Source

Models

1. Quiz 1 – To be conducted during Tutorial session

for Source Models next week
2. Online Test 1 – Propose Date and Time: Saturday,
31st Oct from 9am until 5pm

Open
 Outline & Learning Objectives
§ Introduction
Chapter § Liquid Discharge
§ Vapor Discharge
Outline § Liquid Pool Evaporation or Boiling

After completing this chapter, students should

be able to do the following:
§ Understand the requirements for
Instructional consequence modeling procedure
Learning § To describe the possible options of how
Objectives materials could be released from any
process due to an accident
§ To apply suitable source model in order to
estimate the amount of released materials

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 Introduction

§ Spills of materials can lead to disaster

• toxic exposure
• fire
• explosion
§ Materials are released from holes, cracks in various plant components
• tanks, pipes, pumps
• flanges, valves
§ Source models represent the material release process – provision
of useful information for determining the consequences of an
accident:
• rate of material release, mass/time
• total quantity released
• state of material: liquid, solid, gas, or combination
• Other information specific to the situation

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 Consequences Analysis Procedure
Loss of containment
•Rupture or break in pipeline
Selection of a Release Incident •Hole in a tank or pipeline
•Runaway reaction
To describe release accident •Fire external to vessel
•Total quantity released
Selection of a Source Model (C4)
•Release duration
•Release rate Neutrally buoyant models
Results from the models
Selection of a Dispersion Model (C5)
•Downwind concentration
•Area affected
•Duration

Models Flammable/Toxic
•TNT Equivalency Flammable Toxic
•Multi-Energy Explosion •Response vs dose
•Fireball •Probit model
Selection of Fire Selection of •Toxic response
Results & Explosion Model (C6) Effect Model (C2) •No. of individuals affected
•Blast overpressure
•Radiant heat flux •Property damage
•Escape Mitigation Factors
•Emergency Response
•Containment dikes
•PPE
Consequence Model

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 Source Models
§ Several basic source models frequently used;
• Flow of liquid through a hole
• Flow of liquid through a hole in a tank
• Flow of vapour through holes
• Liquid pool evaporating or boiling

There are many more such as:

1. Flow of liquids through pipes
2. Flow of gases or vapor through pipes
3. Flashing liquids
4. Etc.

More complex models can be developed from these simple

models.

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 Release Mechanisms

§ Classified into wide and limited aperture releases.

§ Wide aperture – large hole develops and substantial

amount of material released in a short time.
§ E.g. overpressure and explosion of a storage tank.

§ Limited aperture – material is released at a slow rate

that upstream conditions are not immediately affected.
§ E.g. Release from cracks, leaks etc

§ Relief system is designed to prevent over-pressure

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 Release Mechanisms – Limited Aperture

Figure 1 Various types of limited aperture releases.

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 Release Mechanism Parameters

Nature of release depends on lots of parameters:

1. Temperature and pressure of released material.
2. Composition of released material.
3. Ambient temperature and pressure.
4. Ambient wind speed, ground surface, release height.
5. Geometry of release (hole, rupture, catastrophic failure)
6. Vapor – Liquid – Equilibrium of released material.
7. Velocity of release.
8. Many others!

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 Release Mechanisms – Influence of
physical state

For gases or vapours stored in a tank,

a leak results in a jet of gas or vapour

Released of vapour
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 Release Mechanisms – Influence of
physical state

ΠStream of liquid flashing partially into vapour (stored under

pressure above boiling point
 Stream of escaping liquid

Released of vapour or two phase liquid

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 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole
Typical simplification on the mechanical energy balance
§ Pressure is the driving force
§ Pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy
§ Losses due to friction due to liquid flow

P1 > P2

Liquid escaping through

a hole in a process unit.
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 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole
A mechanical energy (ME) balance for incompressible flow:

dP æ u² ö g Ws
ò + Dçç ÷+
÷ g
Dz + F = -
r è 2 a gc ø c m
where
P is the pressure (force/area)
r is the fluid density (mass/volume)
ū is the avg. instantaneous velocity of the fluid (length/time)
gc is the gravitational constant (length mass/force time²)
a is the unitless velocity profile correction factor with the
following values: (0.5 for laminar flow), (1.0 for plug flow),
(>1.0 for turbulent flow)
z is the height above datum (length)
F is the net frictional loss term (length force/mass)
Ws is the shaft work (force length)
m is the mass flow rate (mass/time)

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 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole
Assumptions made for hole:
§ Incompressible Fluid - Density is constant dP DP
ò =
§ No elevation difference (∆z = 0) r r
§ No shaft work, Ws = 0
§ Negligible velocity change (small aperture), ∆u = 0

Liquid escaping through

a hole in a process unit.
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 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole

• Solve ME balance for velocity where equation for

velocity of fluid exiting the leak through a small hole:
2 g c Pg
u = Co
r
• Mass flow rate Qm resulting from a hole of area A:

Qm = r uA = ACo 2 r g c Pg
• The total mass of liquid spilled depends on the total
time that the leak is active.

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 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole

§ The discharge coefficient Co is a function of the

Reynolds number of the fluid escaping the leak
and the diameter of the hole
§ As a guideline;
• For sharp-edge orifices and Re > 30,000, Co ~ 0.61.
The exit velocity is independent of the hole size.
• For well rounded-nozzle, Co = 1
• For short pipe attached to vessel with length to
diameter ratio < 3, Co = 0.81.
• When Co is unknown, use Co = 1 to maximise the
computed flows.

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 Orifice Discharge Coefficient
0.700

0.650

0.600
Discharge Coefficient

0.550

0.500

0.450

0.400

0.350

0.300

0.250

0.200
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Reynolds Number

See older Perry’s for more details! 16

 Flow of Liquid through a Hole
Example

At 1 p.m. the plant operator notices a drop in pressure in

a pipeline transporting benzene. The pressure is
immediately restored to 100 psig. At 2.30 p.m. a ¼-inch
diameter leak is found in the pipeline and immediately
repaired. Estimate the total amount of benzene spilled.
The specific gravity of benzene is 0.8794.

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 Flow of Liquid through a Hole
Example Solution
The drop in pressure observed at 1 p.m. is indicative of a
leak in the pipeline. The leak is assumed to be active
between 1 p.m. and 2.30 p.m., a total of 90 minutes. The
area of the hole is

A=
pd ²
=
(3.14 )(0.25in )²(1ft² 144in² )
4 4
= 3.41 ´ 10 -4 ft

The density of the benzene is,

r = (0.8794)(62.4lb m / ft 3 ) = 54.9lb m / ft 3

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 Flow of Liquid through a Hole
Example Solution
Using the leak mass flow rate equation given (slide 12)
and a discharge coefficient of 0.61 is assumed for this
orifice-type leak, the mass flow rate is
Qm = ACo 2 rg c Pg

( )
= 3.41 ´ 10 -4 ft ² (0.61)´
æ lb öæ ft lbm öæ lb öæ in² ö
( 2 )çç 54.9 m ÷÷çç 32.17 ÷÷ç 100 f ÷ç 144 ÷
è ft 3 øè lb f s² øè in² øè ft² ø
lbm
= 1.48
s
The total quantity of benzene spilled is

= æç1.48 ö(90 min)( 60 s min) = 7990lb

lb m
è s ÷ø m

= 1090 gallons

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 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

An orifice-type leak in a process vessel. The energy due to the

pressure of the fluid height above the leak is converted to
kinetic energy as the fluid exits through the hole. Some
energy is lost due to frictional fluid flow.
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 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

§ Equation for instantaneous velocity of fluid exiting the

leak :
æ g c Pg ö
u = Co 2çç ÷÷ + ghL
è r ø
§ The instantaneous mass flow rate Qm resulting from a
hole of area A as a function of time:

æ g c Pg ö
Qm = ru A = rACo 2çç ÷÷ + ghL
è r ø

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 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

• The liquid level height in the tank at any time t;

2
Co A 2 g c Pg g æ Co A ö
hL = h -
o
+ 2 ghL t + çç
o
t ÷÷
r
L
At 2 è At ø

• The mass discharge rate at any time t;

æ g c Pg ö rgC 2 2
oA
Qm = ru A = rACo 2çç + ghL ÷÷ -
o
t
è r ø At

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 Liquid Discharge
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank

• The time te for the vessel to empty to the level of the

leak is found;

1 æ At ö é æ g c Pg oö
2 g c Pg ù
te = ç ÷ ê 2çç + ghL ÷÷ - ú
Co g è A ø ê è r ø r úû
ë

• If the vessel is at atmospheric pressure, Pg = 0;

1 æ At ö
te = o
ç ÷ 2 ghL
Co g è A ø
Video#1

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 Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
Example
A cylindrical tank 20-feet high and 8-feet in diameter is
used to store benzene. The tank is padded with nitrogen
to a constant, regulated pressure of 1 atm gauge to
prevent explosion. The liquid level within the tank is
presently at 17 feet. A 1-inch puncture occurs in the
tank 5 feet off the ground due to the careless driving of
a fork lift truck. Estimate
a. the gallons of benzene spilled,
b. the time required for the benzene to leak out, and
c. the maximum mass flow rate of benzene through
the leak.
The specific gravity of benzene at there conditions is
0.8794.

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 Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
Solution

The density of the benzene is

r = (0.8794)(62.4l b m ft 3 )
= 54.9 lb m ft 3
The area of the tank is
pd ²(3.14)(8ft )²
At = = = 50.2ft ²
4 4
The area of the leak is
(3.14)(1in)²(1ft 144in ²)
A= = 5.45 ´ 10 -3 ft ²
4
The gauge pressure is

Pg = (1atm)(14.7 lbf in²)(144 in² ft²) = 2.12 ´ 10 3 lbf ft²

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 Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
Solution
a. The volume of benzene above the leak is

V = At hLo = ( 50.2ft²)( 17 ft - 5ft )( 7.48 gal ft 3 ) = 4 ,506 gallons

This is the total benzene that will leak out.
b. The length of time for the benzene to leak out is:

1 æ At ö é æ g c Pg oö 2 g c Pg ù
te = ç ÷ ê 2çç r + gh L÷ ÷ - ú
Co g è A ø ê è ø r ú
ë û
1 æ 50.2 ft ² ö
= ç ÷
÷´
( 0.61 )( 32.17 ft s²) ç
è 5.45 ´ 10 -3
ft² ø
1
é æ ft.lbm öæ 3 lb f ö ù 2
ê (2 )ç 32.17
ç ÷
÷ç 2.12 ´ 10 ft² ÷ ú
ê è lb .s ² øè ø æ ft ö
+ (2 )ç 32.17 (12 ft )ú
f
ê ÷ ú
lb m è s² ø
ê 54 .9 3 ú
ê
ë ft ú
û
- 2484 ft² = 469 s² ft ( 7.22 ft² s² ) = 3386 s = 56.4minutes
s²
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 Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank
Solution
This appears to be more than adequate time to stop the leak
or to invoke an emergency procedure to reduce the impact of
the leak. However, the maximum discharge occurs when the
hole is first opened.

c. The maximum discharge occurs at t = 0 at a liquid level

of 17.0 feet. The mass flow rate is:

æ g c Pg o ö
Qm = rAC o 2çç + ghL ÷÷
è r ø
= (54.9 lb m ft 3 )(5.45 ´ 10 -3 ft² )(0.61) 3.26 ´ 10 3 ft² s²

Qm = 10.4 lb m s

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 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole

A free expansion gas leak. The gas expands isentropically

through the hole. The gas properties (P,T) and velocity change
during the expansion
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 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole
§ The mass flow rate the mass flow rate at any point
during the isentropic process is given by the
following expression:
(g +1)
æ 2/g ö
2gc M g ç æ P ö æPö g÷
QM = C0 AP0 ç çç ÷÷ - çç ÷÷ ÷
Rg T0 g - 1 ç è P0 ø P
è 0ø ÷
è ø
Qm = Mass Flow
where
Co = Discharge coef. ® 1.0 for choked gas flow
A = Area
Po = Upstream pressure (absolute)
M = Molecular weight
To = Temperature (absolute)
gc = grav. constant
Rg = Ideal gas constant
g = Heat capacity ratio
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 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole
§ For safety studies, the maximum flow rate of vapour through
the hole is required
§ Pressure ratio resulting in the maximum flow through the
hole or pipe is given by the
g ( g -1 )
Pchoked æ 2 ö
= çç ÷÷
Po è g +1ø
§ Pchoked is the maximum downstream pressure (choked
pressure) and only a function of the heat capacity ratio, g .
§ For downstream pressure < Pchoked
• Fluid velocity at the throat of the leak is the velocity of
sound at the prevailing conditions
• Velocity and mass flow rate are independent of the
downstream conditions.

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 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole – Choked Flow

Gas Pressurized within External Surroundings

Process Unit P < P choked

Po

To
At Throat:
U0=0
P = Pchoked

U = Sonic Velocity

Choked flow of gas through a hole. The gas velocity is

sonic at the throat. The mass flow rate is independent of
the downstream pressure.
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 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole – Sonic Velocity

For ideal gases:

a = g g c RgT / M
For air at 20oC sonic velocity = 344 m/s Equation 4-53

= 1129 ft/s
= 770 mph
This represents the maximum speed that information can be
transmitted through the gas.

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 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole

§ At the choked condition, the flow is maximum:

(g +1)
(g -1 )
g gc M æ 2 ö
(QM )choked = C0 AP0 ç ÷
RgT0 è g + 1 ø
§ For sharp-edged orifices, Re > 30,000 (and not
choked), Co = 0.61.
§ For choked flows, Co increases as the downstream
pressure decreases. For these flows and for situations
where Co is uncertain, a conservative value of 1.0 is
recommended.
§ Values for the heat capacity ratio for a variety of
gases are provided in Table 4-3.

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Gas Chemical Approximate Heat
Formula Molecular Capacity
or Symbol Weight (M) Ratio γ =
Cp/Cv
Acetylene C2H2 26.0 1.30
Air — 29.0 1.40
Ammonia NH3 17.0 1.32
Argon Ar 39.9 1.67 Table 4-3
Butane C4H10 58.1 1.11
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.0 1.30
Carbon monoxide CO 28.0 1.40
Chlorine Cl2 70.9 1.33
Ethane C2H6 30.0 1.22
Ethylene C2H4 28.0 1.22
Helium He 4.0 1.66
Hydrogen H2 2.0 1.41
Hydrogen chloride HCl 36.5 1.41
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.1 1.30
Methane CH4 16.0 1.32
Methyl chloride CH3Cl 50.5 1.20
Natural gas – 19.5 1.27
Nitric oxide NO 30.0 1.40
Nitrogen N2 28.0 1.41
Nitrous oxide N2O 44.0 1.31
Oxygen O2 32.0 1.40
Propane C3H8 44.1 1.15
Propene (propylene) C3H6 42.1 1.14
Sulfur dioxide SO2 64.1 1.26 34
 Vapour Discharge
Flow of Vapour through a Hole – conditions for choked flow

30 psia 14.7 psia

Gas Gamma P choked

Monotonic 1.67 0.487 P o
Diatomic and air 1.40 0.528 P o
Triatomic 1.32 0.542 P o

An absolute pressure ratio of greater than

2 will insure choked flow.
…. Choked flow is the usual case.
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 Flow of Vapour through a Hole
Example
A 0.2-cm hole forms in a tank containing nitrogen at 14 bar gauge and
25°C. Determine the mass flow rate through this leak. The external
pressure is 1 atm.

Solution
From Table 4-3, for nitrogen = 1.41. Then, from Equation 4-49,
g / ( g -1) 1.41/0.41
Pchoked æ 2 ö æ 2 ö
=ç ÷ =ç ÷ = 0.527
Po è g + 1 ø è 2.41 ø
The absolute pressure in the tank is 14 bar + 1.013 barg = 15.01 bara.

Thus,

Pchoked = 0.527 (15.01 bara ) = 7.91 bara

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 Flow of Vapour through a Hole
Example
Any external pressure less than 7.91 bara will result in choked flow through the
leak. Because the external pressure is atmospheric in this case (1.013 bara),
choked flow is expected and Equation 4-50 applies. The area of the hole is

( 3.14 )( 0.2 cm ) (1 m 2 /104 cm 2 )

2
pd 2
A= = = 3.14 ´10-6 m 2
4 4
The discharge coefficient C0 is assumed to be 1.0. Also,

To = 25 + 273 = 298 K
(g +1)/(g -1) 2.41/0.41
æ 2 ö æ 2 ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷ = 0.8305.87 = 0.335
è g + 1 ø è 2.41 ø
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 Flow of Vapour through a Hole
Example
Then, using Equation 4-50,
(g +1)/(g -1)
g gc M æ 2 ö
(Qm )choked = Co APo
RgTo çè g +1 ÷ø
æ 10 5
N/m 2
ö
(
= (1.0 ) 3.14 ´10-6 2
)
m (15.01 bara ) ç
1 bar
÷
è ø
æ kg m/s 2 ö
(1.41) ç1 ÷ ( 28 kg/kg-mole )
è N ø
× ( 0.335)
( 8.314 ´10 N m/kg-mole K ( 298 K )
3
)
= 4.71 N 5.34 ´10-6 kg 2 / N 2s 2
(Qm )choked =1.09 ´10-2 kg/s
 Liquid Pool Evaporating or Boiling

• Liquids with high Psat evaporate faster; the evaporation

rate (Qm) is a function of Psat.

• A generalized expression for the vaporization rate;

Qm =
(
MKA P sat - P )
Rg TL

• For many situations, Psat >> P such as for an open vessel

or from a spill of liquid;
MKAP sat
Qm =
Rg TL

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 Liquid Pool Evaporating or Boiling
• The initial stage of boiling usually controlled by heat transfer
from the ground
• The heat transfer from the ground is given by;

k (T -T )
ks = thermal conductivity of the soil
s g Tg = temperature of the soil
qg =
(pa st )1/ 2 T = temperature of the liquid pool
t = time after spill
⍺s = thermal diffusivity of the soil

• The rate of boiling is determined by assuming that all the heat

from the surroundings is used to boil the liquid in the pool;
qg A qg = heat transfer for the pool from the ground
Qm = A = area of the pool
DH v △Hv = heat of vapourisation of liquid in the pool

• This approach seems to work adequately for LNG and perhaps

for ethane and ethylene. The higher HC (C3 and above) require
a more detailed heat transfer mechanism.
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Source models do not need to be exact!

See Table 4.6

41
Table 4-6:
Guildelines for
selection of
process
incidents
 Realistic release incidents
The realistic releases represent the incident outcomes with a
high probability of occurring

43
 Worst case release incidents –
from RMP (US) / CIMAH (Malaysia)

See Table 4.6

44
 Conclusion

Source models represent the material release process -

information for determining the consequences of an
accident

The purpose of the source model is to determine:

• The form of material released, solid, liquid or vapour;
• The total quantity of material released; and
• The rate at which it is released.
These information is required for any quantitative
dispersion model study.

Two types of release mechanisms: wide aperture release

& limited aperture release – influence the nature of
release of materials.
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 Exercise: Flow of Liquid through a hole

1-inch diameter hole

100 psig upstream pressure
Water
2
é æ öù
æ ö êæ
ç 3.14 ÷ êç1 in ö÷ çç 1 ft ÷÷ úú
è ø êè ø 12 in ú
A= p D 2
= ë è øû
= 5.45´10-3ft 2
4 4
Co = 0.61 for highly turbulent flow

DP =100 psig - 0 psig =100 psi=100 lbf / in 2

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 Solution: Flow of Liquid through a hole

Qm = Co A 2r gcDP
Qm = æç 0.61ö÷ æçç 5.45´10-3 ft 2 ö÷÷
è øè ø

æ ö æç öæ
lbf ö÷ æç144 in 2 ö÷
´ æç 2 62.4 lbm ft-lbm
öç ÷ ÷ç
÷ç 32.17 ÷ç ÷ç 100 2 ÷ ç
è øç
è
ft3 lbf - s2
÷ çç
øè
÷ çç
÷è in ÷÷ çè ft 2 ÷÷ø
ø ø

Qm = 25.3 lbm / s
This is 3.03 gallons/sec.
The discharge velocity is 74 ft/sec!

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 Exercise: Flow of Vapour through a Hole

A 0.1 inch hole forms in a tank containing

nitrogen at 200 psig and 80°F. Determine the

mass flow rate through this leak.

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 Solution: Flow of Vapour through a Hole
For the diatomic gas nitrogen, g = 1.4. Thus,
Pchoked = 0.528(200 + 14.7 ) psia = 113.4 psia
An external pressure less than 113.4 psia will result in
choked flow through the leak. Since the external pressure
is atmospheric in this case, choked flow is expected and
Equation 40 applies. The area of the hole is

(
(3.14)(0.1in) 1ft2 144in2 )= 5.45 ´10
2
pd 2
-5
A= = ft2
4 4
The discharge coefficient, Co, is assumed to be 1.0. Also,
Po = 200 + 14.7 = 214.7 psia
T0 = 80 + 460 = 540 o R
(g +1) (g -1) 2.4 0.4
æ 2 ö æ 2 ö
= (0.833)
6.00
ç
ç g +1÷
÷ =ç ÷ = 0.335
è ø è 2.4 ø
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 Solution: Flow of Vapour through a Hole

Then, using the maximum flow rate equation:

(g +1) g -1
gg c M æ 2 ö
(Qm )choked = Co APo çç ÷÷
R g To è g +1ø
( )
= (1.0 ) 5.45 ´ 10 -5 ft² (214.7 lb f in² )(144 in² ft² )
(1.4 )(32.17 ft.lbm lb f .s² )(28 lb m lb.mole )
(0.335 )
´
(1545 ft.lb f
o
lb.mole R 540 R )( o
)
= 1.685lb f 5.064 ´ 10 -4 lb m
2
lb 2
f .s 2

(Qm )choked = 3.79 ´ 10 - 2 lb m s

Open
 Tutorial 3

Chapter 4: Source Models (Crowl & Louvar)

4-2, 4-3, 4-13, 4-23, 4-26

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