John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873)

Life History:
The eldest son of James Mill was born in London on May 20, 1806. James Mill wrote
“History of British India” and John assisted his father at the age of 11.
Important Works:
 “On liberty” published in 1859.
 “Representative Government” 1861.
 “Political Economy” 1844.
J.S popularized utilitarianism.
Revision of Utilitarianism or its restatement by Mill:
 Stress on quality of happiness:
Some kinds of pleasures are more desirable than others, so Mill rejected the
Bentham’s view that quality of all pleasures is same. “It is better to be a human
being dissatisfied than a pig-satisfied. Better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a
fool satisfied.” -J. S Mill. Therefore, to mill, man should pursue higher pleasures
unlike beasts or foolish person. A happy life consists of moral and intellectual life
and not the one filled with the moments of pleasure of the senses.
 Unreason ability of Felicific Calculus:
Only the person experiencing pain and pleasure is the best judge. It cannot be
objectively measured.
 Preference for Benevolent and Humanistic Utilitarianism:
To do as you would be doing and love your neighbor as yourself. Constitute the
ideal perfection of utilitarian morality.
 Pleasure is not the direct aim but byproduct:
 Preference for dignity if man than utility:
Moral ends must be placed above the pursuit of pleasure. Mill has thus made
state a moral institution with a moral end i.e., inculcate virtue in him.
 Love for liberty: (Father of liberalism):
Liberty is an end itself. Utility can not reduce liberty as liberty is the essence of
man. According to Mill, in others-regarding action liberty can be checked but in to
present harm to others but in self-regarding actions individual should be free
absolutely. However, liberty can be qualified if someone else knows better than
you and state is the best knower.
  Preference for Ages Old Institution:
 Mill’s preference for historical relativism instead of universalism:
Different institutions and philosophies suit different countries.
 Function of state not only attainment of happiness but to remove obstacles:
Mill in a way wanted state intervention in economy and asks for its positive role.
Landed property was unjust for Mill. And he advocated certain social reforms for
the improvement of working conditions.
 Preference for organic nature of Society:
 Justification of democracy:

Criticism:

 Pleasure differs with everyone.

 Morals and quality have different meaning.
 Preference for dignity may lead to fascism.
 Concept of liberty ill-conceived.

Mill on Liberty:
In the middle of 19th century two opposite trends emerged in English society. On
the one hand influenced by Bentham’s ideas of state’s role increased considerably,
putting restrictions on individual liberty. On the other hand, education, extended
franchise and spirit of local self-government gave rise to the aspirations of individual
liberty. In this context, Mill emerged as the champion of individual liberty.
 Mill’s idea of individuality:
Mill emphasized the harmonious development of individuality as, he believed, it
leads to social progress. Every individual has the energy for originality,
spontaneity and variety. Even Mill opposed state education and averred that it
destroys originality.
 Extent of Liberty:
Liberty is the sovereignty of individual over himself. Mill was worried about the
drawing of line between individual liberty and social control. “The only purpose
for which power can be rightfully exercised over any number of civilized
communities against his will, is to prevent harm to others.” Over himself, over his
own body and mind the individual is sovereign. In self-regarding actions to
 individual is sovereign. He can only be restrained in other-regarding actions if he
becomes nuisance to others.
Freedom of Expression  I) Truth II) Belief strengths.
 Liberty obtains in democracy:
Although Mill believed that liberty is only possible within a democracy, yet he
was highly concerned about “The tyranny of majority.”
Safeguards must be erected against the tyranny of majority.
 Five fundamental liberties:
Freedom of:
 Conscience
 Thought
 Speech and opinion
 Personal Life
 Association
These are five substantive freedoms with which society should not interfere.

 Importance of freedom of opinion and expression:

Freedom of opinion must be absolute. “If all mankind minus one were of the one
opinion, and only one person of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more
justified in silencing that one person, that if he had the power would justify in
silencing mankind.” Why absolute freedom of opinion and expression. First,
silencing an opinion means robbing mankind. If the silenced opinion is right, the
loss to mankind is obvious. In case it is partly true; it is of some value that should
be given its due. In case it is wrong it has the chance of creating a controversy out
of which truth will emerge victorious and stand reinforced. Secondly, truth is
relevant to the circumstances and circumstances always keep on changing. The
truth of today may not be the truth of tomorrow. The opinion that truth always
triumph in the end is a fallacy. Truth is often put down by persecution. No one in
infallible, so no justification to silence someone. Truth needs constantly to be
attached to preserve its vigor. Therefore, progress is contingent upon the
encouragement of imaginative thinking. Restraint hinders initiative and produce
precludes progress. Even the most radical person should be allowed to express
their opinion freely.
 Implications of Mill’s Liberty:
Firstly, Mill emphasizes the necessity and deniability of diversity and originality
which alone help in the development of individuality. Secondly, Mill justifies
liberty on his division of human activity in two parts. Thirdly, function of state is
 to enhance liberty. Fourthly, Mill was fearful of the tyranny of majority. Mill adds
certain exceptions and qualification to his concept of liberty. Liberty may be
understood only by a man who has mature faculties of mind and age. So, liberty’s
concept is inapplicable to minors and uncivilized people.

Earnest Barker’s criticism of Mills concept of liberty:

 Mill as a prophet of empty liberty and abstract individual:

Mill, says Barker, had no clear philosophy of rights which could give his concept
of liberty a concrete shape. Mill does not relate an individual with society and
does not concern himself with the fact that rights are created by state/society.
 Society an Aggregate of isolated individual:
Society unlike Mill’s contention is not aggregate of individuals but an organic
entity in which society and individual are inter dependent.
 Mistaken view of actions:
Mill did not draw a line between self-regarding and others-regarding action and
did not explain as to who would as to whether an action is self-regarded and
otherwise.
 Advocate of state interference:
Mill’s notion that individual should not be a nuisance to others opens the door to
state interference.
 Emphasis on individuality misplaced:
 Role of liberty over-emphasized:
 Mill overlooked the prospect of the abuse of liberty due to men’s materialistic
instincts:
 Encouragement of imperialism:
Mill excluded the backward people from the purview of liberty, which may lead
to reinforce the imperialistic conceptions like white men’s burden.

Mill on Representative Government:

Introduction:
Rapid industrialization and urbanization in the middle of nineteenth century
divided thinkers into two camps individualist and collectivist. He opposed laissez-faire
(positive freedom).
Importance of Representative government:
Mill eulogized democracy but was also critical of its inherent dangers. He praised
democracy in so far it promotes human intelligence, value and liberty.
Dangers of representative democracy:
 Universal elections before universal franchise  right to vote
The tyranny of majority is ominous. Mills call it a despotism of numbers. The
principle that every man is counted as one i.e., equal in terms of voting strength
is fallacious as it doesn’t differentiate between men of caliber and illiterate. The
democracy which gives due weight to all the different elements of society and
thereby obviates the undue preponderance of city is true democracy.
Three levels of representative system:
The participation in govt by all person can be ensured through three levels of
representative system i.e., people, their elected representative and a policy making
body. After debate, discussion, criticism and education people should choose their
representatives. Representatives thus chosen will have better know how of their job,
not enough to handle intricate legislative matters.
Weightage voting  Plural voting
For legislative purpose a body of experts should be constitutes who shall submit
legislative proposals to representatives. Then representatives will then debate and
question the members, educated people on the proposed legislation only then that
legislation will be approved or rejected. Elected members should be authorized to
remove members of the policy body, who in turn can be removed by people.

Safeguards against representative government:

 Proportional Representation:
The biggest danger of democracy is the exposure to the unjust domination of
numerical majority. Under proportional representation a majority of electors will
have majority of representatives, but a minority of electors will have a minority
of representatives.
Separate Electorates  Seats according to the population  Joint Electorates
220 million population  10 million representatives.
 According to Mill, no class even the most numerous, should reduce even the
smallest class to political insignificance and direct the course of legislation to its
exclusive interests. If it is so, democracy would lose its appeal.

 Plural Voting:
Votes should be weighed in keeping with the caliber of the voter. The vote
of intelligent and fool should not be equal.

 Qualification of voters:
Universal teaching must precede universal enfranchisement. Properly
qualification is essential for suffrage.

 Public Voting:
Mill, ridiculed the idea of secret ballot as it encourages dishonesty and lack
of moral courage.

 Rights of women:
Mill was an apostle of women’s emancipation. Therefore, Mill was the first
to advocate the cause female (enfranchisement).

 Role of Parliament:
Not to administer itself, but ensure those governing is fit for the job and
supervise their conduct. Opposed to annual parliamentary elections.

Criticism:
 Proportional representation impracticable.
 Out of true democracy outdated.
 Democracy has come to stand a system of government controlled by majority.
 Qualification of voters unsound.
 Plural voting is unjust proportion.
 Public voting ill-conceived.