CHE428

Dr. Hamada Mohamed Gad

2020 - 2021

Chapter I Fuel Technology

Chapter II Physical Properties of Fuels

Chapter III Hydrocarbons and Classifications

Chapter IV Chemical Reaction and Combustion

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 CHE428

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Chapter III Hydrocarbons and Classifications

Hydrocarbons
Types of Hydrocarbons
Refining Process of Petroleum
Fractional distillation
Petroleum-based Liquid Fuels
Non-petroleum-based Liquid Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
Fuel Characteristics
Usage of Hydrocarbons
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 What is it? Formation General
Introduction

HYDROCARBONS

Burning
Or Combustion Classification
Or Types
Usages
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In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound

consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon.

With relation to chemical terminology, aromatic hydrocarbons,

alkanes, alkenes and alkyne-based compounds composed
entirely of carbon or hydrogen are referred to as "pure"
hydrocarbons, whereas other hydrocarbons with bonded
compounds or impurities of sulfur or nitrogen, are referred to
as "impure", and remain somewhat erroneously referred to as
hydrocarbons.

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Hydrocarbons are referred to as consisting of a
"backbone" or "skeleton" composed entirely of carbon and
hydrogen and other bonded compounds, and lack a functional
group that generally facilitates combustion.

The majority of hydrocarbons found naturally occur

in crude oil, where decomposed organic matter provides an
abundance(‫ )وفرة‬of carbon and hydrogen which, when bonded,
can catenate to form seemingly limitless chains.

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TYPES
OF
HYDROCARBONS

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The classifications for hydrocarbons defined by
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry) nomenclature of organic chemistry are as
follows:

HYDROCARBONS

Saturated
Unsaturated Aromatic
hydrocarbons Cycloalkanes
hydrocarbons hydrocarbons
(alkanes)

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HYDROCARBONS

1 Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes)

2 Unsaturated hydrocarbons

3 Cycloalkanes

4 Aromatic hydrocarbons

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1-Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) are the most
simple of the hydrocarbon species and are composed entirely of
single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen.

The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is

CnH2n+2 (assuming non-cyclic structures).
Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are
either found as linear or branched species.

Hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different

structural formulae are called isomers.
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n-Butane
C4H10 Isobutane

CH3CH2CH2CH3 (CH3)3CH

bp -0.4°C bp -10.2°C

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 C5H12

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 (CH3)2CHCH2CH3
n-Pentane Isopentane

(CH3)4C
Neopentane
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How many isomers?

The number of isomeric alkanes increases as the

number of carbons increase.
There is no simple way to predict how many isomers
there are for a particular molecular formula.

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 H CH2CH3 H3C H

C C C C

H H H3C H

1-Butene 2-Methylpropene

H3C CH3 H3C H

C C C C

H H H CH3

cis-2-Butene trans-2-Butene
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1 Meth
2 Eth
3 Prop
Straight-chain alkanes take the
4 But
5 Pent suffix "-ane" and are prefixed
6 Hex depending on the number of carbon
7 Hept atoms in the chain.
8 Oct The first few are:
9 Non
10 Dec
11 Undec
12 Dodec
13 Tridec
14 Tetradec
15 Pentadec
20 Eicos
30 Triacont
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2- Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or

more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.

Those with one double bond are called alkenes,

with the formula CnH2n (assuming non-cyclic
structures).

Those containing triple bonds are called

alkynes, with general formula CnH2n-2.
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3-Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons containing one or
more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are
attached.

The general formula for a saturated hydrocarbon

containing one ring is CnH2n

4- Aromatic hydrocarbons, are hydrocarbons that

have at least one aromatic ring.

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Chemical compounds that are a combination of

Hydrogen (H) and Carbon (C) atoms are called
hydrocarbons.

Because of the number of electrons in the outer

shells or orbits of these two elements, there are a
very large number of compounds that can be
formed.
For example, most petroleum chemicals are
hydrocarbons.
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Hydrogen has one electron in its outer orbit.
That means it tends to combine with other elements so that
it will fill its outer orbit with two electrons.

Outer orbit of Hydrogen atom has one electron

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Carbon has 2 electrons in the first orbit and 4 electrons

in second, outer orbit.

It would need four more to fill the orbit with the maximum
of 8 electrons.

Outer orbit of Carbon has 4 electrons

Of course, the Carbon atom is much bigger than the

Hydrogen atom. Also, we did not show the inner orbit of
the Carbon atom, which has two electrons.
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One form of chemical bonding is when two atoms share a
single electron.

The H2 molecule is an example of this.

Another form of chemical bonding is when two atoms

share each other's electrons, as seen in the illustration
below.

Hydrogen and Carbon share each other's electrons 23

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In the example above, Hydrogen now has a full outer orbit, while
Carbon still is 3 short of filling its outer orbit.
In reality, the outer orbit of Carbon is much bigger than the outer
orbit of Hydrogen. They are drawn the same size for the sake of
convenience.
If we continue to add Hydrogen atoms, we can fill Carbon's outer
orbit too.

Methane
(CH4)

The outer orbits of both Hydrogen and Carbon are filled in the
resulting compound Methane, which is a volatile gas.
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 Now, two Carbon atoms can also share electrons.

Carbon atoms share electrons

As you can see, each Carbon atom has 5 electrons in its

outer orbit.

This means we could add 3 Hydrogen atoms to each to

make a new compound. 25
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Ethane (C2H6)

H H
H
H
H H
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 Ethane
(C2H6)

The 6 Hydrogen atoms and the 2 Carbon atoms combine to form

Ethane.

This method can be continued to form Propane (C3H8), which is an

inflammable liquid. Campers often use Propane in lamps and
heaters.

Instead of drawing all the electrons, the above illustration is an

easier way of diagramming the compound. 27
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Ethane
(C2H6)

The 6 Hydrogen atoms and the 2 Carbon atoms combine to form

Ethane.

This method can be continued to form Propane (C3H8), which is an

inflammable liquid. Campers often use Propane in lamps and
heaters.

Instead of drawing all the electrons, the above illustration is an

easier way of diagramming the compound. 28
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 can be:

Gases (e.g. methane and propane),

Liquids (e.g. hexane and benzene),

Waxes or low melting solids (e.g. paraffin wax

and naphthalene) or

Polymers (e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene

and polystyrene).
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Simple hydrocarbons and their variations

CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2 CnH2n CnH2n-2
Number of
carbon atoms
Alkane Alkene Alkyne Cycloalkane Alkadiene
1 Methane — — — —
2 Ethane Ethene Ethyne — —
3 Propane Propene Propyne Cyclopropane Allene
Butane Cyclobutane
4 Butene Butyne Butadiene
Isobutane Methylcyclopropane

Pentane Cyclopentane
Pentadiene
5 Isopentane Pentene Pentyne Methylcyclobutane
Isoprene
Neopentane Ethylcyclopropane

Cyclohexane
Methylcyclopentane
6 Hexane Hexene Hexyne Hexadiene
Ethylcyclobutane
Propylcyclopropane

Cycloheptane
7 Heptane Heptene Heptyne Heptadiene
Methylcyclohexane
8 Octane Octene Octyne Cyclooctane Octadiene
9 Nonane Nonene Nonyne Cyclononane Nonadiene
10 Decane Decene Decyne Cyclodecane Decadiene

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 Cyclobutane
Butane
4 Isobutane
Butene Butyne Methylcyclopropa Butadiene
ne

Pentane Cyclopentane
Pentadiene
5 Isopentane Pentene Pentyne Methylcyclobutane
Isoprene
Neopentane Ethylcyclopropane

Cyclohexane
Methylcyclopentan
e
6 Hexane Hexene Hexyne
Ethylcyclobutane
Hexadiene

Propylcyclopropan
e

Cycloheptane
7 Heptane Heptene Heptyne
Methylcyclohexane
Heptadiene

8 Octane Octene Octyne Cyclooctane Octadiene

9 Nonane Nonene Nonyne Cyclononane Nonadiene

10 Decane Decene Decyne Cyclodecane Decadiene

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Number of
carbon Alkane Alkene Alkyne Cycloalkane Alkadiene
atoms

1 Methane — — — —

2 Ethane Ethene Ethyne — —

3 Propane Propene Propyne Cyclopropane Allene

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 Example
If
Number of
Carbon Atoms = 3

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C3H? Propane CnH2n+2 1-ALKANE

Propane is a three-carbon alkane, normally a gas, but
compressible to a transportable liquid. It is derived from
other petroleum products during oil or natural gas
processing.

3D

IUPAC name
C3H8 (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry) 34
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 C3H? Propane CnH2n+2 1-ALKANE
Propane is a three-carbon alkane, normally a gas, but
compressible to a transportable liquid. It is derived from
other petroleum products during oil or natural gas
processing.

3D

IUPAC name
C3H8
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C3H? Propene CnH2n 2-ALKENE

Propene, also known as propylene, is an unsaturated organic
compound having the chemical formula C3H6.

It has one double bond, and is the second simplest member of

the alkene class of hydrocarbons, and it is also second in natural
abundance.
3D

IUPAC name

C3H6 (International Union of Pure and

Applied Chemistry) 36
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 C3H? Propene CnH2n 2-ALKENE
Propene, also known as propylene, is an unsaturated organic
compound having the chemical formula C3H6.

It has one double bond, and is the second simplest member of

the alkene class of hydrocarbons, and it is also second in natural
abundance.
3D

IUPAC name

C3H6 37
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C3H? Propyne CnH2n-2 3-ALKYNE

Alkynes are hydrocarbons that have
a triple bond between two carbon atoms, with the formula
CnH2n-2. Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes.
Methylacetylene (propyne) is an alkyne with the chemical
formula CH3C≡CH.

CH3C≡CH
3D

IUPAC name
C3H4 (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry) 38
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 C3H? Propyne CnH2n-2 3-ALKYNE
Alkynes are hydrocarbons that have
a triple bond between two carbon atoms, with the formula
CnH2n-2. Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes.
Methylacetylene (propyne) is an alkyne with the chemical
formula CH3C≡CH.

CH3C≡CH
3D

IUPAC name
C3H4 39
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C3H? Cyclopropane 4-Cycloalkane

Cyclopropane is a cycloalkane molecule with the molecular
formula C3H6, consisting of three carbon atoms linked to
each other to form a ring, with each carbon atom bearing
two hydrogen atoms.

CnH2n

3D

C3H6 (International Union of Pure

IUPAC
Applied Chemistry)
nameand
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 C3H? Cyclopropane 4-Cycloalkane
Cyclopropane is a cycloalkane molecule with the molecular
formula C3H6, consisting of three carbon atoms linked to
each other to form a ring, with each carbon atom bearing
two hydrogen atoms.

CnH2n

3D

C3H6 IUPAC name

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Cyclopropane Cyclopentane Cyclohexane

IUPAC name 42
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 C3H? Allene CnH2n-2 5-Allene
An allene is a hydrocarbon in which one atom of carbon is
connected by double bonds with two other atoms of
carbon.
Allene also is the common name for the parent compound
of this series, propadiene.

3D
C3H4
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1-ALKANE CnH2n+2 C3H8

2-ALKENE CnH2n C3H6

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 3-ALKYNE CnH2n-2 C3H4

4-Cycloalkane CnH2n C3H6

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5-Allene CnH2n-2 C3H4

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 cyclohexane
phenylbenzene

ethylbenzene

1-ethyl-3-propylbenzene

propylbenzene
2-phenylpropane
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Structure of benzene

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 Formula Prefix Suffix Name Structure
H

CH 4 meth- -ane methane H C H

C2H 6 eth- -ane ethane H3C CH3

C3H 8 prop- -ane propane

C4H 10 but- -ane butane

C5H 12 pent- -ane pentane

C6H 14 hex- -ane hexane

C7H 16 hept- -ane heptane

C8H 18 oct- -ane octane

C9H 20 non- -ane nonane

C10H22 dec- -ane decane

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Refining Process of Petroleum

Crude oil coming out from the oil wells is a liquid consisting mainly
of hydrocarbons with traces of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and a few
impurities such as water and sediment.
Crude petroleum is rarely used as a fuel.

It is refined so as to produce desirable commercial products.

Crude petroleum has different hydrocarbon constituents that have

different boiling points.

The boiling points of the various constituents increase more or less

regularly with the increase of molar mass.

This fact is used in the refining process to separate crude oil into
more desirable products by fractional distillation.
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Fractional distillation:
The distillation of petroleum is carried out
in a tubular furnace with a tall steel
fractionating column. The crude oil is
pumped continuously through a heated
pipe and flashed into the fractionating
column.
The vapours of the oil as they rise up the
fractionating column become cooler and
condensate on the shelves at various
heights.
The heavier compounds have a high boiling point and, as the
vapours rise in the tower and are cooled, the heavy fractions
precipitate first and are removed from the tower.
The light hydrocarbons rise to the top of the column before
condensing, while the compounds with intermediate boiling points
are removed at the intermediate stages. 51
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Outlets are provided in the side of the column at suitable heights for
withdrawal of several fractions.

The figure shows the primary

fractions, obtained from a
fractionating tower, and the order
in which they occur.

From top to bottom of the

fractionating tower, the fractions
are gases principally butane,
propane, and ethane.

Next come the gasoline, naphthas,

kerosene, diesel oil, lubricating oil,
heavy gas oil, in that order. 52
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After distillation, a residue of paraffin wax or asphalt is left,
depending on the base of the oil, i.e. whether it is paraffin or
naphthene.
The demand ratio of certain
components, such as gasoline to
other petroleum components, far
exceeds the naturally occurring
ratio of gasoline found in crude
oil.
This has led to the development
of refinery processes to ‘crack’
the larger molecules into smaller
molecules and ‘polymerize’ or
‘alkylate’ small molecules into
larger molecules to get the boiling
points of the resulting component
in the gasoline range. 53
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Cracking:
It is the process of breaking down the large and complex molecules
into lighter and simpler compounds.
Cracking reactions may be thermal or catalytic.
In thermal cracking the heavy hydrocarbons are subjected to high
temperature and pressure.
At high temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases
and as a result they move faster and strike harder.
Thus, some of the chemical bonds holding the carbon atoms together
break away and the molecules split into lighter and smaller
compounds.
In catalytic cracking, somewhat lower pressure and temperature are
required and the smaller molecules are found to be isomeric rather
than normal hydrocarbons.
This is desirable because the isomeric compounds have better
antiknock characteristics. 54
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An example of a cracking reaction is the breaking off the chain-line
structure of paraffin, n-tetradecane into two smaller constituents,
one being a paraffin, C7H16, and the other an olefin, C7H14, i.e.

C14 H 30  C7 H16  C7 H 14

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Hydrogenation:
It may be described as a cracking process which occurs in an
atmospheric of hydrogen.

Here, certain unsaturated compounds pick up more hydrogen to

become saturated, and the yield and quality of gasoline are
increased.

This process gives a high-octane product with a high boiling point

and high flash point.

It is especially suited for aviation gasoline.

The hydrogenation process is also used to produce liquid fuel from

coal and other than similar materials.
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Absorption:
The gases leaving the refining processes may contain some heavier
hydrocarbons in the vapour state, which may fall into the gasoline
range.

The absorption process is used to recover these vapours.

In this process the gases come into contact with a kerosene or light
oil which absorbs the heavy hydrocarbon vapours.

The vapours are then driven out from the oil by heating.

Finally, the vapours are cooled to obtain gasoline.

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Polymerization:
It is the process of combining the unsaturated products of one family
(two or more olefinic molecules) to form heavier and stable
compounds that have a high antiknock rating.

A typical chemical reaction is given below.

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Alkylation:
It is the process of combining light undesirable hydrocarbons of one
chemical family with another family to form a larger molecule.

An isoparaffin (usually isobutane) combines with an olefin (usually

butene or propene) to form a larger isoparaffin (usually isooctane or
isoheptane) that has a very high octane number.

Isomerization:
It is the process of changing the relative position of atoms within the
molecule of a hydrocarbon without changing its molecular formula.

It produces isomers of the original hydrocarbons.

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Cyclization:
It is a process of joining together the ends of a straight chain
molecule to form a ring compound of the naphthene family.

Aromatization:

It is a process of joining together the ends of a straight chain

molecule to form an aromatic compound.

Reforming:
It is used to convert low antiknock quality gasoline into high
antiknock quality.
It does not increase the total gasoline volume as in polymerization
and alkylation. 60
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Finished blended products:

It is a process of mixing certain products to obtain a commercial

product of desired quality.

The products from the various refinery processes are blended

together to form liquid fuels with the proper physical characteristics
to give high quality gasoline, fuel oil, kerosene, diesel fuel, etc.

These liquid products are then put through the various finishing
processes to reduce the sulphur and wax contents.

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Petroleum-based Liquid Fuels:

Gasoline:
It consists of a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons having four to ten
carbon atoms, small amounts of lighter and heavier hydrocarbons,
minute quantities of crude petroleum impurities such as sulphur and
nitrogen.
Some additives in very low percentages are used to impart
performance benefits.
Gasoline is the lightest petroleum fraction in the liquid form.
The boiling range of gasoline lies between 30 °C and 200 °C.
The specific gravity lies between 0.70 and 0.78.
The chemical composition of its constituents varies widely,
depending on the base crude and the process of refining.
The heating value of a typical gasoline is 44,000 kJ/kg.
It is widely used in spark-ignition engines. 62
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Kerosene:
It is the next fraction heavier than gasoline.
It is widely used in lamps, heaters, stoves, and similar appliances.
It may also be used in CI engines and gas turbines.
The specific gravity of kerosene lies between 0.78 and 0.85.

Diesel oils:
There are petroleum fractions heavier than kerosene.
These oils cover a wide range of specific gravity and a very wide
distillation range.
Their composition is controlled to make them suitable for use in
various types of CI engines.
The heating value of a typical diesel oil is 42,000 kJ/kg.
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Fuel oils:
The range of specific gravity and the distillation range are similar to
those of diesel oil.
Their composition does not require accurate control as is required in
the case of diesel oils.
These fuel are used in continuous burners.

Lubricating oils:

These are made up in part from heavy distillation of petroleum and

in part from residual oils that remain after distillation.

These are used for lubricating purposes.

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Non-petroleum-based Liquid Fuels:

Benzol

Alcohol

Acetone

Diethyl-ether

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Gaseous Fuels:
Gaseous fuels present no difficulty regarding mixing with air,
distributing homogeneous mixture to various cylinders and cold
starting.
However, gaseous fuels create problems of storage and handling
large volumes especially in automobiles.

Consequently, gaseous fuels find applications in stationary power

plants located near an abundant supply of the fuel.

Some gaseous fuels can be liquefied under pressure to increase the

density and thus reduce the storage tank volume.

Use of natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is increasing

and attempts to use hydrogen as a fuel in IC engines are in progress.

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Natural Gas:
Natural gas is a mixture of several different gases.
The primary constituent is methane, which typically makes up 85-
99% of the total volume.
The other constituents include other hydrocarbons, inert gases such
as nitrogen, helium and carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen
sulphide and water.
The non-methane hydrocarbons present in natural gas consist
primarily of ethane.
The remainder is made up mostly of propane and butane, with some
traces of C5 and higher species.
Natural gas is an excellent fuel for SI engines.
As a gas under normal conditions, it mixes readily with air in any
proportion.
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Unlike liquid fuels it does not need to vaporize before burning.

Thus cold engine starting is easier especially at low temperatures,
and cold-start enrichment is not required.
Cold-start enrichment is a major source of CO emissions and
emissions-related problems in gasoline-fuelled SI engines.
Natural gas has a high ignition temperature, and is resistant to self-
ignition.
It has excellent antiknock properties.

Pure methane has an equivalent research octane number of 130, the

highest of any commonly used fuel.
Because of its antiknock properties, natural gas can safely be used
with engine compression ratios as high as 15:1 (compared to 8 -10:1
for 90 octane gasoline).
Natural gas engines using these higher compression ratios can reach
significantly higher efficiencies than are possible with gasoline.
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Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG):
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a product of petroleum gases,
principally propane (C3H8), propylene (C3H6) and butane (C4H10).

These gases can be liquefied at normal temperatures by subjecting

them to a moderate pressure.

Owing to the demand from industry for butane derivatives, LPG

sold as a fuel is made up largely of propane.

Liquefied petroleum gases are used as fuels for stoves, trucks, buses,
and tractors in many parts of the world.

The LPG has higher heating value compared to gasoline.

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Since propane and butane are heavier than air, the escaping gas will
tend to settle and collect in pockets thus creating an explosion
hazard.
The LPG is suitable for IC engines because of its availability and low
carbon content, thus resulting in drastic reduction in exhaust
emissions.

The LPG has a high self-ignition temperature and a high octane

number, which makes it more suitable for SI engines.

Engines with natural gas and LPG can run lean because of their
better distribution and higher misfire limits.

Also, their higher octane numbers, allow an increase in the

compression ratio in SI engines, which consequently improves the
thermal efficiency and reduces the exhaust emissions.

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Producer Gas:
It is made by burning carbonaceous (coal, wood, charcoal, coke etc.)
with a large deficiency of air and treating with steam.
The products of this partial combustion contain CO and H2 in
sufficient quantities, so that they can be used in an engine as a fuel.
The producer gas has a high percentage of N2, since air is used.

Thus, it has a low heat value.

Coal Gas:
Coal is heated to temperatures up to 1500 °C in the presence of very
little air.

The complex organic compounds of the coal decompose at the high

temperature and form simpler, volatile products and coke. 71
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Hydrogen:
With the imposition of stringent emission standards along with the
decreasing availability of petroleum products, it is imperative that a
search for low polluting alternative fuels be made.

Hydrogen, as an SI engine fuels acquires special significance in view

of its unlimited supply potential and almost non-polluting
characteristics.

Even though with current economics hydrogen would be a costly

automotive fuel, based on long-term considerations, its relative cost
standing may improve considerably.

As and when a cheaper method of hydrogen production becomes

available, it could be used for aircraft, marine vessels, railways and
automotive vehicles.
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Hydrogen has emerged as a potential fuel for internal combustion
engines.
It is generally considered to be non-polluting because hydrogen
contains no carbon.
Species such as carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons,
which are normally found in gasoline fuelled engines, would be
virtually eliminated in the exhaust.
Hydrogen is found in abundant quantities in various forms and can
be considered to be an almost inexhaustible fuel.
It can be adapted as a fuel to engines without major design changes.
The problems generally experienced in a hydrogen-fueled engine are
the backfiring, preignition, knocking and rapid rate of pressure rise
during the combustion process because of the higher flame speed.
Backfiring is mainly due to less ignition energy for a hydrogen-air
mixture.
Localized hot points in the chamber and the temperature of the
residual gas are sometimes sufficient to cause backfiring. 73
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Hydrogen-fuelled engines can be run at a much leaner equivalence

ratio than a gasoline-fuelled engine, although lean operation of
hydrogen-fuelled engine generally reduce NOX emissions and show
improved thermal efficiency.

Problems associated with too lean mixtures increase the ignition

delay and cause severe cyclic variations.

The hydrogen peroxide is present in the exhaust products of a

hydrogen-fuelled engine operating with very lean mixtures.

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Compared with hydrocarbon fuels, hydrogen has certain advantages
due to its higher chemical reactivity:

(a) A higher flame propagation speed:

The high flame propagation speed of hydrogen certainly benefits the
thermodynamic efficiency of the engine as the combustion process is
closer to the optimum theoretical combustion at constant volume.

(b) Wider ignition limits:

The wider ignition limits provide the possibility to run with
extremely lean mixtures.

(c) lower ignition energy:

A lower ignition energy is favorable for ignition of lean mixtures in
SI engines.

It has the disadvantages of resulting in abnormal combustion

(knock and surface ignition), especially near stoichiometry. 75
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Because backfire must be avoided at all cost, it is necessary to avoid

knock and surface ignition.
This can be done by leaning the mixture.
Since this reduces the available power, its use should be limited.
Knocking and the rate of pressure rise can also be controlled by
increasing the flame travel distance.
This can be done by locating the spark plug near the periphery,
away from the centre of the cylinder head.
One-board storage of hydrogen remains a major technical challenge.
As a gas, hydrogen has a very low energy density.
This leads to a large tank size even with high pressure storage and
short vehicle range.
Storing hydrogen in liquid form is also problematic as it liquefies at -
235 °C.
Storage of hydrogen may be achieved by solid state hydride storage
materials, liquid hydrides, microglass sphere storage, storage in
carbon, storage in zeolites, and similar such storage. 76
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The properties of methanol, ethanol and gasoline are compared in
the table.

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Fuel Characteristics:
1- The heat of combustion of the fuel is decreased when the ratio of
C/H increased. So the paraffins have the highest heating value
while the alcohols have the lowest.

2- The self-ignition temperature is decreased when the ratio of C/H

decreased in the same family.
3- The self-ignition temperature decreases when the number of
atoms in the molecule increases.
4- The boiling temperature increases when the number of atoms in
the molecule increases.
5- The delay time increases when C/H increases.

6- For the same family, the delay time increases when the molecule is
complex.
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The characteristics of the IC engine fuels must be such that the
following requirements are met:

1- The fuel should get effectively atomized, vaporized and well mixed
with the air.
2- The combustion process must be fast.

3- Starting of the engine should be quick and reliable at any ambient

conditions.
4- The surface of the combustion chamber should remain free from
carbon and other deposits.
5- The cylinder face, the piston and the piston rings should not get
subjected to excessive wear and corrosion.
6- The basic elements of the engine should remain free from thermal
stresses due to temperature gradient developed during
combustion.
7- Combustion should be complete without the evolution of harmful
exhaust gases. 79
79

The IC engines can be operated on many different kinds of fuels,

including liquid, gaseous, and even solid.

The selection of a fuel for a particular use in engines is mainly

governed by:

(a) The type of the equipment required to store, supply and burn the
fuel in the engine.

(b) The heating value per unit volume of the fuel.

(c) the availability and cost of the fuel at the site of the engine.

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Octane number:
Octane number of a fuel is the percentage by volume of the iso-
octane in a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane and which will
match the detonation intensity of the fuel when the comparison of
detonation intensity is made in a standardized test engine under
specially agreed operating conditions.

Cetane number:
Cetane number of a fuel is the percentage by volume of normal
cetane in a mixture of normal cetane and alpha methyl naphthalene
which has the same ignition characteristics (ignition delay) as the
test fuel when comparison is carried out in a standard engine under
specific operating conditions.

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81

USAGE
OF
HYDROCARBONS

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82

41
It is commonly used as a fuel for engines, barbecues(‫)شوى‬,
portable stoves(‫ )مواقد‬and residential central heating ‫)تسخين‬
(‫وتدفئة المساكن‬.
When used as vehicle fuel, it is commonly known as
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG or LP-gas), which can be a
mixture of propane along with small amounts of
propylene, butane, and butylene.

The odorant ethanethiol is also added so that people can

easily smell the gas in case of a leak.

83
83

Hydrocarbons are one of the Earth's most important

energy resources.

The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a combustible

fuel source.

In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt.

Mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in

preference(‫ )المفضل‬to the chlorofluorocarbons as a
propellant (‫)وقود‬for aerosol sprays, due to
chlorofluorocarbons impact on the ozone layer. 84
84

42
Methane [1C] and ethane [2C] are gaseous at ambient
temperatures and cannot be readily liquefied by pressure
alone.

Propane [3C] is however easily liquefied, and exists in

'propane bottles' mostly as a liquid.

Butane [4C] is so easily liquefied that it provides a safe,

volatile fuel for small pocket lighters(‫)وﻻعة‬.

Pentane [5C] is a clear liquid at room temperature,

commonly used in chemistry and industry as a powerful
nearly odorless solvent of waxes and high molecular
weight organic compounds, including greases.
85
85

Hexane [6C] is also a widely used non-polar, non-aromatic

solvent, as well as a significant fraction of common
gasoline.

The [6C] through [10C] alkanes, alkenes and isomeric

cycloalkanes are the top components of gasoline, naptha,
jet fuel and specialized industrial solvent mixtures.

With the progressive addition of carbon units, the simple

non-ring structured hydrocarbons have higher viscosities,
lubricating indices, boiling points, solidification
temperatures, and deeper color.
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43
At the opposite extreme from [1C] methane lie the heavy
tars that remain as the lowest fraction in a crude oil
refining retort.

They are collected and widely utilized as roofing

compounds, pavement composition, wood preservatives
(the creosote series) and as extremely high viscosity sheer-
resisting liquids.

87
87

Hydrocarbons are currently the main source of the world’s

electric energy and heat sources (such as home heating)
because of the energy produced when burnt.

Often this energy is used directly as heat such as in home

heaters, which use either oil or natural gas.

The hydrocarbon is burnt and the heat is used to heat

water, which is then circulated. A similar principle is used
to create electric energy in power plants.

All Hydrocarbon combustion reactions produce Carbon

Dioxide and Water.
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44
Main Applications of Hydrocarbons:
Liquid fuels:
- Fuels called fossils come from oil. We can define them as a
class of hydrocarbons that come into combustion when
heated in the presence of oxygen.
- The most common today are the different types of gasoline,
diesel and kerosene. They are also used for all industrial
machinery and for electric generators.

- Most of the vehicles work thanks to this type of fuel for what
is, to this day, irreplaceable.

- However, the pollution it causes and the forecast of its

depletion, is giving rise to a possible substitute for medium
term. 89
89

Natural gas:

- Natural gas is becoming increasingly important in many

fields, from industrial to different uses in the home.

- These gaseous hydrocarbons are extracted either from

independent or other associated oil fields.
- In the last years it is being used as fuel for transportation.
There are vehicles that run on methane or propane, being
more economical and less polluting than those that need
gasoline or diesel.
- As domestic applications it is used in heating and kitchens.
For its part, it is widely used in the industry, from
metallurgical to glassmaking.
90
90

45
Manufacturing of Plastics:
- Another of the uses that is given to hydrocarbons is the
manufacture of plastics. For this they need a processing that
takes place in the petrochemical industry.

- Plastics are one of the most present materials in everyday

life, due to their resistance and the possibility of giving them
many forms.
- There are three different classes, depending on their chemical
structure and the way they have been manufactured:
thermosetting, thermoplastics and polyurethanes.
- The most commonly used plastic is polyethylene, which can
be found in products as common as bags, containers or pipes.

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91

Soaps and Cosmetics:

- Although in principle we do not associate hydrocarbons with
this type of articles, the truth is that almost all creams, soaps
or cosmetic products carry them among its ingredients.

- The most common compounds are the same oil and mineral
oil. Both are widely used in moisturizers or lotions, since
they give a feeling of softness.
- However, the use of these materials in beauty or cleaning
articles may have little future. Research by various agencies
has warned of possible negative health effects.
- The World Health Organization itself recommends not using
these components as they may be carcinogenic.

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46
Insecticides and pesticides:
- Hydrocarbons are one of the compounds most present in the
different types of insecticides and pesticides.
- Its use goes back to the 40's of last century. It was then that
they began to use the chlorinated ones to try to eradicate the
different plagues that ravaged the harvests.

- Thus products such as DDT or dieldrin have been shown to

be highly effective in this field. Later, new research greatly
expanded the number of compounds.

- In recent years, however, attempts are being made to

eliminate their use, as they cause great environmental
damage and can be harmful to the health of consumers.
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93

Advantages of Burning Hydrocarbons:

- We can use hydrocarbons as fuel. Hydrocarbons can be
burned to release energy.

- Can be cheap.

- Provides energy quickly and is moderately reliable.

- The amount of carbon dioxide released can be controlled.

- The amount of other gases released, such as sulfur

impurities, can also be reduced by being refined further
(although this process would be expensive)
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47
Disadvantages of Burning Hydrocarbons:
- If complete combustion (when fuels burn in plenty of air) occurs, water and carbon
dioxide are released. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, which restricts radiation of
heat away from earth.

- If the hydrocarbon is burned in a limited supply of air, incomplete combustion occurs

as there is insufficient oxygen to burn completely. Carbon monoxide, a poisonous gas,
is release.
- If air supply is really restricted, carbon can be released as soot and smoke. The solid
particles can be a respiratory irritant. Soot contributes to global dimming; the particles
reflect the sun's rays back away from earth.

- Bigger problem with bigger molecules; require more oxygen to burn.

- Oil and coal contain sulfur compounds. When they burn, they release sulfur dioxide.
As well as being a respiratory irritant, sulfur dioxide is dissolved by rain, making acid
rain. This damages limestone buildings it also changes the PH of the soil (key links).

- Aggressive conditions cause the normally unreactive nitrogen to react. This forms
nitrogen oxides, which are irritants and can also contribute to acid rain.
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95

THE END

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