Chapter 3 a Problem Solving and Reasoning Mathematics seeks to understand patterns that permeate the word human mind. Even if the language of mathematics Is based on rules itis important to motivate students to move beyond rules to be abe to convey things inthe language of mathematics. This transformation implies changes which involves revitalized eto to memorizing formulas; and formulating inferences, not just doing exercises. Learners will have opportunities to study mathematics as an exploratory, dynamic, evolving discipline rather than as an absolute and rigid closed body of laws to be memorized, They will be encouraged to perceive mathematics as a science and to appreciate mathematics as a discipline about patterns and not merely about numbers. Mathematics consists of skills and processes. The skills include the basic arithmetical processes and the algorithms that go with them while the processes are the ways of applying these skills. Problem solving is @ mathematical process and problem solving contributes to mathematics itself. To help make learners confident and competent problem solvers, they must be with plenty of opportunities to develop and apply a wide variety of problem- provided plenty of chances to solving skills; complex-thinking skills and_ strategies; as well as verbalize logical reasoning about every step taken to solve a problem. Likewise, learners must adopt different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics and mathematical concepts. Hence, students eventually develop proficient reasoning abilities and become self-reliant, independent mathematical thinkers. 55@ Objectives After the students have gone through Chapter Ill. Problem Solving and Reasoning, they should be able to: 1, Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments ‘made about mathematics and mathematical concepts; 2. Write clear and logical proofs; 3. Salve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya's four steps; and 4. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Mathematical reasoning enables a student to tise all other mathematical skills, With mathematical reasoning, students recognize that mathematics is indispensable, that it makes sense and it can be understood, They then learn how to evaluate situations, opt for appropriate problem-solving strategies, draw logical conclusions, develop and describe Solutions, and identify when those solutions can be applied. Mathematical reasoners are able to reflect on solutions to problems and determine whether or not they make sense. They appreciate the all-encompassing use and influence of reasoning as a part of mathematics Inductive and deductive reasoning are two fundamental types of reasoning for mathematicians. Today’s formal theorems and proofs originated with these two forms of reasoning. Inductive reasoning refers to the process of making generalized decisions after observing, and/or witnessing, repeated specific instances of something. Conversely, deductive reasoning refers to the process of taking the information gathered from general observations and making specific decisions based on that information. Mathematicians are still using these types of reasoning to discover new mathematical theorems and proofs inductive reasoning is a process of reaching conclusions based on a series of observations while deductive reasoning is a process of reaching conclusions based on previously known facts. Inductive reasoning usually leads to deductive reasoning. A conclusion reached by inductive reasoning may or may not be valid. The conclusions reached by deductive reasoning are correct and valid. Inductive reasoning is used to form hypotheses, while deductive reasoning is used to prove ideas. 56 | Mathematics in the Modern WorldWhereas inductive reasoning draws general principles from specific instances, deductive reasoning draws specific conclusions from general principles or premises. premise is a previous statement or proposition from which another is inferred or follows ‘as a conclusion, Unlike inductive reasoning, which always involves uncertainty, the conclusions from deductive inference are certain provided the premises are true. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate hypothesis and theories, and deductive reasoning ‘when applying them to specific situations (Herr, 2007). Even if all of the premises are true ina statement, inductive reasoning may stil yield false conclusion. Examples of deductive reasoning: a Ast premise: All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. 2nd premise : The number 35 ends with aS Conclusion: Therefore, 35 is divisible by 5. a _Ast premise: All squares are rectangles. 2nd premise: ‘All rectangles have four sides. Conclusion: Therefore, all squares have four sides, = Istpremise: Cacti are plants. 2nd premise: All plants perform photosynthesis. Conclusion: Therefore, cacti perform photosynthesis. = Istpremise: All men are mortal 2nd premise: Algebra teachers are men. Conclusion: ‘Therefore, Algebra teachers are mortalIst premise : Some students of Cavite State University are taking UP 85 Applieg Mathematics. 2nd premise Students of this University are scholars. Conclusion: Therefore, students taking up BS Applied Mathematics in this University are scholars, Examples of inductive reasoning 1st premise : John is an excellent swimmer. 2nd premise John’s family has a swimming pool. Conclusion: John's sister Mary must also be an excellent swimmer. Ast premise Elijah is good looking 2nd premise Elijah is well-behaved. Conclusion: Therefore, all good looking are well-behaved, Ast premise : The coin pulled from a bag is a penny. 2nd premise ‘A second coin from the bag is a penny. Conclusion: Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies. Ist premise : Children in the day care center are playful. 2nd premise Children in the day care center like to play with Legos. Conclusion: Therefore, playful children like to play Legos. 58 | Mathematics in the Modern WorldB. _ Intuition, Proof and Certainty Intuition is the ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning. Itis instinctive knowledge, meaning the state of being aware of or knowing something without having to discover or perceive it, or the ability to do this. Itis the instinctive belief, meaning that something is known or believed instinctively, without actual evidence for it In the traditional way of dealing with mathematics, mathematicians use their intuition and imagination to come up with theorems. Then, they do a lot of work to try to {ill n the proofs and check what's true. ‘A mathematical proof is an argument which convinces other people that something is true. Proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement. It is a conclusive ‘evidence or an argument that serves to establish a fact or the truth of something. Proof ‘consists of a test or trial of something to establish that iti true. nis established by logically combining the axioms, In direct proof, the conclu: definitions and earlier theorems. For example, direct proof can be used to establish that the sum of two even integers is always even : consider two even integers x and y. Since they are even, they can be written as x = 2a and y = 2b, respectively, for integers a and . Then the sum x + y = 2a +2b=2(a+b). Therefore x+y has 2 as a factor and, by definition, is even. Hence the sum of any two even integers is even. This proof uses the definition of even integers, the integer properties of closure under addition and multiplication and distributivity (Mathematical Proof, 2017). ty is total continuity and validity of inquiries to the highest degree of Certai ‘A mathematical precision. Certainty is a conclusion or outcome that is beyond doubt certainty is something that is certain or most likely to happen. Polya’s Four Steps to Problem Solving problem solving is an artistic science! There is no single approach in problem solving that works all the time Each problem is slightly different. George Polya (1887 ~ 1985), known as the father of modern problem solving who did extensive studies and wrote papers and books about problem solving, formulated the four-step approach to problem solving, Polya's four-step approach to problem solving aims to make individuals as better problem solvers. 59Given below is a detailed framework for thinking about problem solving : Polya, four-step approach (Problem Solving, n.d.) : 1. Preparation: Understand the problem. a. Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts b, Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem © What sort of a problem is it? = What is being asked? ‘What do the terms mean? Is there enough information or ism + What is known or unknown? . Rephrase the problem in your own words 4. Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the problem. ore information needed? Thinking Time: Devise 2 plan. a. You must start somewhere so try something How are you going to attack the problem? ‘e. reach into your bag of tricks.) b. Possible strategies’ (i. + Draw pictures Use a variable and + Be systematic. «solve a simpler version of the problem, 2 Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test. (Guessing is OK.) «Look for a pattern or patterns. © Make a list. choose helpful names for variables oF unknowns. you are stumped or stuck, set the oblem is, if working on it. ¢. Once you understand what the Pr Jbconscious mind may keep problem aside for a while. Your sul may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and 4d. Moving on to think about other thing: frustrated, and forced in your efforts to creative rather than becoming tense, solve the problem. 3, Insight: Carry out the plan. Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot t 4 have me, try it out and see ifit leads to 2 solution sm to be working, then start over ‘and tryanother approach th does not work. Do not worry, just because 2n approach ‘ot mean you did it wrong. You actually accomplished ‘does not work is part of the process of elimination own immediately. When you b. Ifthe plan does not see Often the first approac does not work, it does n* something, knowing a Way 60 | Mathematics in the Modern World©. Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough times, you will often have a flash of insight: a new idea to try or a new perspective on how to approach solving the problem, d, The key is to keep trying until something works. 4, Verification: Look back. ‘a. Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works. Did you answer the question? ‘Is your result reasonable? ‘* Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to the problem are satisfied. * Double check any computations involved in finding your solution. b. Ifyou find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple mistake. Try to fix or modify your current attempt before scrapping it. Remember what you tried—itis likely that at least part of it will end up being useful. ¢._ Isthere another way of doing the problem which may be simpler? (You need to become flexible in your thinking, There usually is not one right way.) d. Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future problems? D. _ Problem Solving Strategies Problem solving strategies maybe develop in many ways. First, the ability to use strategies develops with experience and practice. Second, strategies themselves can become more abstract and complex. There are simple and common problem solving strategies, to mention a few: Guess (This includes guess-and-check and guess-and- improve.) Act It Out (Act it out and use equipment.) Draw (This includes drawing pictures and diagrams.) st/Tabulate (This includes making a table) Guess-and-check isa classic technique. While it may not be very efficient or reliable, sometimes it’s all one has to work with, One nice thing about this technique is the low level of effort it requires. It can be a great way to relax the mind, Guess-and-check is one of the simplest strategies. Anyone can guess an answer. If they can also check that the _gvess fits the conditions of the problem, then they have mastered guess and check. Guess-and-improve is slightly more sophisticated than guess-and-check. The idea is that you use Your first incorrect guess to make an improved next guess. In relatively straightforwarg problems like that, itis often fairly easy to see how to improve the last guess. In some problems though, where there are more variables, it may not be clear at first which way to change the guessing (Problem Solving Strategies, nzmaths, n.d.) Jigsaw and crossword puzzles are usually solved using guess-and-check and guess-and- improve. There are pros and cons for Act-lt-Out strategy. It is an effective strategy for demonstration purposes and to have a better grip of the problem on hand. Devices use to act out the problem are considered equipment. Actit-Out strategy has limited application. Simple division operation problem can be solved by this strategy. A class ot 32 elementary graders maybe asked: To effectively do the task, we shall divide the clas, How many group of five can you make? Then, they can act:it-out by forming groups of Five To draw pictures, venn diagram, sketches, maps and other representations help solve mathematical problems, as well as problems in mechanics (physics). Problems concerning vector addition, in fact, ae solved in two ways: graphical or drawing methods ‘and analytical or mathematical method. In doing so, precise measurements and careful drawing lead to accurate solution, Creating systematic lists and organized tables helps discover some hidden hints towards solutions of some problems. To help solve logic problems, tables with ticks and crosses are often used. Tables can also be an efficient way of finding number patterns. Work and age problems are easier solved by tabulating the known facts and relations, Lists maybe organized following rules like highest to lowest, most frequent to less frequent, excellent to very unsatisfactory, ete. Scores may be listed in an array in decreasing manner for item analysis purposes. Problems in statistics may be solved by listing, tallying and tabulating data. E, Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns Finding patterns is an important problem-solving strategy because many problems are similar and fall into predictable patterns. A pattern is a regular, systematic repetition ‘and may be numerical, visual, or sequential. Patterns show how things are connected, how things works and how a group of objects acts in the same way. Examples of find-a-pattern problem solving strategy. = Given the following diagram, find the number of dots and lines by completing (1) CII) CleLle) Clee ere) 62 | Mathematics in the Modern WorldSolution: Pattern : For first dot, 6 lines; and For each additional dot, add S lines. ‘o find the number of lines, given the number of dots For 7 dots, then, 6 + (6 x 5) = 36 lines, For 12 dots, then, 6 + (115) = , To find the number of lines, given the number of dots : Fot 46 lines, then, (46-6) +5 + 1=9 dots. To find the number of lines, given the number of dots : For 136 lines, then, (136-6) +5+1=27 dots, 8 6+(7x5)=41 Number of [Nu Dots [4 2 “| 6eaxsj=a) 2 ca | 6+(2x5)=a2 3 4 6r(axsj=21) 6 - 6+(5%5)= 6 7 6+ (6x5) =36 7 8 8 9 (eee) F5e4 a6 ol - az 6+(11*5)=61 12 (136-6)=5+1-27| 136 Another example: ‘= Can you find the sum of the first 100 even positive numbers? Find a pattern. Solution: ‘The sum of first 1 even positive no. is 2 or (+4) = 1(2). The sum of first 2 even positive no. is 244 =6 or 2(241) = 2(3) The sum of the first 3 even positive numbers is 24446 =12 or 3(3+1) = 3(4), 63‘The sum of the first 4 even positive numbers is 24+4+6+8=200r (441) = 45)" Pattern: The sum of the first 100 even positive numbers is 2+4+6+...=? or 100(100+1) = 100(101) or 10 100. F. Recreational Problems Using Mathematics riddles, puzzles, brain-teasers ang a research or application-baseg Recreational mathematics involves problems, creative problem-solving, logica) games carried out for recreation or leisure rather than a professional activity. Recreational mathematics employs reasoning approaches, reflective thinking and algebra techniques games whose rules, strategies, and outcomes The players of the game may not ‘athematical games. Recreationa| Mathematical games are multi-player can be studied and explained using mathematics, need to use explicit mathematics in order to play m retthematies inelude magic squares, chessboard problems, logical puzzles, paradoxes, Sudoku, Pythagorean triples, polyominoes, shapes and symmetry, origami fractals, Pascal’ triangle, probability, prime numbers, number bases, Fibonacci numbers, knots, shapes and colors. Solving mathematical puzzles require mathematics. There are specific rules, as do multi-player games, but mathematical puzzles don't usually involve competition between two or more players. In order to solve such a puzzle, the solver must find a solution that satisfies the given conditions, Logic puzzles and classical ciphers are common examples of mathematical puzzles. Generalizations 1. Mathematics requires not only facility with numbers but also the ability to critically think through situations, to reason and argue logically and to creatively solve problems. Mathematics is an active human endeavour. We can create the mathematics we need to solve problems. Mathematics is for everyone and anyone who cares to learn it. 64 | Mathematics in the Modern World