containers, such as
Coleman fuel cans, may be used to
transport their original contents, but shall
not be reused, and consists of :
• A relocated pour handle
• A linkage between the pour handle and the
lid on the fill opening that vents the can
during pouring and allows fuel to flow
faster
• A stiffening rib to make the can less prone
to damage during temperature changes
• A carrying handle spanning the top of the
metal collar
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62
 Safety Transport Cans (UN 3A1 and
UN 1A1)
• Safety transport cans are containers that meet DOT
specifications for transporting fuel and the OSHA
(occupational safety and health
administration)requirements for safety cans.

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125

Military-Style Metal Jerricans (UN 3A1)

It is metal jerricans with a self-

closing lid that vents fuel. The self-
closing lid may be removed and
replaced with the jerrican’s bung
(leakproof screw-in top) when
deemed necessary to prevent
leakage during transportation. The
approved self-closing lid must be
reinstalled when the jerrican is used
for dispensing or is stored.
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63
Two-Compartment Fuel and Oil Containers
(UL)
• Two-compartment fuel
and oil containers (often
called Dolmars—may be
used to transport fuel.

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127

Safety Cans (UL or FM)

• Safety cans meeting OSHA

(occupational safety and health
administration) requirements,
and spillproof container
regulations. Because safety
cans do not meet the UN
specifications.

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64
 Pump Fuel Tanks

• Fuel tanks for the (Mark-3

pump) and fuel tanks for other
pumps are approved for
transporting fuel.

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129

Plastic Fuel Containers

Three types of plastic fuel containers are now being

used: military-style plastic jerricans (UN 3H1),
consumer plastic containers (UL), and plastic fuel
bottles, such as Nalgene bottles .

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65
 Drip Torches That Meet DOT
Specifications (UN 3B1)
• All new drip torches must meet
Forest Service specification
5100-614 and DOT
specifications (UN 3B1, UN
1B1, UN 3A1, and others

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131

Aluminum Fuel Bottles

• Aluminum fuel bottles (often

called Sigg bottles, General
Services Administration National
Stock Number 7240–01– 351–
2133) are approved for
transporting fuel

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66
 Steel Drums (8 to 55 Gallons)
• Use steel drums without removable
heads (UN 1A1) to transport
flammable and combustible liquids
• Use steel drums with removable heads
(UN 1A2, figure 20) or without
removable heads (UN 1A1) for aerial
ignition.(used to resist forest fires )
• Use steel drums with removable heads
(UN 1A2) to transport hazardous
waste or damaged fuel containers

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133

Oil Shale
and
Kerogen
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67
 Oil Shale and Kerogen

Oil shale is a general term applied to a group of rocks

One inton
rich enough of material
organic (called kerogen
high-grade oil shale
) to yield
petroleum uponabout
yields distillation.
26 gal of shale oil
(Kerogen).
Kerogens are chemical compounds that make up a
portion of the organic matter in sedimentary rocks.
One gallon = 3.79 litre
They are insoluble in normal organic solvents because of
their huge molecular weight (upwards of 1,000).

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135

Oil Shale and Kerogen

Oil shale is a general term applied to a group of rocks

rich enough in organic material (called kerogen) to yield
petroleum upon distillation.

Kerogens are chemical compounds that make up a

portion of the organic matter in sedimentary rocks.

They are insoluble in normal organic solvents because of

their huge molecular weight (upwards of 1,000).

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68
 One ton of high-grade oil shale
yields about 26 gal of shale oil
(Kerogen).

One gallon = 3.79 litre

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137

Tar sands (bituminous Sands)

Oil sands as to referred also ,tar sands or bituminous
sands and ,water ,sand ,clay of combination a are ,
.bitumen

Oil sands are mined to extract the oil-like bitumen which is

upgraded into synthetic crude oil or refined directly into
petroleum products by specialized refineries.

On average, bitumen contains 83.2 % carbon, 10.4 %

hydrogen, 0.94 % oxygen, 0.36 % nitrogen and 4.8 %
sulphur.
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69
Shale oil is not exactly the same as petroleum but it is
composed of an oil-like compound, called kerogen.

The United States has tremendous reserves of shale oil in

the mountains of Colorado and Wyoming.
One ton of high-grade oil shale yields about

26 gal of shale oil.

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139

Natural Gas
140
140

70
 Gas

Natural Manufactured Byproduct

Gas Gas Gas

LPG Coke-Oven Gas

Water Gas Sewage Gas
SNG Blast-Furnace Gas
141
141

Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon gases.

While natural gas is formed primarily of methane CH4, it
can also include ethane C2H6, propane C3H8, and butane
C4H10 ( C1 to C4 ).

The composition of natural gas can vary widely, but below

is a chart outlining the typical makeup of natural gas
before it is refined.

Methane Molecule
CH4
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71
 Typical Composition of Natural Gas

Methane CH4 70 - 90 %
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8 0 - 20 %
Butane C4H10
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0-8%
Oxygen O2 0 - 0.2 %
Nitrogen N2 0–5%
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0–5%
Rare gases A, He, Ne, Xe trace
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143

Natural gas is considered 'dry' when it is almost

pure methane, when most of the other commonly
associated hydrocarbons removed.

When other hydrocarbons are present, the

natural gas is 'wet'.
Natural gas has many uses, residentially,
commercially, and industrially.

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72
Found in reservoirs underneath the earth,
natural gas is commonly associated with oil
deposits.

Production companies search for evidence of

these reservoirs by using sophisticated
technology that helps to find the location of
the natural gas, and drill wells in the earth
where it is likely to be found.
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145

Once brought from underground, the natural gas is

refined to remove impurities like water, other
gases, sand, and other compounds.

Some hydrocarbons are removed and sold

separately, including propane and butane.

After refining, the clean natural gas is transmitted

through a network of pipelines. From these
pipelines, natural gas is delivered to its point of use.

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73
Production and distribution companies
commonly measure natural gas in:

 thousands
thousands of (Mcf)
of cubic feet cubic feet (Mcf),
= 10 3 cubic feet

 millions of cubic feet (MMcf), or

6
millions of cubic feet (MMcf) = 10 cubic feet
 trillions of cubic feet (Tcf).
trillions of cubic feet (Tcf) 12
= 10 cubic feet

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147

While measuring by volume is useful, natural gas

can also be measured as a source of energy.

Like other forms of energy, natural gas is

commonly measured and expressed in British
thermal units (Btu).
To give an idea,
one cubic foot of natural gas
contains about
1,027 Btu's.
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74
When natural gas is delivered to a residence, it is
measured by the gas utility in 'therms' for billing
purposes.

 A therm is equivalent to 100,000

Btu's, or just over 97 cubic feet, of natural
gas.

 1 cf = 1027 Btu &

1Mcf = 1000 x 1027 Btu  10 therm
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149

Natural Gas Transportation

N.G. can be transmitted from oil and gas fields to
the markets by:
• Pipelines
• Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
• Compressed natural gas (CNG)
• Gas to solids (GTS), i.e., hydrates
• Gas to power (GTP), i.e., electricity
• Gas to liquids (GTL), with a wide range of possible
products
• Gas to commodity (GTC), such as aluminum, glass,
cement or iron. 150
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75
 Advantages of pipeline system
• Online transportation.
• Easy to construct.
• Pipeline maintenance is available.
• Flexible in operation.
• Easy for operation.
• Environmental friendly.
• Safe due to low pressure operations.

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151

Disadvantages of pipeline system

• Large capital Cost.
• Depends on the geographical nature.
• No storage facility.
• Very complicated for offshore applications.
• Costly for offshore deep wells.
• Leakage problems.

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76
 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

• LNG is the liquid form of natural gas .

The Gas cooled to approximately −162 ˚C liquefies
and has a volume approximately 1/600 that of gas at
room temperature.

153
153

The LNG Chain

154
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77
 The LNG Chain

155
155

Advantages of LNG

• Currently LNG represents 15% of the EU’s

(European Union)) gas imports.

• LNG is pure, has more methane (CH4) as well as

other energy content.

• Storage availability.

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78
 Disadvantages of LNG
• LNG is most expensive in all energy sectors.

• Polluted in the treatment source but friendly in the

domestic.

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157

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

Gas can be transported in containers at high pressures,

typically 1800 psig for a rich gas (significant amounts of
ethane, propane, etc.) to roughly 3600 psig for a lean gas
(mainly methane). Gas at these pressures is termed
compressed natural gas (CNG). Compressed natural gas is
used in some countries for vehicular transport as an
alternative to conventional fuels (gasoline or diesel). The
filling stations can be supplied by pipeline gas, but the
compressors needed to get the gas to 3000 psig can be
expensive to purchase, maintain, and operate.
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79
 Advantages of CNG

• Compressed natural gas technology provides an

effective way for shorter-distance transport of gas.
The technology is aimed at monetizing offshore
reserves, which cannot be produced because of the
unavailability of a pipeline or because the LNG
option is very costly.

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159

Gas to Solid (GTS)

• Gas can be transported as a solid, with the solid

being gas hydrate. Natural gas hydrate is the product
of mixing natural gas with liquid water to form a
stable water crystalline ice-like substance.

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80
 Stages of GTH
Gas to solids involves three stages:
(Production, Transportation, and Regasification)
• Production
Natural gas hydrates can be formed deliberately by mixing
natural gas and water at 80 to 100 bar and 2 to 10°C. If the
slurry is refrigerated to around −15°C, it decomposes very
slowly at atmospheric pressure
• Transportation
The hydrate can be transported by ship to market in simple
containers insulated to near-adiabatic conditions.
• Regasification
At the market, the slurry is melted back to gas and water by
controlled warming 161
161

Storage of NGH

• The hydrate mixture can be stored at normal

temperatures (0 to −10 °C) and pressures (10 to 1
atmosphere) where 1 m3 of hydrate should contain
about 160 m3 gas per m3 of water.

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81
 Gas to Power (GTP)

• Currently, much of the transported gas destination is

fuel for electricity generation. Electricity generation
at or near the reservoir source and transportation by
cable to the destination(s) (GTP) is possible. Gas to
power could be viewed as defeating the purpose of
an alternative less expensive solution for
transporting gas. This technique is still under study
and development.

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Difficulties to apply GTP technology

• Installing high-power lines to reach the consumers

appears to be almost as expensive as pipelines,
• There is significant energy loss from the cables along
the long-distance transmission lines,
• Additionally, losses also occur when the power it is
converted from the high voltages used in transmission
to the lower values needed by the consumers.
• Increasing Environmental pollution near to the reservoir
location, while reduces the emissions by the consumers.

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82
 Gas to Liquids (GTL)
In GTL transport processes, the natural gas is converted to a
liquid, such as syncrude methanol and ammonia, then
transported via normal transportation systems.

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165

Gas to Commodity
• Commodities such as aluminium, glass, bricks, cement,
and iron bars all require large quantities of energy in
their making. In the gas-to-commodity concept, the gas
is converted to thermal or electrical power, which is
then used in the production of the commodity, which is
then sold on the open market.

• The cost of a GTC plant is very high and raw materials

for conversion to commodities, e.g., bauxite, silica sand,
and limestone, may be difficult to import to sites with
reliability.

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83
Biodiesel production
The increasing in industrialization and motorization of the world
have led to a steep rise in the demand for petroleum-based fuels,
which are obtained from limited reserves which face the danger of
dwindling. In addition, the use of the fossil fuels has led to global
environmental degradation and health hazards, which becomes a
major task to reduce engine emissions due to the increasing concern
of environmental protection and more stringent emission norms.
Hence, it is necessary to look for alternative fuels which can be
produced from resources available locally such as alcohol, biodiesel,
vegetable oils etc.

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167

Biodiesel; one of the most common biofuels is created to match the

physical properties of petroleum diesel which considers a fuel
equivalent of petroleum diesel with the exception of its derivation
from biological sources. Biodiesel essentially comes from plants and
animals. Biodiesel can even be made from recycled cooking grease.
Although biodiesel can be used in its pure form, it is usually blended
with diesel fuel. Blends are indicated by the abbreviation Bxx.

Biodiesel is internationally generally accepted definition according to

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (D6751), is
"fuel comprised of mono-alkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids
derived from vegetable oils or animal fats, designated B100”.

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84
Biodiesel has many advantages but it has some disadvantages. As
talking about its significant advantageous; that engines which
operates on biodiesel doesn't need a major hardware changes, it is
non-toxic and renewable, it can reduce CO2 emissions by about 78%
and lower the carcinogenic properties of diesel fuel by about 94%.

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), biodiesel

degrades at a rate four times faster than conventional petroleum
diesel fuel. Biodiesel could also lower the dependence on petroleum
diesel and increase energy security. It also contributes to an engine’s
ease of movement. It acts as a solvent, which helps to loosen deposits
from the insides of an engine that may normally cause clogs.

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169

Advantages:
- Produced from Renewable Resources: Biodiesel is a renewable
energy source unlike other petroleum products that will vanish in years
to come. Since it is made from animal and vegetable fat, it can be
produced on demand and also causes less pollution than petroleum
diesel.

- Can be used in existing Diesel Engines: One of the main advantage of

using biodiesel is that can be used in existing diesel engines with little or
no modifications at all and can replace fossil fuels to become the most
preferred primary transport energy source.
- Less Greenhouse Gas Emissions (e.g., B20 reduces CO2 by 15%):
Fossil fuels when burnt release greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere that raises the temperature and causes global warming.
To protect the environment from further heating up, many people have
adopted the use of biofuels. Experts believe that using biodiesel instead
of petroleum diesel can reduce greenhouse gases up to 78%.
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85
- Grown, Produced and Distributed Locally: Fossil fuels are limited and may
not be able to fulfill our demand for coal, oil and natural gas after a certain
period. Biodiesel can work as an alternative form of fuel and can reduce our
dependence on foreign suppliers of oil as it is produced from domestic energy
crops. It is produced in local refineries which reduce the need to import
expensive finished product from other countries.
- Cleaner Biofuel Refineries: When oil is extracted from underground, it has
to be refined to run diesel engines. You can’t use it straight away in the crude
form. When it is refined, it releases many chemical compounds including
benzene and butadiene in the environment which are harmful for animals,
plants and human life. Biofuel refineries, which mainly uses vegetable and
animal fat into biofuel releases less toxic chemicals, if spilled or released to the
environment.
- Biodegradable and Non-Toxic: When Biofuels are burnt, they produce
significantly less carbon output and few pollutants. As compared to petroleum
diesel, biodiesel produces less soot (particulate matter), carbon monoxide,
unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide. Flashpoint for biodiesel is higher
than 150°C whereas the same is about 52°C for petroleum diesel, which makes
it less combustible. It is therefore safe to handle, store and transport. 171
171

- Better Fuel Economy: Vehicles that run on biodiesel achieve 30% fuel
economy than petroleum based diesel engines which means it makes
fewer trips to gas stations and run more miles per gallon.
- Positive Economic Impact: Biofuels are produced locally and
thousands of people are employed in biofuel production plant. Since
biodiesel is produced from crops , an increase in demand for biodiesel
leads to increase in demand for suitable biofuel crops. Moreover, it
creates less emission by reducing the amount of suspended particles in
the air. This reduces the cost of healthcare products.
- Reduced Foreign Oil Dependence: With locally produced biofuels,
many countries have reduced their dependence on fossil fuels. It may not
solve all problems in one blow but a nation can save billions by reducing
their usage on foreign oil.
- More Health Benefits: Air pollution cause more deaths and diseases
than any other form of pollution. Pollutants from gasoline engines when
released in the air, form smog and make thousands of people sick every
year. Biodiesel produce less toxic pollutants than other petroleum
products. 172
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Disadvantages:
- Variation in Quality of Biodiesel: Biodiesel is made from variety of
biofuel crops. When the oil is extracted and converted to fuel using
chemical process, the result can vary in ability to produce power. In
short, not all biofuel crops are same as amount of vegetable oil may vary.

- Not Suitable for use in Low Temperatures: Biodiesel gels in cold

weather but the temperature that it will gel depends on the oil or fat that
was used to make it. The best way to use biodiesel during the colder
months is to blend it with winterized diesel fuel.

- Food Shortage: Since biofuels are made from animal and vegetable
fat, more demand for these products may raise prices for these products
and create food crisis in some countries. For e.g.: the production of
biodiesel from corn may raise its demand and it might become more
expensive which may deprive poor people from having it.

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- Increased use of Fertilizers: As more crops are grown to produce

biofuels, more fertilizer is used which can have devastating effect on
environment. The excess use of fertilizers can result in soil erosion and
can lead to land pollution.
- Clogging in Engine: Biodiesel cleans dirt from the engine. This proves
to be an advantage of biofuels but the problem is that this dirt gets
collected in fuel filter and clogs it.

- Regional Suitability: Some regions are not suitable for oil producing
crops. The most productive crops can’t be produced anywhere and they
need to be transported to the plants which increases the cost and amount
of emission associated with the production and transportation.
- Water Shortage: The use of water to produce more crops can put
pressure on local water resources. The areas where there is water
scarcity, production of crops to be used in making of biofuels is not a
wise idea.
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- Monoculture: Monoculture refers to the practice of producing same crop over
and over again rather than producing different crops. While this results in
fetching best price for the farmer but it has some serious environmental
drawbacks. When the same crop is grown over large acres, the pest population
may grow and it may go beyond control. Without crop rotation, the nutrients of
soil are not put back which may result in soil erosion.
- Fuel Distribution: Biodiesel is not distributed as widely as petroleum diesel.
The infrastructure still requires more boost so that it is adopted as most
preferred way to run engines.
- Use of Petroleum Diesel to Produce Biodiesel: It requires much amount of
energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops as energy is needed for sowing,
fertilizing and harvesting crops. Apart from that, raw material needs to be
transported through trucks which may consume some additional fuel. Some
scientists believe that producing one gallon of biofuel needs energy equivalent
to several gallons of petroleum fuel.
- Slight Increase in Nitrogen Oxide Emissions: Biodiesel has about 10%
higher Nitrogen Oxide(NOX) than other petroleum products. Nitrogen Oxide is
one the gas that is used in the formation of smog and Ozone. Once it gets
dissolved in atmospheric moisture, can cause acid rain. 175
175

Biodiesel is a versatile fuel that can be produced from several readily

available virgin or waste vegetable oils. Regardless of the type of
vegetable oil feedstock, biodiesel can be utilized in the following
ways:

1- Heating applications

2- Vehicular applications

3- Electrical generator applications via a diesel generator

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There are four different methods to produce biodiesel; direct use and
blending, micro-emulsions, thermal cracking (pyrolysis) and
transesterification. The most commonly used method is
transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats. The
transesterification reaction is affected by the molar ratio of
glycerides to alcohol, catalysts, reaction temperature, reaction time,
free fatty acids and water content of oils or fats. Transesterification
involves altering the chemical properties of the oil by using
methanol. Transesterification of plant oils with methanol is a
relatively simple process that yields high conversions with only
glycerin as a byproduct. While the process is relatively
straightforward, due to quality concerns, legal liability, and vehicle
warranty restrictions.

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Supercritical process
In supercritical process, an oil with alcohol entered an oven with a
digital temperature screen using a high-pressure pump and the
pressure is mentoring using a digital pressure indicator as shown in
the figure. The mixture then leaves the oven passes throw condenser.
Alcohol and biodiesel leaves the condenser to the recovery process.

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Supercritical process is one of the novel methods in biodiesel
production. Biodiesel production can be easily achieved by this
method without catalysts as shown in the figures. A supercritical
fluid is defined as any substance at a temperature and pressure
above its critical point. It can diffuse through solids like a gas and
dissolve materials like a liquid. These fluids are environment
friendly and economic. Generally, water, carbon dioxide and alcohol
are used as supercritical fluids. Supercritical fluids have different
application areas and biodiesel production is one of these
applications.

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Advantages:
1- Shorter reaction time
2- Clear Biodiesel, or easier purification of products

3- More efficient reaction

Disadvantages:
1- Higher temperature, pressure and molar ratio
2-Energy consumption
3-Excess amount alcohol usage
4-Expensive
5- Low Production

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Microwave assisted process
An alternative heating system “microwave irradiation” has been
used in transesterification reactions in recent years. Microwaves are
electromagnetic radiations which represent a nonionizing radiation
that influences molecular motions such as ion migration or dipole
rotations, but not altering the molecular structure. Microwave
process can be explained for the biodiesel production with
transesterification reaction as shown in the figures: the oil, methanol
and base catalyst contain both polar and ionic components.
Microwaves activate the smallest degree of variance of polar
molecules and ions, leading to molecular friction, and therefore the
initiation of chemical reactions is possible.

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Advantages:
1- Shorter reaction time
2- The heat generated can be for short times and much greater than
the overall recorded temperature of the bulk reaction mixture
3- As a result, a drastic reduction in the quantity of byproducts and
a short separation time are obtained
4- High yields of highly pure products are reached
5- The cost of production also decreases and less by-products occurs
by this method
6- Suitable for mass product

Disadvantages:
1- Microwave synthesis may not be easily scalable from laboratory
small-scale synthesis to industrial production
2- The safety aspect is another drawback of microwave reactors in
industry 183
183

Ultrasound assisted process

Ultrasonic waves are energy application of sound waves which is
vibrated more than 20,000 per second. It has three effects according
to the investigators; first one is rapid movement of fluids caused by a
variation of sonic pressure, it causes solvent compression and
rarefaction cycles. The second and the most important one is
cavitation. At high ultrasonic intensities, a small cavity may grow
rapidly through inertial effects, so bubbles grow and collapse
violently.
The last effect of ultrasound is acoustic streaming mixing. Low
frequency ultrasonic irradiation is widely used for biodiesel
production in recent years. Ultrasonic processing of biodiesel
involves the following steps; mixing vegetable oils with the alcohol
(methanol or ethanol) and catalyst, heating the mixture, the heated
mixture is being sonicated inline and glycerin separation by using
centrifuge. The factors affecting ultrasound assisted biodiesel
production are: the catalyst type, alcohol type, ultrasonic power and
frequency effect. 184
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Cintas p. et al designed a flow reactor constituted by three
transducers and showed that, considerable energy saving could be
achieved by large-scale multiple transducer sonochemical reactors
operating in a continuous mode. In this reactor a mixture of oil (1.6
L), methanol and sodium methoxide 30% in methanol (wt. /wt. ratio
80:19.5:0.5, respectively) was fully transesterified at about 45 °C in 1
h. The results confirmed that, high-throughput ultrasound
applications definitively require flow reactors as in the figures.

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185

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Advantages:
1-Effective mixing that improves chemical reaction and heat transfer

2- Energy saving and economically functional method

3-Suitable for mass product

Disadvantages:
1- Special mixing devices can be used to increase mass transfer
2- More complicated structure

3- Expensive

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Transesterification process
Transesterification process as shown in the figure is a conventional
and the most common method for biodiesel production. In
transesterification reaction homogeneous catalysts (alkali or acid) or
heterogeneous catalysts can be used. The catalysts split the oil into
glycerin and biodiesel and they could make production easier and
faster.

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 189
189

Advantages:
1- Very Simple method and doesn’t need any complicated reactor

2- Cheap
3- No need to large feedstock

4- Continuous production

Disadvantages:
1- Consumed much time

2- Separation of by product (glycerol) becomes difficult and take

long time

3- Energy consumption may be very high

4- Separation of catalytic becomes hard and expensive

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 Reports

Presentation in Environmental Considerations for Fuels

Presentation in Safety Considerations of Fuel

Presentation in Economic Considerations of Fuel

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