Manufacturing

Processes-II

Assignment #1

Muhammad Ahmed Zaheer

BSME 18-22
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Table of Contents
Manufacturing of Aircrafts ............................................................................................................... 2
History of Airplanes........................................................................................................................... 2
The Raw Materials .............................................................................................................................. 3
Metallic Materials .............................................................................................................................. 3
Alloys .............................................................................................................................................. 3
Steel Alloys ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Magnesium..................................................................................................................................... 3
Titanium......................................................................................................................................... 4
Aluminium ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Non-Metallic Materials ..................................................................................................................... 4
Reinforced Plastic ......................................................................................................................... 4
Transparent Plastic ....................................................................................................................... 4
Composite and Carbon Fiber Materials ..................................................................................... 5
Parts of an Airplane ........................................................................................................................... 5
1) Fuselage .................................................................................................................................... 5
2) Cockpit ....................................................................................................................................... 6
3) Wings ......................................................................................................................................... 6
1. Ailerons .................................................................................................................................. 6
2. Flaps ....................................................................................................................................... 6
3. Winglet ................................................................................................................................... 6
4. Spoilers ................................................................................................................................... 6
5. Slats ........................................................................................................................................ 7
4) Tail .............................................................................................................................................. 7
1. Horizontal Stabilizer and Elevator ...................................................................................... 7
2. Vertical Stabilizer and Rudder ............................................................................................ 7
5) Engine ........................................................................................................................................ 7
6) Landing Gear ............................................................................................................................ 7
The Manufacturing Process ............................................................................................................ 8
Future Materials in Aircraft Manufacturing ................................................................................. 9
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Manufacturing of Aircrafts
An airplane is a fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from either a jet
engine, propeller, or a rocket engine. There are many wing configurations for airplanes.
Airplanes have many practical applications including recreation, transportation of goods and
people, military applications, and for research purposes. Worldwide, commercial
aviation transports more than four billion passengers annually on airliners which is about half
the population on Earth and transports more than 200 billion ton-kilometers of cargo annually,
which is less than 1% of the world's cargo movement. Airplanes in the past required human
pilots to steer and navigate them but thanks to the recent advancements in computer and
artificial intelligence(A.I) technologies, nowadays it is also possible for airplanes to be flown
remotely or by an A.I.

History of Airplanes

Wilbur and Orville Wright invented and flew the first airplane in December of 1903,
this escapade of theirs was officially recognized by the federation aeronautique internationale
(FAI), which was the standard setting and record keeping body for aeronautics back in 1903,
as "the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight". The Wright brothers
built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799, when he set forth the concept of the
modern airplane. Between 1867 and 1896, Otto Lilienthal, who was a pioneer in aviation,
was also studying heavier-than-air flight. Aircrafts were used in both World Wars. In the First
World War, aircrafts were used in a limited capacity, however, by the time of World War 2,
aircraft technology was advanced enough for the airplanes to be viably and reliably used in
strategic military combat and so they were used in every major battle of that war. The first jet
aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939. The first jet airliner was the de Havilland
Comet, which was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial
jet, was in commercial service for more than 50 years, from 1958 to at least 2013.
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The Raw Materials

Aircrafts are constructed with light yet also strong materials so that lift can be achieved
rather easily and the aircraft integrity isn’t compromised. In the past, aircrafts were made of
wood. Wood, however, was not an ideal construction material because of its low strength so in
the present we have developed lightweight metallic alloys with greater strength to use in
aircraft construction. Materials currently used in aircraft construction are classified as either
metallic materials or nonmetallic materials.

Metallic Materials
These include steel and its alloys, titanium, aluminium, and magnesium.

Alloys

An alloy constitutes of two or more metals. The metal present in the alloy in the largest
amount is called the base metal. All other metals added to the base metal are called alloying
elements. Adding alloying elements to the base metal changes the properties of the material.
For example, pure aluminium is relatively soft and weak. However, adding small amounts of
copper, manganese, and magnesium will increase the strength of aluminium many times. The
alloy’s strength and harness can be influenced by heat treatment. Alloys are important to the
aircraft industry as they often have required properties that other pure metals do not have.

Steel Alloys

Steel alloys have great strength, more so than other fields of engineering would require.
These materials can withstand the forces that occur on today's modern aircrafts. These steels
contain small percentages of carbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum. High-
tensile steels will stand stress of 50 to 150 tons per square inch without failing. Such steels are
made into tubes, rods, and wires.

Magnesium

Magnesium is a silvery white metal whose mass is two thirds that of aluminium, despite
being the world’s lightest metal it was banned in aircraft construction until recently due to its
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propensity to spontaneously combust, also magnesium's low resistance to corrosion has limited
its use in conventional aircraft design and construction.

Titanium

Titanium is arguably the world’s strongest metal and is relatively lightweight

considering its strength and is also corrosion resistant. Recent developments make titanium
ideal for applications where aluminum alloys are too weak and stainless steel is too heavy.
Additionally, titanium is unaffected by long exposure to seawater and marine atmosphere.

Aluminium

Aluminium and its alloys are popular materials to use in aircraft construction, because
they have a high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminium is outstandingly lightweight, easy to
fabricate and corrosion resistant.

Non-Metallic Materials
In addition to metals, various types of plastic materials are also used in aircraft
construction. These plastics include transparent plastic, reinforced plastic, composite, and
carbon-fiber materials.

Reinforced Plastic

Reinforced plastic is used in the construction of radomes, wingtips, stabilizer tips,

antenna covers, and flight controls. Reinforced plastic has a high strength-to-weight ratio and
is mildew and rot resistant. It is easily fabricated, so it is equally suitable for other parts of the
aircraft. Reinforced plastic is a sandwich-type material. It is made up of two outer facings and
a center layer. The facings are made up of several layers of glass cloth, bonded together with a
liquid resin. The core material consists of a honeycomb structure made of glass cloth.
Reinforced plastic is fabricated into a variety of cell sizes.

Transparent Plastic

Transparent plastic is used in canopies, windshields, and other transparent enclosures.

Transparent plastic surfaces should be carefully handled because they are relatively soft and
scratch easily. At approximately 225°F, transparent plastic becomes soft and pliable.
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Composite and Carbon Fiber Materials

High-performance aircrafts require an extra high strength-to-weight ratio material.

Fabrication of composite materials satisfies this special requirement. Carbon fiber is an
extremely strong, thin fiber made by heating synthetic fibers, such as rayon, until charred, and
then layering in cross sections. Several layers of bonding materials (graphite epoxy or boron
epoxy) are used to construct composite materials. These materials are mechanically fastened
to conventional substructures. Another type of composite construction consists of thin graphite
epoxy skins bonded to an aluminum honeycomb core..

Figure 1:Various parts of an aircraft

Parts of an Airplane
1) Fuselage
This is the centermost piece of the aircraft that is responsible for the structural integrity
of the cargo and passengers. Pilots are seated in the front and passengers sit in the back, the
cargo is also stored in the back of this portion.
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2) Cockpit
The portion of the fuselage that houses the pilots from which place they operate the jet
is known as the cockpit. It contains some key elements of the aircraft required for navigational
purposes, that is the flight control systems.

3) Wings
By far the most recognizable part of the airplane is its wings. The wings work just like
those of a bird, they lift the plane into the air and control the airflow in that they generate lift
allowing the plane to stay in the air. The tilt of the wing is used by the pilots to control the rate
of ascent or descent helping in takeoff and landing. As the wings help the aircraft in flight, so
they are the most valuable part of the plane, any damage sustained by the wings must be
immediately repaired which is why planes are usually stored in hangars.

1. Ailerons

They are the hinged surfaces of wings that aid in controlling the lateral balance of the
craft. These work to move the aircraft left or right by allowing the plane to roll in the desired
direction. This is achieved by the ailerons working asymmetrically during flight so when the
right aileron goes up, the left one goes down and vice versa.

2. Flaps

Flaps, like ailerons, are located on the trailing edge of the wing. Unlike ailerons,
however, the flaps move symmetrically on each side and create more lift and drag helping to
sustain the flight. Flaps are used during takeoff and landing, when aircraft speeds are lower, to
create more lift and reduce stall speeds.

3. Winglet

The winglet is the ending part of the wing which is usually bent up in a commercial jet.
Its purpose is to reduce induced drag.

4. Spoilers

Airplane spoilers are located on the top surface of the wing and can be extended upward
to reduce airflow. Their purpose is to reduce lift to make landing easier.
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5. Slats

Slats are similar to flaps and they exist to increase lift by temporarily changing the
shape of the wing.

4) Tail
The tail of the aircraft is also known as empennage and its purpose is to increase lift in
combination with the wings and provide stability.

1. Horizontal Stabilizer and Elevator

The horizontal stabilizer keeps the airplane’s nose balanced The hinged part on the
horizontal stabilizer is the elevator being one of the primary flight controls. When the pilot in
the cockpit pulls back on the yoke, the elevators go up, causing more force to push down on
the tail, lifting up the nose of the aircraft. Raising the nose changes the angle of attack on the
wings, increasing lift.

2. Vertical Stabilizer and Rudder

The vertical stabilizer allows the airplane to weathervane into the relative wind. This
helps prevent the side-to-side motion of the aircraft’s nose (yaw). The rudder, which is the
primary flight control on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, is controlled in the cockpit
by the pilot using the left and right pedals. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder
deflects to the left, pushing the tail right and the nose to yaw left. Using the rudder in
combination with the ailerons results in coordinated turns by the aircraft.

5) Engine
The engines can also be referred to as the powerplant of the airplane. This is the part of
the plane that works to generate thrust to lift the plane into the sky. The engine also creates
hydraulic and electric power which is used to rotate the propeller which creates thrust helping
the airplane to move forward.

6) Landing Gear
The landing gear is located under the belly of the plane consisting of a wheel and strut
to soften the impact with the ground while landing and takeoff and may be retracted into the
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fuselage. Tricycle type wheels are common for general aviation with one wheel at the front and
two behind or the reverse for tailwheels with two wheels at the front of the plane and one under
the tail.

The Manufacturing Process

An aircraft is produced on an assembly line just like cars, each one of its parts relies on
accurate and precise alignments to be assembled and all of its parts are produced
simultaneously regardless of priority so that they are all ready at the time of mating.

The very first process is fabrication which is the manufacturing of the components from
the provided raw materials. Fabrication includes tool and jig making, sheet-metal working,
machining, plastic and composite working and support activities. For convenience and as
references the tools are built as templates and work surfaces to construct metal or composite
parts on. Jigs are helpful in cutting, drilling and assembly processes. Precisely cut, shaped and
chemically treated aluminium sheets are used to make fuselage sub-sections, door panels and
wing and tail skins. Machine operations are computer controlled. Huge rail-mounted mills
machine wing spars from single aluminium forgings. Smaller parts are precisely cut and shaped
on mills, lathes and grinders. Sheet metal or composites form ducting. Interior components are
formed from composites or laminates of thin but rigid outer layers over a honeycomb interior.
Composite materials are cured in an oven, being laid up by either hand or machine.

Component parts are first built into sub-assemblies which are wings, stabilizers,
fuselage sections, landing gear, doors and interior components. Holes are precisely drilled and
counter-sunk in the skins for the wing assembly, through which rivets are driven. To ensure a
leak proof fuel compartment, the finished wing is cleaned and sealed from the inside. All the
aircraft parts are finally assembled in extremely large assembly halls. The assembly line
comprises of several sequential positions where the airframe remains for quite some time while
predetermined functions are performed to ensure safe operation. Numerous assembly
operations are executed concurrently at each position, creating the potential for cross exposures
to chemicals. Parts and sub-assemblies are moved on dollies and overhead crane to the
appropriate positions. The airframe is moved between positions by overhead crane until the
landing and nose gear are properly installed. All further movements are performed by towing.
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Finally, the fuselage sections are riveted together around a supporting structure. The
interior is coated with a corrosion-inhibiting compound and the floor beams and stringers are
installed as well. Fore and aft fuselage sections are joined to the wings and the wing stub.
Electrical wiring and air ducts are installed, the interior surfaces covered with decorative
panelling, and blankets of fiberglass insulation are used to cover the fuselage interior. Next,
storage bins, along with integrated passenger lights and emergency oxygen supplies are
installed. Pre-assembled seating, galleys and lavatories are moved by hand and secured to floor
tracks, permitting the rapid reconfiguration of the passenger cabin to conform to air carrier
needs. Powerplants and landing and nose gear are mounted, and avionic components are
installed. The functioning of all components is thoroughly tested prior to towing the completed
aircraft to a separate, well-ventilated paint hanger, where a protective primer coat (normally
zinc-chromate based) is applied, followed by a decorative top-coat of urethane or epoxy paint.
Prior to delivery the aircraft is put through a rigorous series of ground and flight tests to see if
it is airworthy.

Future Materials in Aircraft Manufacturing

Magnesium is a lightweight metal which is highly reactive and highly flammable due
to which it was banned in the past from being used in aircraft construction, however, due to
recent developments regarding its flammability and corrosion properties, it is gaining
popularity and its practical applications being considered. Various research studies have
successfully manufactured certain magnesium alloys fit for aerospace usage that can lift the
ban on magnesium. Due to its low weight property, high strength and ductility, magnesium
alloys improve the efficiency of the aircraft thereby reducing fuel consumption and global
warming.

Additionally another new developed material known as Nano Adaptive Hybrid Fabric
(NAHF-X) or fuzzy fibers have good structural, electrical and thermal properties. Once
incorporated into resin products, they will have the ability to be produced in continuous sheets
to desired sizes like other fabrics. Fuzzy fibers can be used in small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs) where the weight will be reduced when the conductive “skin” of fuzzy fiber serves for
the aircraft’s power, sensor systems, and communications.
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Fiber metal laminates (FML) have high strength, low density and high elasticity
modulus with improved toughness, corrosion resistance, good fire resistance and fatigue
properties. They also have low weight compared to other metallic structures. Lesser amounts
of FML is needed to build a component compared to other materials. Thanks to these properties
the cost of maintenance and production of aircrafts will be reduced significantly.

CentrAl reinforced aluminium (CentrAl) and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are
some other materials which can be used for reducing the costs. CentrAl has 25% more tensile
strength than high-strength aluminium alloys, high fatigue resistance and highl damage-
tolerance. It also has a lighter weight that will decrease the weight of the aircraft and lower the
fuel consumption. CMCs have high resistance to temperatures that exceed the properties of
other materials. Its utilization in CFM LEAP high-bypass turbofan engine has reduced fuel
consumption by 16%.