phoma stsChapter! - mai A. Chapte Chapter: TABLE OF CONTENTS PART 1 - THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS c gE F Generalizations Activities... Assessments eit A, 8 c. D, Sets... Functions... Relations... Binary Operations E. Elementary Logic... F. Formality.... Generalizations Assessments > moos Generalizations... Assessments... Problem Solving and Reasoni Deductive and inductive Rea: Intuition, Proot and Certainty Polya's Four Steps in Problem Solving Problem Solving Strategies ithematics in our World Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World, 8. The Fibonacci Sequence... i Patterns and Regularities in the World as Organized by Mathematics . Phenomena in the World . a Predicted by Mathematics Nature and Occurences in the World as Controlled by Nature... Applications of Mathematics in the World . Mathematical Language and Symbols Characteristic of Mathematical Language ‘Mathematical Expressions and Sentences Conventions in the Mathematical Language Four Basic Concepts ing soning .., Mathematical Problems involving Patterns F. Recreational Problems Using Mathematics 12 13 14 15 19 7 28 29 32 33 33 34 36 38 a a 42 43 55. 56 59 59 61 62 64 65Chapter IV - Ds rone> FB Generalizations Assessments Chapter V - sen) World Math PART 2- MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL yent : at Maree ng, pprsentng and interpreting Daa Measures of Central Tendency . Measures of Dispersion ~~ Measures of Relative Position probabilities and Normal Distributions Linear Regression and Correlation .. . Geometric Designs sme Recognizing and Analyzing Geometric Shapes Transformations . sr Patterns and Diagrams . Designs, Arts and Culture Codes . Binary Codes Integers in Computers . Logic and Computer Addition . Text Data « . Errors and Error Correction. Error Detecting Codes . Repetition and Hamming Codes Linear Programming Linear Inequalities... Geometry of Linear Programming... Simplex Method The Mathematics of Finance Simple and Compound Interest... Credit Cards and Consumer Loans Stocks, Bonds and Mutual Funds... Home Ownership is Apportionment and Voting... Introduction to Apportionment Introduction to Voting, Weighted Voting Systems Logic... Logic Statement and Quantifiers Truth, Tables and Tautologies wn. A Conditional, Biconditional and Related Statements. Symbolic Arguments Arguments and Euler Diagrams ....0 83 93 101 ua u7 124 134 135 143 aaa aaa 145 1ag 14g 150 150 150 150 151 152 152 153 153 154 156 157 163 163 170 171 174 175 175 182 183 184 184 185 185 188 189Generalizations Assessments Appendices ‘Appendix 1 ‘Appendix 2 G The Mathematics of Graphs... Graphs and Euler Circuits Weighted Graphs ... Graph Coloring ne.» H_ Mathematical systems Modular Arithmetic .... Applications Group Theory ... Course Guide ... Recommended Reading Material Appendix 3 - Sample Letters Used as Conventional Symbols Appendix 4 Appendix 5 - Sample Problems Solved Using Tables .... Appendix 6 - Sample Problems Solved Using Patterns Appendix 7 - Recreational Mathematics Sample Problems . ‘Appendix 8 - Some Recreational Math Pictures Appendix 9 - Standard Normal Z-Table Sample Greek Letters Used as Conventional Symbols and Images Problems 191 192 193 194 195 197 197 199 200 203 219 222 224 226 228 230 233 236 239ase) re s+ The Nature of MathematicsChapter 1 > Mathematics in our World Mathematics is the study of the relationships among numbers, quantities and shapes. It includes arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, geometry, statistics and calculus. ‘Mathematics nurtures human characteristics like power of creativity, reasoning, critical thinking, spatial thinking and others. It provides the opportunity to solve both simple and ‘complex problems in many real-world contexts using a variety of strategies. Mathematics is a universal way to make sense of the world and to communicate understanding of concepts and rules using the mathematical symbols, signs, proofs, language and conventions. Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world. The geometry of ‘most patterns in nature can be associated, either directly or indirectly, to mathematical ‘fumbers. The limit and extent to which natural patterns adhere to mathematical series and numbers are amazing, Mathematics helps predict the behaviour of nature and Phenomena in the world. Ithelps control nature and occurrences in the world for the good of mankind. Because of its numerous applications, mathematics becomes indispensable. Mathematics, being a science of patterns, helps students to utilize, recognize and generalize patterns that exist in numbers, in shapes and in the world around them. Students with such skills are better problem solvers, and have a better sense and appreciation of nature and the world. Hence, they should have opportunities to analyze, synthesize and create a variety of patterns and to use pattern-based thinking to understand and represent mathematical and other real-world phenomena. These explorations present unlimited opportunities for problem solving, verifying generalizations and building mathematical and scientific competence. G@ Objectives After the students have gone through Chapter J. Mathematics in our World, they should be able to: 1. Articulate the importance of mathematics in one's life; 2. Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world; 3. Argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed, represented and used; and 4. Express appreciation of mathematics as a human endeavour.'A. Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World le regularities found in the natural world. These patterns nd can be modelled mathematically. Natural patterns may pertinent contents and can be modeled mathemati, Natl pars may Of Spas sy olvng various complex steps of formation but a closer and Patterns in nature are visible consist several distinct patterns, deeper study reveals that these patterns have many similarities and resemblances. jeeper stu plato, Pythagoras and Empedocles and other early Greek philosophers studied pavers to explain order in nature which lead to the modern understanding of visible patterns. In the 19th century, Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau examined soap films, leading him to formulate the concept of @ minimal surface. German biologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted hundreds of marine organisms to emphasize their symmetry. Scottish biologist D'Arcy Thompson pioneered the study of growth patterns in both plants and animals, showing that simple equations could explain spiral growth. In the 20th century, British mathematician Alan Turing predicted mechanisms of morphogenesis which give rise to patterns of spots and stripes. Hungarian biologist Aristid Lindenmayer and French American mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot showed how the mathematics of fractals could create plant growth patterns (Patterns in Nature, 2017) 2 63 x Snowflakes Honapnersh al Tiger's stripes Figure 1. Patterns in nature 2 | Mathematics in the Modern WorldW. Gary Smith adopts eight patterns in his landscape work, namely: scattered, fractured, mosaic, naturalistic drift, serpentine, spiral radial and dendritic. These patterns occur in plants, animals, rocks formations, river flow, stars or in human creations (Goral, 2017). Scattered ‘Dendritic Figure 2. Some patterns adopted in landscape designsaticians noticed that numbers appear igs, clover’s three leaflets, deer’s four frow’s seven colors, octopus’ eight they also realized their ‘ere in nature. Mather: ture: bird's two win insect’s six legs, raint science studied numbers, Numbers are everywh in many different patterns in na hooves, buttercup’s five petals » arms and many others. As men of significance in everyday life: clover Buttercup Insect ‘Octopus Figure 3. Samples of numbers in nature The Fibonacci Sequence Leonardo Pisano Bogollo lived between 1170 and 1250 in Italy. His nickname, "Fibonacci" roughly means "Son of Bonacci" (Fibonacci Sequence, 2016). Aside from being famous for the Fibonacci Sequence, he also helped spread Hindu ‘Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8and 9) through Europe in place of Roman numerals (1,11, IIL, 1V, V, etc). Fibonacci Day is November 23, as it has the digits "1, 1, 2, 3” which is part of the sequence, which he developed. This famous Fibonacci Sequence has fascinated mathematicians, artists, designers and scientists for centuries. Also recognized as the Golden Ratio, the Fibonacci sequence goes like th 011235 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 4181 6765 10946 17711 28657 46368 75025 121393 196418 317811, Each number in the sequence is the sum of the two numbers which precede it. 4 | Mathematics in the Modern Worldist ell ratio of any two successive Fibonacci Numbers is very close to the Golden Ratio, ceed 10 and represented as phi (p) which is approximately equal to 1,618034 ... The igger the pair of Fibonacci Numbers considered, the closer is the approximation. Table 1. Fibonacci Sequence A 8 B/A=o 2 3 15 3 5 1.6666666567 5 8 16 1,6180555556 1.6180257511 75025 121393 | 1.6180339887 121393 igegis | 1.6180339888 1,6180339887‘Mathematics ie of mathematics. dinmathematical ie spectacular patterns as in terns, mud-crack patterns, nthe surface of puddles, rularities in the World as Organized by Jationships, and functions constitute henomena observed nature ins, Selentific and ‘mathematical principles undergird thes ws, water waves, cloud formations, tree branching Pat * eopard spots and! tiger stripes Waves 01 os, oroceansare governed BY mathematical relationships between their speed, oth, and the depth of the water Exploring similarities such as those between swirling stars of a galaxy, or the branches of a tree and those of @ 1e majestic beauty and richness of natural pattern formation, all . Patterns and Ree a unifying them patterns re! somanyof the beautiful can be describes rainbo\ butterfly marking ponds, la their wavele' ‘a snail shell and the river network conveys th ‘organized by mathemati, Rainbow WF bY? NEO Butterflies Figure 7. Spectacular patterns The world consists consists of orders (the rea eee a its (he el cycles of days and nights, the recut si as snk lene oie ian ovis, el 1 predictability and re aaa weines 'y and regularity in nature and the world ati say sequently from which simi exist 8 Mathematics in the Modern WorldPeacock tail Spider web Figure 8. Symmetrical patterns ‘The concept of symmetry fascinates philosophers, astronomers, mathematicians, artists, architects and physicists. The mathematics behind symmetry seems to permeate in most of the things around us. the reflection in a plane mirror, the motion of a falling es are all guided and organized by mathematics. cording to mathematical ‘The motion of a pendulum, object and the action-reaction pair of forcs They exhibit regularities and symmetry in motion and behavior acc laws. s of pendulum is quite complicated but harmonic. Its back to its original position Is related to its length, jum that is suspended twice as long as another ‘at is also twice as long but mathematics can the swinging motion of a pendulum can be For example, the mathematic: period or the time it takes to swing but the relationship is not linear. A pendu! pendulum does not simply have a period th: explicate it, The patterns and regularities in explained by mathematics. ed by an object in a plane mirror is fascinating ~ the Image and is far behind the mirror as the object is distance can be explained mathematically How an image is formé which has exactly the same size as the object distant from the mirror. This regularityin sizean by the law of reflection,f A free-falling object is an object that is falling under the sole influence of gravity. Any : ject that is moving and being acted upon only be the force of gravity is said to be ina ‘ate of free fall. Its motion obeys the equations of uniformly accelerated vertical motion. In every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting objects. The amount of the force on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action- reaction force pairs. N N Image in plane mirror 3 a | ACTION REACTION _ 30m/s +@ 3 Falling object Action-reaction pair Figure 9. Regularities in the world organized by mathematics 10 | Mathematics in the Modern WorldD, Phenomena in the World as Predicted by Mathematics There are many patterns found in nature, including numerical patterns (such as Fibonacci numbers in sunflowers) and shape patterns (such as in snowflakes). Nature has symmetries at every scale, from elementary particles and atoms right up to galaxies. The role of mathematics is to describe symmetry-breaking processes in order to explain in a unified way the fact that the patterns seen in sand dunes and zebras’ stripes are caused by processes which, while physically different, are mathematically very similar. Mathematics solves puzzles in nature (such as why planets move in the way that they do), describes changing quantities via calculus, modeling change (such as the evolution of the eyel, and predicts and controls physical systems. Mathematics is not just about numbers, but also about operations (also known as functions or transformations), about the logical relationships between facts, and about proof. Drops, dynamics and daisies are. three examples of “simplicity emerging from complexity”. The formation of water droplets, population dynamics, and Fibonacci numbers crop up in the formation of daisy petals (Stewart as cited by Cremona, 1997). Mathematics is an extraordinary exercise of the human mind in abstracting the results of observation to find similarities and differences between phenomena. These relations between phenomena make it possible to organize the natural world into discrete sets of objects that can be studied using similar mathematical objects and methods. Nature, as an object of mathematical study, bridges the gap between the concreteness of the everyday environment and the abstraction of mathematics. Mathematics, in turn, allows us to summarize, formalize, interpolate, and extrapolate from observations that have been recorded (Knickerbocker, 2016) ys i) Zebra stripes Figure 10. Physically different but mathematically similar patterns ' 1£. Nature and Occurences in the World as Controlled by Mathematics for Human Ends Mathematics relies on both logic and creativity, and it is pursued both for a variety of Practical purposes and for its intrinsic interest. For some people, and not only professional mathematicians, the essence of mathematics iesin its beauty and its intellectual challenge. For others, including many scientists and engineers, the chief value of mathematics is how it applies to their own work. Because mathematics plays such a central role in modern culture, some basic understanding of the nature of mathematics is requisite for scientific literacy. To achieve this, students need to perceive mathematics as part of the scientific endeavor, comprehend the nature of mathematical thinking, and become familiar with Key mathematical ideas and skills, (Chapter 2: The Nature of Mathematics - Science for all Americans, 1990) The application of mathematics to medicine is an exciting and novel area of research within the discipline of applied mathematics. Nurses routinely use addition, fractions, ‘atios and algebraic equations each workday to deliver the right amount of medication te their patients or monitor changes in their health. Nursing schools often test new students on their mathematical ability, requiring a remedial course in medical math it necessary (Boyd, 2017). In dealing with and setting state-of-the-art medical facilities, nurses and other health practioners must have sharp mathematical skills component in which mathematics contributes significantly to health and Medicine concerns life expectancy, Life expectancy summarizes the remaining years of life that a person's expected to live, This varies (sometimes drastically) across the world and even ‘numerous factors that can positively or negatively affect the life people lead. There are Rumérous sources for exploring life expectancy. Life expectancy is calculated through data acquired in a population census (Life Expectancy, n.d.), Political scientists use math and statistics to predict the behavior of group of people, ‘They study the population using many different applications of math, including computer Science, database management, statistics and economics. study of economics, they realize that there is more to i better way of explaining the concepts of prices, the use of mathematics. it than just theories, There is no quantity of goods sold and costs without 12 | Mathematics in the Modern World |F. Applications of Mathematics in the World i jfabettes has everyday applications. tis a universal language in cferent places, ifferent times, in different settings and different circumstances. The physical world seems to consist of countable things and any infinity encountered is a result of extending a counting process. But of course, mathematics is not just counting. When one buys a product, follow a recipe, or decorate his room, he uses math principles. People employ these principles for thousands of years, across countries and continents. Farming and gardening also provide rich mathematical opportunities. Within the broad concept of farming, there are two very important elements: time and money. ‘At the root of both of these is mathematics. Mathematics has enabled farming to be more economically efficient and has increased productivity. Farmers use mathematics as a system of organization to effectively utilize their time and manage their money. Farmers use numbers everyday for a variety of tasks, from measuring and weighing, to land marking. The math used in farming is sometimes unnoticed. The calculations and formulas require mathematical knowledge and farmers use their problem solving and money management abilities daily. Basic geometry, proportions, multiplication and measurement skills are used every day by farmers. Advancements in farming mean faster machinery and less time. Technology has allowed farmers to increase the size of their ‘operation without increasing manpower. Today, new developments and inventions are ‘even more considerable. Small family farms are becoming larger, with fewer people. And, as technology increases, so does a farmer’s use for mathematics. (Glydon, n.d.) Planning 2 market list and grocery shopping requires math knowledge, starting from the fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division to estimation and percentages : calculating price per unit, figuring percentage discounts, comparing unit and bulk price of items, estimating total price, etc. Today's trends lke using credit card to pay, or atm debit or electronic banking are all applications of mathematics. there is mathematics; e.g. symmetric arrangement of furnitures, wall decorations and frames, wine bottles in the bar, plant pots in the inner garden and even restroom fixtures. Working in the kitchen requires mathematical knowledge: measuringingredients, calculating cooking time, makingratios and proportions in baking, etc. Anywhere in the house, math in various ways: fuel required based on tire pressure check, time allowance for the trip, speed limits and others. Long and short travels involves distance, total expenses for toll fees, short-cut routes alternatives, road map reading, tion worker, knows that building anything and creating something requires 2 broad range of mathematics. Making accurate measurements of fengths, widths, and angles; projecting detailed material estimate, getting the best value of available resources, etc. are obvious applications of mathematics. ‘contractor, orevena construct 123jing mathematics to complex real-world problems is called ombines mathematical theory, practical engineering and 5 the fast changing technology. Engineering mathematics is spanning traditional boundaries and dealing with today’s ‘ering mathematicians can be found in an extraordinarily ict generation high-end cars to inventing robotics The art of apply engineering mathematics. It scientific computing to addres a creative and exciting discipline, technological challenges. Engine ‘wide range of careers, from designing ne) ‘and automatic devices. Many experts agree that without strong math skills, people tend to invest sa¥é, OF spend money based on their emotions. To add to this dilemma, those individuals with poor math fundamentals typically make greater financial mistakes like underestimating how quickly interest accumulates. A student who thoroughly grasps the concepts of exponential growth and compound interest will be more inclined to better manage debt (Yurchuk, 2016). Time is everybody's most valuable asset. Without good planning, the day can slip idly and tasks and duties accrue, In a swift changing world, creating and following schedule prove beneficial, but it takes more mathematical skills than simply using a clock ‘and calendar to manage time well and be on top of others. Though some of the more abstract mathematical concepts seldom come into play, the essential skills developed in basic math lessons resonate throughout a student’s lifetime and often resurface to help solve various problems in real life situations in the workplace and in the world. Generalizations 1. Many patterns and occurrences exist in nature, in our world and in our life. ‘Mathematics helps make sense of these patterns and occurrences. 2. Mathematics is a tool to quantify, organize and control the world, predict phenomena and make life easier for us. 14 | Mathematics in the Modern World