Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687

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Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

SAR interferometry monitoring of subsidence in a detritic basin related to

water depletion in the underlying confined carbonate aquifer
(Torremolinos, southern Spain)
A. Ruiz-Constán a,⁎, A.M. Ruiz-Armenteros b,c,d, S. Martos-Rosillo a, J. Galindo-Zaldívar e,f, M. Lazecky g,
M. García e, J.J. Sousa h, C. Sanz de Galdeano f, J.M. Delgado-Blasco c,i, P. Jiménez-Gavilán j,
M. Caro-Cuenca k, J.A. Luque-Espinar a
a
Instituto Geológico y Minero de España, Urb. Alcázar del Genil 4, Edf. Zulema bajo, 18006 Granada, Spain
b
Departamento de Ingeniería Cartográfica, Geodésica y Fotogrametría, Universidad de Jaén, Campus Las Lagunillas s/n, 23071 Jaén, Spain
c
Grupo de Investigación Microgeodesia Jaén, Universidad de Jaén, Campus Las Lagunillas s/n, 23071 Jaén, Spain
d
Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Ciencias de la Tierra (CEACTierra), Universidad de Jaén, Campus Las Lagunillas s/n, 23071 Jaén, Spain
e
Departamento de Geodinámica, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
f
Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, CSIC-Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
g
IT4Innovations VSB-TU Ostrava, Czech Republic
h
Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, INESC-TEC (formerly INESC Porto), Vila Real, Portugal
i
Progressive System s.r.l., Rome, Italy
j
Departamento de Ecología y Geología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
k
Department of Radar Technology, TNO, The Netherlands

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Influence of intensive exploitation of a

confined carbonate aquifer in ground
deformation of the overlying sedimen-
tary infill
• Accumulated descent of the confined
water level at Sierra de Mijas of 140 m
during the period 1992-2009.
• Subsidence related to decrease in inter-
stitial pressure due to water withdrawal

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This research underlines the need to improve water management policies for areas linked to confined karstic
Received 20 November 2017 aquifers subjected to intensive exploitation, and to develop additional efforts towards monitoring their subsi-
Received in revised form 21 March 2018 dence evolution. We analyze subsidence related to intensive use of groundwater in a confined karstic aquifer,
Accepted 20 April 2018
through the use of the InSAR technique, by the southern coast of Spain (Costa del Sol). Carbonates are overlain
Available online 1 May 2018
by an unconfined detritic aquifer with interlayered high transmissivity rocks, in connection with the Mediterra-
Editor: R Ludwig nean Sea, where the water level is rather stable. Despite this, an accumulated deformation in the line-of-sight
(LOS) direction greater than −100 mm was observed by means of the ERS-1/2 (1992–2000) and Envisat

⁎ Corresponding author at: Instituto Geológico y Minero de España, Unidad de Granada, Urb. Alcázar del Genil. Edificio Zulema, bajo., 18006 Granada, Spain.
E-mail address: a.ruiz@igme.es (A. Ruiz-Constán).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.280
0048-9697/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687 671

Keywords: (2003–2009) satellite SAR sensors. During this period, the Costa del Sol experienced a major population increase
Confined carbonate aquifer due to the expansion of the tourism industry, with the consequent increase in groundwater exploitation. The
Detritic aquifer maximum LOS displacement rates recorded during both time spans are respectively −6 mm/yr and
Betic Cordillera
−11 mm/yr, respectively. During the entire period, there was an accumulated descent of the confined water
Rapid urbanization
Radar
level of 140 m, and several fluctuations of more than 80 m correlating with the subsidence trend observed for
InSAR the whole area. Main sedimentary depocenters (up to 800 m), revealed by gravity prospecting, partly coincide
with areas of subsidence maxima; yet ground deformation is also influenced by other factors, the main ones
being the fine-grained facies distribution and rapid urbanization due to high touristic pressure.
© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The intensive use of groundwater from carbonate aquifers results in
many adverse consequences (Custodio, 2002; Llamas and Custodio,
2003). Among them, we can underline the reduction of natural dis-
charge or even the disappearance of springs, the reduction of subsurface
discharge towards rivers or wetlands and subsequent environmental ef-
fects, contamination due to the mixture of polluted or brackish water,
land subsidence and sinkhole collapses (Rosenthal, 1988; Cardenal
et al., 1994; Pulido-Bosch et al., 1995; Martos-Rosillo et al., 2009;
Rodríguez-Estrella, 2012). These effects have a direct influence on soci-
ety owing to increased groundwater operating costs and user conflicts,
among others (Foster, 1992; Van der Gun and Lipponen, 2010).
Subsidence related to karst aquifer exploitation has usually been re-
ported in relation to areas where surface and subsurface dissolutions
form cavities and natural sinkholes, filled or not by unconsolidated de-
posits, which could collapse (e.g. Beck, 1984; Beck et al., 1999; Salvati
and Sasowsky, 2002; Waltham et al., 2007; García-Moreno and
Mateos, 2011; Rucker et al., 2013). Areas related to individual sinkholes
are relatively small —diameters ranging from a meter to hundreds of
meters— but they have been widely documented, considered a signifi-
cant geological hazard causing significant damage and economic ex-
pense ($300 million/year in USA; Weary, 2015). Nevertheless,
subsidence in carbonate aquifers may also be related to water depletion
if they are confined by a multilayer detritic formation with interlayered
aquitard levels (Stringfield and Rapp, 1976). This process is not well

Fig. 1. Geographic location of the study area in western Europe (A) and in southern Spain (B).
672 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687
described and only few examples have been documented, such as those
of the Savannah area (Georgia, USA) with up to 100 mm of subsidence
after 33 m of water level decline (Davis et al., 1963; Poland and Davis,
1969), or the Montellano aquifer (S Spain) with 33 mm of subsidence
related to 43 m of groundwater depletion (Ruiz-Constán et al., 2016).
The Costa del Sol in southern Spain (Fig. 1), has undergone great
population growth in recent decades, manly during 1990–2010, with
more than 4% population increase per year (INE, 2015). This phenome-
non is particularly important in the towns of Torremolinos and
Benalmádena (Málaga province), the focus of our research. Each of
these towns had around 25,000 inhabitants in 1990; in 2015, each of
their populations had grown to 67,000 inhabitants, which is a 160% in-
crease in just 25 years. Besides, the summer season sees a massive ar-
rival of tourists, with an additional population increase of 60% in July
and August. The high population density (around 3000 inhabitants/
km2) relies heavily on groundwater pumping to meet water demand
under unbridled urban growth. In this study, we look at the water
level evolution of the aquifers supplying freshwater to the towns of
Torremolinos and Benalmádena, the so-called Sierra de Mijas and Bajo
Guadalhorce aquifers (carbonate and detritic aquifers, respectively) in
order to determine their degree of overexploitation during the
1992–2009 period, when the major population increase took place.
Spaceborne SAR has proven to be an excellent technique for study-
ing ground motion caused by underground water flow of large areas
(Galloway et al., 1998; Amelung et al., 1999; Hoffmann et al., 2001;
Colesanti et al., 2003; Schmidt and Burgmann, 2003; Caro Cuenca,
2012). Subsidence in several areas of the Costa del Sol was first identi-
fied (Ruiz et al., 2011) applying Multi-Temporal InSAR techniques
(MT-InSAR) to an ERS-1/2 SAR dataset (1992–2000) through the
Stanford Method for Persistent Scatterers – Multi-Temporal Interferom-
etry (StaMPS MT-InSAR). It was mainly located in the towns of
Benalmádena, Torremolinos and in the SW of Málaga. These results
Fig. 2. Geological map (A) and lithological column (B) of Sierra de Mijas carbonate aquifer and Bajo Guadalhorce detritic aquifer. Modified from 1066 and 1067 MAGNA 50 geological maps
(Piles Mateo et al., 1978; Estévez-González and Chamón Cobos, 1978). White dotted-lines represent the location of the main towns while white dashed-line indicates the sediment/
basement boundary. Black lines locate the cross-sections represented in Fig. 7.
were afterwards confirmed, for the 2003–2008 period, through the pro-
cessing of an Envisat ASAR dataset with the SBAS InSAR Service of
European Space Agency's Geohazard Exploitation Platform (GEP), an
unsupervised MT-InSAR analysis (Galve et al., 2017). In this study, we
apply spaceborne SAR to estimate and analyze ground motion in the
Benalmádena-Torremolinos area using SAR images from the European
ERS-1/2 (1992–2000) and Envisat (2003–2009) satellites. We also per-
formed a gravity survey that allowed us to locate thickness variations in
the sedimentary infill that could condition the observed subsidence pat-
tern. The complete dataset was compared to detect areas of the alluvial
sedimentary infill that are most seriously affected by induced subsi-
dence due to intensive use of the karstic aquifer. These results shed
light on the need to implement management plans for a sustainable
use of this important aquifer, given the influence of groundwater deple-
tion in the subsidence of neighboring areas.
2. Geological and hydrogeological setting
Sierra de Mijas and the Málaga Basin (Fig. 2) are located along the
Betic Cordillera, the main relief of southern Spain. Sierra de Mijas is con-
stituted by metamorphic rocks that are unconformably overlain by
Neogene-Quaternary sediments (Piles Mateo et al., 1978; Estévez-
González and Chamón Cobos, 1978) that constitute the sedimentary
infilling of the Málaga Basin. From a hydrogeological point of view, the
study area comprises part of the aquifers of Sierra de Mijas (carbonate
aquifer) and Bajo Guadalhorce (detritic aquifer).
2.1. Sierra de Mijas carbonate aquifer
The stratigraphic succession of Sierra de Mijas is formed at the bot-
tom by more than 400 m of Paleozoic rocks (schists and gneisses) su-
perposed by more than 500 m of Triassic marbles which form the
 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687
main reliefs. The total outcropping surface of the calcareous massif is
80 km2 and its permeability is mainly related to fractures and
karstification processes (Andreo, 2007). The S and SW boundaries of
the carbonate aquifer are constituted by the cited metapelites, forming
a reverse contact; meanwhile, at the E and N boundaries the marbles
plunge below the detritic sediments of the Bajo Guadalhorce aquifer,
also cut by faults that contribute to their sinking.
The sequence is deformed by ESE-WNW to ENE-WSW recumbent
northward-verging folds and NNO-SSE normal faults (Andreo and
Sanz de Galdeano, 1994). These structures and the progressive decline
of the relief, mainly to the E, condition the existence of springs at differ-
ent heights: 400–485 m.a.s.l. in Mijas; 280–300 m.a.s.l. in Alhaurín el
Grande; 210–220 m.a.s.l. in Benalmádena; 125–145 m.a.s.l. in Alhaurín
de la Torre; and 55–74 m.a.s.l. in Torremolinos. Most of them are now
dry as a consequence of excessive pumping. Water resources are esti-
mated in ~28 hm3/yr, while pumping is around 35 hm3/yr (BOE,
2016), surpassing the resources of the system and causing an accumu-
lated water table decrease of 80–100 m in the period 1997–2003
(Andreo, 2007).
The specific flow rate at Sierra de Mijas is around 10–100 l/s/m, with
transmissivity values of 103 m2/day. Spring flow variations are cush-
ioned in natural regime by the rainfall, with peak floods registered sev-
eral months after precipitation (Andreo et al., 2002a). Recharge of the
aquifer is from rainfall infiltration; discharge, at present, is chiefly re-
lated to pumping activity in Sierra de Mijas (Andreo et al., 1996), but
also to lateral flow to the neighboring Bajo Guadalhorce detritic aquifer.
Lateral flow values range from 10 to 15 hm3/yr (Vadillo et al., 2007) to
25 hm3/yr (IGME, 1983a). The water has calcium magnesium bicarbon-
ate facies without important hydrochemical variations, although its
quality is worsening because of agricultural impact and urban develop-
ment (Andreo et al., 2002a).
2.2. Guadalhorce detritic aquifer
The aquifer is constituted by Miocene to Quaternary sediments
(IGME, 1983b) cropping out at the depression where the Guadalhorce
River flows (Málaga Basin) and continuing offshore. The basement of
the basin is constituted by the Triassic marbles —and the Paleozoic
rocks under them— of Sierra de Mijas and Sierra de Cártama, in the
southern and central sectors. Northwards, the basement is formed by
Paleozoic slates and greywackes of Montes de Málaga and, tectonically
over them, Cretaceous-Tertiary flysch clays, also including lower Mio-
cene formations (Figs. 1 and 2). The sedimentary infill (Fig. 2B) is
slightly deformed and it is subdivided into several aquifer formations
(Vadillo et al., 2007; Nieto et al., 2016) which, from bottom to top, are:
i) Upper Miocene aquifer: calcarenites and conglomerates with
maximum thickness of 100 m. In the northern border of Sierra
de Mijas, these rocks are in contact with the marbles and con-
fined by Pliocene marly sediments (Andreo et al., 2002b). How-
ever, they were eroded in many areas even before the Pliocene.
ii) Lower Pliocene aquifer: Pliocene deposits formed by 10–70 m of
basal conglomerates generally confined by Upper Pliocene marls,
although they are locally open laterally.
iii) Upper Pliocene aquifer: 400 m of marly series and alternations of
gravels and sandy levels (20 m) partially connected with the al-
luvial aquifer through wells.
iv) Quaternary alluvial aquifer: alluvial deposits of the Guadalhorce
River with a maximum thickness of 50 m (Vadillo et al., 2007).
Depths of the pumping wells are generally lower than 50 m; water is
obtained from the Quaternary alluvial aquifer (26 hm3/yr; BOE, 2016)
and, to a lesser extent, from the gravel alternations of the Upper Plio-
cene aquifer (6 hm3/yr). Flow rates are around 40 l/s (Carrasco et al.,
2003), transmissivity values of the alluvial aquifer are in the range
673
5–800 m2/day, average permeability is 10−3 m/s and the effective po-
rosity is 5–10% (Vadillo et al., 2007). During rainy periods, there are
wetlands at the river mouth, but the water level significantly descends
in dry periods. Marine intrusion is detected mostly in the right margin
of the river, through the high permeable Pliocene sandy levels and the
alluvial, where pumping is greater (Carrasco et al., 2012, Urresti-Estala
et al., 2016). The study area comprises the SW part of the Malaga
Basin and the E border of Sierra de Mijas (Figs. 1 and 2).
3. Hydrogeological and meteorological analysis
We analyzed piezometric data from 32 piezometers from the
Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME, 2017) and the
Demarcación Hidrográfica de las Cuencas Mediterráneas Andaluzas
(DHCMA, 2017) control networks. Piezometers with longer time series
and with fewer information gaps were selected (Figs. 2 and 3): six of
them located at the Bajo Guadalhorce detritic aquifer (D1–D6) and 15
in Sierra de Mijas (C1–C15). In addition, we analyzed rainfall data at
the Torremolinos meteorological station (TMS; Fig. 2) from the Agencia
Estatal de Meteorología network (AEMET, 2017). In order to obtain a
continuous register for the 1992–2009 period, these data were com-
pleted through simple linear regression with those of the Benalmádena
and Alhaurín de la Torre AEMET stations (BMS and AMS; Fig. 2). The
accumulated deviation of monthly precipitation was obtained, as it
provides an estimation of the relative deficit or surplus of precipitation
(Paccum in Fig. 3). This value is computed evaluating the average
monthly precipitation over a long-term period (this study,
1992–2009) and then, the obtained value is successively subtracted
from each monthly rainfall value. Major drought periods could be easily
distinguished as they correspond to downward trends in the rainfall ac-
cumulated deviation curve, for example those comprised between 1992
and 1995 and 1998–2002. Annual fluctuations correspond to the wet
and dry periods of the same hydrological year. This parameter usually
evolves in parallel to the temporal evolution of the piezometric level
in aquifers in natural regime.
Control points near the coastline show lower water table fluctua-
tions (e.g. D5, D6) than those placed far from the coast (e.g. D2 and
D3) due to their proximity to the base level of the aquifer and the
high transmissivity of the alluvial sediments (Fig. 3). The average
water table change in coastal piezometers is of 2 m (D1–D6). It should
also be pointed out that the cumulative level drops observed at the
detritic aquifer during the period 1995–1996 (D3; minimum of −4 m.
a.s.l.) correspond to the increase of groundwater extractions at that
area during an intense drought period (Vadillo et al., 2007; Carrasco
et al., 2012), the worst in the last 50 years. These declines are rapidly off-
set during the rainy season, and the water table remains roughly at the
same level for the whole period.
On the other hand, the continuous decrease of the piezometric level
at the carbonate aquifer is not entirely compensated by recoveries in the
wet season, achieving historic minima in each drought period. During
the 80s, the water table marked by most piezometers at the carbonate
aquifer was at 60–70 m.a.s.l. After a dry period, it decreased to 40 m.a.
s.l., but then fully recovered in 1989–1990 (Andreo, 2007). The drought
period between 1990 and 1995 produced a descent of 80 m in the water
column (−10 m.a.s.l.) with another important recovery in the following
two years (50 m.a.s.l.). Since then, a noteworthy descent is observed
until reaching −70 m.a.s.l. in 2009, representing a rate of 11 m/yr. To
sum up, a descending trend of 8 m/yr is observed for the whole period
(1992–2009). The evolution of every particular piezometer is reflected
in Fig. 3, although for correlation purposes (Figs. 8 and 11) we have
used the one with the most complete time series (C10). These data
allow us to affirm that the carbonate aquifer shows an excellent recov-
ery capacity in the rainy seasons. Yet since the 90s the recovery capacity
is surpassed by the pumping activity, resulting in continuous water re-
serve consumption.
674 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687

Fig. 3. Groundwater level evolution (black line) of the carbonate (A) and detritic (B) aquifers together with accumulated deviation of monthly precipitation (dark blue line), for the period
1992–2010. Groundwater level is expressed in meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.) and location of the piezometers is marked in Fig. 2.

4. InSAR analysis recent decades, to model atmosphere delays of the radar signal and pro-
vide for a precise estimation of displacements using a larger number of
4.1. SAR datasets SAR images as input, hence an unprecedented precision of one millime-
ter per year, or even better (Ferretti et al., 2007a). For a general review
We used two independent sets of SAR scenes acquired by satellites of InSAR, the reader is referred to Bamler and Hartl (1998), Rosen et al.
belonging to the European Space Agency (ESA) with sensors operating (2000), Ferretti et al. (2007b), Zhou et al. (2009), Hetland et al. (2012),
in C-band (~5.7 wavelength, 5.3 GHz) to delineate areas of ground mo- Crosetto et al. (2016), and Pepe and Calò (2017), among others.
tion using interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). The first
dataset consisted of a stack of 30 ERS-1/2 SAR scenes acquired in as-
Table 1
cending mode along the satellite track 230, frame 729, between October ERS-1/2 SAR data for Torremolinos area (Track 230 ascending, Frame 729). Parameters are
1992 and November 2000 (Table 1). The second dataset consisted of 20 relative to the master imagen acquired on 13/08/1997 (text in bold).
Envisat ASAR scenes from the same track and frame as ERS-1/2, ob-
No. Acq. date Orbit Sensor B⊥ (m) Btemp (days) fdc (Hz)
tained from November 2002 to February 2009 (Table 2). Both SAR
datasets, characterized by a 35-day nominal repeat cycle, have an 23° 1 19,921,004 6387 ERS-1 −380,4 −1774 −357
2 19,930,606 9894 ERS-1 −271,8 −1529 −309
incidence angle of the radar signal from the vertical direction and a 5
3 19,930,711 10,395 ERS-1 172 −1494 −298
× 25 m (azimuth × range) nominal pixel dimension. Due to ERS-2 on- 4 19,930,815 10,896 ERS-1 −482,5 −1459 −358
board gyroscope problems in January 2001, only images until the end 5 19,930,919 11,397 ERS-1 −448,7 −1424 −344
of 2000 were selected to avoid high Doppler centroid differences over 6 19,931,024 11,898 ERS-1 −144,4 −1389 −367
the critical value of 700 Hz (Fig. S1 in Supplementary material). 7 19,931,128 12,399 ERS-1 261,8 −1354 −373
8 19,950,425 19,757 ERS-1 −371,6 −841 −369
9 19,950,704 20,759 ERS-1 504,2 −771 −321
4.2. Processing methodology 10 19,950,705 1086 ERS-2 404,8 −770 −564
11 19,951,121 22,763 ERS-1 378,5 −631 −378
By design, SAR acquisitions are processed with so-called focusing al- 12 19,951,122 3090 ERS-2 259,3 −630 −611
13 19,960,305 24,266 ERS-1 −152,3 −526 −301
gorithms, to arrive at images where two radio signal characteristics are
14 19,961,002 7599 ERS-2 252,6 −315 −578
represented within each image pixel; it shows the intensity of reflection 15 19,970,326 10,104 ERS-2 94,2 −140 −538
of the radio wave sent by SAR antenna and its phase, i.e. a portion of 16 19,970,813 12,108 ERS-2 0 0 −605
reflected wavelength. Both parameters are used within SAR interferom- 17 19,971,022 13,110 ERS-2 73,8 70 −603
etry (InSAR), though the phase value is crucial by the interferometric 18 19,971,231 14,112 ERS-2 −568,2 140 −586
19 19,980,311 15,114 ERS-2 −97 210 −600
(phase) combination of two well coregistered SAR images taken from 20 19,980,520 16,116 ERS-2 360,7 280 −573
the same track in a specific time delay (at least 35 days in the case of 21 19,980,729 17,118 ERS-2 −556,6 350 −572
ERS-1/2 and Envisat), an interferogram image is created. The interfero- 22 19,981,007 18,120 ERS-2 −289,6 420 −579
gram contains information about phase differences for single resolution 23 19,981,216 19,122 ERS-2 −296,9 490 −533
24 19,990,713 41,801 ERS-1 −126,7 699 −236
cells, normally linked to surface displacements over the observed area,
25 19,990,714 22,128 ERS-2 118,5 700 −545
together with other physical characteristics affecting the phase signal, 26 19,991,130 43,805 ERS-1 826 839 −354
including topography and atmosphere artefacts (Hanssen, 2001). Un- 27 20,000,419 26,136 ERS-2 −135 980 −722
wanted signals can be removed, for example, using external informa- 28 20,000,628 27,138 ERS-2 −725,4 1050 −464
tion such as a digital elevation model (DEM). To achieve accurate 29 20,000,906 28,140 ERS-2 −196,6 1120 −360
30 20,001,115 29,142 ERS-2 407,9 1190 −1087
displacement maps, MT-InSAR techniques have been developed in
 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687 675

Table 2 material), 1774 days being the maximum temporal baseline (Table 1,
Envisat ASAR data for Torremolinos area (Track 230 ascending, Frame 729). Parameters and Fig. S1A and B in Supplementary material). For Envisat scenes, per-
are relative to the master image acquired on 02/02/2005 (text in bold).
pendicular baselines range from −654.5 to 597.4 m (Table 2, and
No. Acq. date Orbit Sensor B⊥ (m) Btemp (days) fdc (Hz) Fig. S1C in Supplementary material); Doppler centroid baselines range
1 20,021,120 3791 ASAR −361,5 −805 −553 from −26.6 to 39.6 Hz (Fig. S1D in Supplementary material) with re-
2 20,030,723 7298 ASAR −263 −560 −510 spect to the master scene dated February 2, 2005, in this case
3 20,030,827 7799 ASAR −189,5 −525 −561 1470 days being the maximum temporal baseline (Table 2, and
4 20,031,105 8801 ASAR 84,2 −455 −576
Fig. S1C and D in Supplementary material).
5 20,031,210 9302 ASAR 442,9 −420 −514
6 20,040,324 10,805 ASAR −325,6 −315 −547 Fig. 4A shows the relationship between temporal and spatial base-
7 20,040,428 11,306 ASAR −105,2 −280 −556 lines for the ERS-1/2 dataset used in this study, with both PS (dashed
8 20,040,602 11,807 ASAR −654,5 −245 −537 red lines) and SB (green lines) processing. The same baseline distribu-
9 20,040,707 12,308 ASAR 430,8 −210 −560 tion is shown in Fig. 4B for Envisat dataset. Based on the PS processing,
10 20,040,811 12,809 ASAR 597,4 −175 −561
11 20,050,202 15,314 ASAR 0 0 −550
we constructed 29 and 19 interferograms, respectively for ERS-1/2 and
12 20,050,831 18,320 ASAR 231,5 210 −542 Envisat datasets. The interferograms for the SB processing (80 for ERS-1/
13 20,051,109 19,322 ASAR −294,7 280 −516 2 and 45 for Envisat) were selected in view of the following criteria:
14 20,060,607 22,328 ASAR 278,2 490 −512 maximum coherence = 0.5, maximum temporal baseline =
15 20,060,920 23,831 ASAR −253 595 −520
1500 days, and maximum perpendicular baseline = 1070 m. These
16 20,061,025 24,332 ASAR 166,1 630 −512
17 20,070,207 25,835 ASAR −150,7 735 −516 thresholds are optimized for C-band data and used by default in StaMPS.
18 20,070,801 28,340 ASAR 317,8 910 −513 To estimate accurate deformation maps, highly coherent pixels in
19 20,080,402 31,847 ASAR 340,2 1155 −521 the scene are required. StaMPS pixel selection is based on a converged
20 20,090,211 36,356 ASAR −110,1 1470 −514 probability distribution, computed as presented in Hooper et al.
(2007). The selection strategy consists of finding the selection threshold
of the probability distribution for each PS candidate. If the converged
One major limitation is that conventional estimation methods such probability distribution is greater than the selection threshold, the
as the least squares method cannot be directly applied to InSAR mea-
surements, because the observations —phase differences— are wrapped.
A wrapped phase is the 2π-modulus of the absolute (or unwrapped)
phase. Therefore, the number of wave periods between the satellite
and observed reflector cannot be known. For this reason, techniques A
of phase unwrapping must be introduced in order to achieve proper dis-
placement information, especially if the rate of displacements is rela-
tively high, e.g. Caro Cuenca et al. (2011). Taking into account other
phase-affecting characteristics and the number of available SAR images
used in processing, the phase unwrapping algorithms are considered
successful in cases when displacement does not exceed a quarter of
the SAR wavelength (Hanssen, 2001).
A second limitation stems from the fact that the signal is affected by
changes in the area of interest that are not related to ground displace-
ments. Since the radar wavelength is 5.65 cm, the phase signature of a
ground displacement can be overlain by a disturbance from the motion
of leaves, vegetation growth, snow cover, or similar sources. This signal
appears as noise, and it is referred to as a temporal decorrelation.
A rate of decorrelation is characterized by a parameter called inter-
ferometric coherence. Decorrelated (low coherent) areas are not only
noisy but also very problematic for a proper phase unwrapping, and
stand as the main source of errors. MT-InSAR algorithms developed spe- B
cific approaches to overcome this problem. The Persistent Scatterers
(PS) technique (Ferretti et al., 2001) combines all SAR images with a
common reference image (master image) and processes them for a se-
lected set of PS points that are not decorrelated and show a persistent
stable reflection, such as bare rocks and built structures whose signal
dominates their decorrelating surroundings. Another approach known
as Small Baselines (SB) relies on interferometric combinations of SAR
images with the shortest temporal differences possible (Berardino
et al., 2002); this approach involves a set of pixels that slowly
decorrelate in time (SDFP pixels).
The PS and SB approaches are complementary, and their combina-
tion is able to extract a signal with greater coverage than that of either
technique alone (Hooper, 2008; Ferretti et al., 2011). In this work, we
use the open-source StaMPS MT-InSAR package (Hooper et al., 2012,
2013) to perform MT-InSAR analysis using a combination of both
these basic techniques (PS + SB). For PS processing, the ERS-1/2 scenes
Fig. 4. Temporal vs spatial baseline distribution for the SAR datasets used in this study (A
have perpendicular baselines ranging from −725.4 to 826 m (Table 1,
for ERS-1/2 and B for Envisat). The red lines represent the single master interferograms
and Fig. S1A in Supplementary material) with respect to the central ref- used for PS processing while green lines represent the small baseline ones. Master
erence image (master) dated August 13, 1997. Doppler centroid base- image is symbolized as a black star (August 13, 1997, acquisition 16, Table 1, for ERS-1/
lines range from −482.2 to 368.2 Hz (Fig. S1B in Supplementary 2; February 2, 2005, acquisition 11, Table 2 for Envisat).
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A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687
Fig. 5. Spatio-temporal evolution of the accumulated line-of-sight (LOS) displacement for the combined (PS + SB) processing referred to the first data of the area of Fig. 2. All the single master interferograms are ordered by date from left to right and
top to bottom (A for ERS-1/2 and B for Envisat).
 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687 677

Fig. 6. Mean SAR line-of-sight (LOS) velocity, assuming a linear deformation rate, superimposed over a Google Earth image (A for ERS-1/2 and C for Envisat) of the area of Fig. 2. (B and
D) Standard deviation for mean LOS velocity. Separate results for PS and SB processing are shown in E and F for ERS-1/2 and in G and H for Envisat.

candidate will be initially selected as a coherent pixel, and otherwise it the processing chain described in greater detail in Hooper (2006,
will be discarded. For the initial topographic estimation, and later on for 2008, and 2010), Hooper et al. (2004, and 2007) and Sousa et al.
terrain geocoding, we used heights from a DEM provided by the Instituto (2010, 2011), spatio-temporally unwrapped phases of single pixels
Geográfico Nacional with 25 m resolution (IGN, 2017a). After applying were used to estimate satellite look-angle errors and atmosphere

Table 3
Short statistics for the processed SAR datasets. Fig. S2 is included in the Supplementary material.

Satellite ERS-1/2 Envisat

Sensor ERS-1/2 SAR Envisat ASAR

Acquisition period 1992/10/04–2000/11/15 2002/11/20–2009/02/11
Number of scenes 20 30
AOI dimension (km2) 56.11
Band C
Wavelength (cm) ~5.7
Incident angle (°) 23
Orbital Track Ascending
Azimuth × slant range resolution (m) 4×8
Multilook factor (Az/Rg) 11
Georeference accuracy (m) 25
Minimum temporal span between two 35
acquisitions (day)
Processing method PS SB Combined (PS + SB) PS SB Combined (PS + SB)
(PS/SDPF/PS + SDPF) density (PS/km2) ~129 ~162 ~252 ~172 ~336 ~422
Mean LOS velocity = [−1.5, 1.5] mm/yr ~81 ~84 ~82 ~62 ~57 ~61
(% population) (Figs. 6E and S2A) (Figs. 6F and S2C) (Figs. 6A and S2E) (Figs. 6G and S2G) (Figs. 6H and S2I) (Figs. 6C and S2K)
Mean LOS velocity = [−2.5, 2.5] mm/yr ~94 ~94 ~95 ~81 ~71 ~76
(% population) (Figs. 6E and S2A) (Figs. 6F and S2C) (Figs. 6A and S2E) (Figs. 6G and S2G) (Figs. 6H and S2I) (Fig. 6C and S2K)
σMean LOS velocity b ±1.5 mm/yr (% population) 100 ~88 ~97 ~99 ~25 ~52
(Fig. S2B) (Fig. S2D) (Figs. 6B and S2F) (Fig. S2H) (Fig. S2J) (Figs. 6D and S2L)
σMean LOS velocity b ±2.5 mm/yr (% population) 100 100 100 100 ~89 ~94
(Fig. S2B) (Fig. S2D) (Figs. 6B and S2F) (Fig. S2H) (Fig. S2J) (Figs. 6D and S2L)
678 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687

phase screens (APS). Finally, estimated displacement time series within
pixels and final maps of an average velocity could be created.
4.3. InSAR results
We applied a MT-InSAR technique spanning from October 1992
to November 2000 (ERS-1/2) and from November 2002 to February
2009 (Envisat), to outline the ground deformation behavior in the
Benalmádena-Torremolinos area. Fig. 5A and B show the spatio-
temporal evolution of the accumulated line-of-sight (LOS) surface dis-
placement for the whole analyzed period with reference to the first
data, respectively, for the ERS-1/2 and Envisat datasets. The mean LOS
velocity patterns together with their standard deviations are shown in
Fig. 6A and B for the ERS-1/2 dataset, and in Fig. 6C and D for Envisat
(both for the combined (PS + SB) processing). Individual results for
PS and SB processing are shown in Fig. 6E and F for ERS-1/2 and in
Fig. 6G and H for Envisat. A NNE-SSW subsidence bowl is seen over
this area during the ERS-1/2 period, with a maximum deformation
rate of −6 mm/yr. The same pattern is detected in the period covered
by the Envisat data, reaching a maximum subsidence of −11 mm/yr,
which represents an acceleration in the deformation. In both cases the
reference area, that is, the area assumed to be stable for phase

Fig. 7. Temporal evolution of line-of-sight (LOS) displacement along the cross-sections indicated in Fig. 6A (EA-EA′, EB-EB′ and ED-ED′) and 6C (AA-AA′, AB-AB′ and AD-AD′).
 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687 679

Fig. 8. Displacement time series resolved by ERS-1/2 (A) and Envisat (B) ascending observations for PS (PS + SDFP) points located in Fig. 7 compared with the water level of the C10
piezometer (carbonate aquifer) expressed in meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.).

unwrapping, is depicted by a white triangle in the bottom left part of
Fig. 6A, C, E, F, G, and H. This area was selected manually as it corre-
sponds to a stable urban zone located over basement rocks. We con-
firmed its stable behavior with different processing tests and it
corresponds to the average of all the PS inside a radius of 50 m. The al-
gorithm selected a total of 14,165 and 23,672 PS (PS + SDFP) pixels in
the cropped area shown in Fig. 6, resulting in average densities of
~252 and ~422 PS/km2, respectively for ERS-1/2 and Envisat processing.
The main statistics of the processing datasets, including separate values
for PS, SB and the combined (PS + SB) processing, are summarized in
Table 3. The PS distributions for the mean LOS velocity and its standard
deviation, for the three different processing, are shown in Fig. S2A to F
for ERS-1/2 (Supplementary material), and in Fig. S2G to L for Envisat
(Supplementary material).
The mean LOS velocities for most of our ERS-1/2 PS (PS + SDFP)
population (82–91%) lie within a ±1.5–2 mm/yr interval, with a mean
value of 0.23 mm/yr (Fig. S2E in Supplementary material), and inside
a ±1–1.5 mm/yr interval (74–97%) in the case of the mean LOS velocity
standard deviations (Fig. S2F in Supplementary material). For Envisat
dataset, we estimated the mean LOS velocities to have a mean value of

Fig. 9. Bouguer (A) and residual (B) anomaly maps. Modeled profiles (in red) and gravity stations located in the sedimentary infill (black triangles) and basement rocks (white triangles)
are marked.
680 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687
−1.1 mm/yr, and show a larger concentration of subsidence values in
the range from −2.5 to −10 mm/yr (Fig. S2K in Supplementary mate-
rial) than in the case of ERS-1/2 (Fig. S2E in Supplementary material)
due to the increased size of the subsidence bowl in this period, as evi-
dent in Fig. 6. However, a large population percentage of PS still lies
within the interval of ±2 mm/yr (70%) (Fig. S2K in Supplementary ma-
terial). In the case of the mean LOS velocity standard deviations for
Envisat dataset, 84% of PS population is inside a ±2 mm/yr interval
(Fig. S2L in Supplementary material). In our case, a stability threshold
around ±2 mm/yr is assumed, as it is the value commonly considered
in the literature for C-band radar data (Meisina et al., 2008; Cigna
et al., 2014; Del Ventisette et al., 2014; Notti et al., 2014; Ciampalini
et al., 2015; Frangioni et al., 2015; Novellino, 2015). Therefore, a PS
with a mean LOS velocity outside this threshold is classified as unstable.
Spatial analysis of the subsidence distribution shows the subsiding
sectors to be located over highly urbanized areas parallel to the coast.
An overview of the sectors subsiding the most is more clearly seen in
Fig. 10. Two dimensional gravity models and mean SAR line-of sight (LOS) velocity curves for ERS-1/2 (blue line) and Envisat (red line) data. The position of the profiles is marked in Figs. 2,
6, 9, and 12.
Fig. 7, where the evolution of LOS displacements along the cross-
sections indicated in Fig. 6A (EA′, EB′ and ED′) and B (AA′, AB′ and AD′)
are depicted. Each profile represents an isochronous cumulative LOS dis-
placement line with respect to the first data. Plotted in Fig. 8 are displace-
ment time series for some of the areas with the highest subsidence rates
in Fig. 6A and C. Most noteworthy are areas EA-3, EA-4, EB-2, ED-2, ED-3,
ED-5, and ED-8 for the ERS-1/2 period (Fig. 8A), and AA-5, AA-6, AA-7,
AB-2, AB-3, AB-4, AD-4, AD-5, AD-7, and AD-8 areas for Envisat
(Fig. 8B). They represent the average deformation of an area with a radius
of 50 m.
In either period, the subsidence pattern is quite similar for most of
the areas. Yet in the case of ERS-1/2, the subsidence trend is represented
by two clusters (Fig. 6A). The first, close to Benalmádena, comprises
areas EA-3, EA-4, ED-2, ED-3, and ED-5. They present a first period,
from 1992 to mid-1995, with a subsidence of about −40 mm and
with rates in the order of −15 mm/yr; and a second period, from mid-
1995 to the end of 2000, with a deformation profile showing a gentle
 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687
and almost linear slope of roughly −10 mm of subsidence at a rate of
−2 to −3 mm/yr. The second cluster, located at the intersection of
cross lines ED-ED′ and EB-EB′, contains areas EB-2 and ED-8, showing
a more linear subsidence of −20 to −25 mm over the entire period
(1992–2000), and with a rate in the order of −3 to −4 mm/yr. In the
case of Envisat, all the areas displayed in Fig. 8B show a similar subsi-
dence trend, almost linear for the whole period (2002–2009), of ap-
proximately −30 to −50 mm, with a rate of −5 to −9 mm/yr.
5. Gravity data
Gravity prospecting is a convenient technique for defining the ge-
ometry of a basin, if sufficient density contrast exists between sedi-
ments and the basement rocks. It entails measurement of the
gravitational field of the Earth at different points of its surface in order
to identify anomalies due to local high- or low-density bodies. In this
study, acquisition was performed using a Scintrex Autograv CG-5 grav-
ity meter. Raw data were corrected and processed to calculate complete
Bouguer anomalies (Fig. 9A), by applying standard corrections to the
measured values at each station. We applied a standard density of
2.67 g/cm3 and considered the GRS67 Geodetic Reference System
(Eckerman et al., 2017; Mandal et al., 2015). The absolute gravity
value was calculated taking as reference the Granada base station of
the Instituto Geográfico Nacional's gravimetric network (IGN, 2017b).
The 5 m IGN digital terrain elevation model (IGN, 2017a) and a 200
m-resolution bathymetric database (General Bathymetric Chart of the
Oceans, GEBCO) were used.
We acquired a total of 209 gravity data (Figs. 2 and 9) along several
profiles covering the whole study area. Data spacing was established
taking into account the subsidence pattern, with data spaced 300 m
on average, but around 200 m at the subsidence maxima. The 2D gravity
models (Fig. 10) were obtained by means of GRAVMAG V.1.7 software,
from the British Geological Survey (Pedley et al., 1993). It allows for re-
moval of the regional trend (yellow lines, Fig. 9A) caused by the regional
geological structure of Sierra de Mijas, and isolation of the residual
anomaly related to the sedimentary rocks (Fig. 9B).
The Bouguer anomaly map of the Iberian Peninsula (IGN, 1976;
Ayala, 2013) reveals that the area has negative values associated with
Fig. 11. (A) Coefficient of determination R2 (expressed as a percentage) showing correlation between subsidence at PS points located in Fig. 6. Correlation among the normalized
piezometric level and the normalized ERS-1/2 (B) and Envisat (C) deformation trends.
681
the main reliefs of the Betic Cordillera (−160 mGal), which increase to-
wards the Málaga coast, where they become positive (60–80 mGal) as a
result of the thinning continental crust and the presence of peridotite
bodies (Torné et al., 1992; Ayala, 2013; Pedrera et al., 2016). On the
other hand, relative minima correspond to the presence of low-
density rocks, as those constituting sedimentary basins (Insua-Arévalo
et al., 2004; Ruiz-Constán et al., 2009).
Estimation of the regional anomaly in this zone is complex, as it
varies from E-W at Sierra de Mijas to a NE-SW trend northwards, and
again E-W in the surroundings of Málaga (Torné et al., 1992). In this
study, an E-W trending regional anomaly was determined and
subtracted from the Bouguer anomaly (Fig. 9B) by kriging gravity data
located at the basement rocks. Residual anomaly values range between
−14 and 4 mGal. Five gravity profiles (Fig. 10) were performed crossing
the subsidence maxima obtained through the InSAR technique (EA, EB,
ED, AA, AB and AD). Density contrast considered between the sedimen-
tary infill and the basement rocks is in the range of 0.52–0.72 g/cm3,
based on the average value for each lithology (Telford et al., 1991) and
previous gravity studies in other sedimentary basins of the Spanish
southern coast (Duque et al., 2008 and Martínez-Martos et al., 2016), re-
spectively. The sedimentary infill shows an irregular morphology with
high thickness changes, which were not reported before due to the ab-
sence of previous geophysical data in the study area. The main feature is
a furrow parallel to the coast that, depending on the applied density
contrast, shows an estimated maximum thickness of 450–800 m at
the northern part of the study area (profiles EB-EB′ and AB-AB′),
whereas the average thickness of the basin is around 200–400 m
(Fig. 10). There are few boreholes in the sedimentary infill, most of
them very shallow. Most lie near the contact with the carbonate aquifer
and show thicknesses of 30–40 m (C7 and C12, Fig. 3). The highest sed-
imentary thicknesses are seen in C13 (300 m) and C1 (190 m), but do
not cut the top of the carbonate aquifer.
6. Discussion
To better discern the relationship between subsidence and water
withdrawal, we superposed the water table evolution in the carbonate
aquifer (C10) to the deformation trends respectively observed for the
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Fig. 12. Residual anomaly isolines and depocenters location superimposed over the mean SAR LOS velocity for ERS-1/2 (A) and Envisat (B), assuming a linear deformation rate.
 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687
ERS-1/2 (1992–2000) and the Envisat (2003–2009) satellites (Fig. 8A
and B). In the first case, the profile (Fig. 8A) shows a sharp decline in
water level during the period 1992–1995 that correlates with the defor-
mation trend at all the control points analyzed (located in Fig. 6). After
1996 the piezometric level ascends, but the deformation pattern re-
mains fairly stable or just moderately descending, with fluctuations
linked to summer periods. For the Envisat time span (Fig. 8B), both
the piezometric level and the deformation pattern show a negative
slope with a total subsidence of 55 mm (AD-5) for a water table descent
of 73 m over the whole period.
We furthermore compared the temporal subsiding trend of several
points located at areas of maximum subsidence (Fig. 11) using the coef-
ficient of determination (R2; square of the Pearson correlation coeffi-
cient), following Ruiz-Constán et al. (2017). The high correlation
observed among all the points (R2 values N76%) indicates a common
triggering factor for deformation throughout the study area. In addition,
we compared the normalized value of the subsiding trend (AA-1, AA-3,
AB-4, ED-3, ED-4 and ED-8) with the piezometric level evolution at the
carbonate aquifer (C10), in order to eliminate the dimensional differ-
ences between variables of different datasets (Luque-Espinar et al.,
2008). The normalized value (Z) was calculated by means of the expres-
sion Z = (X − μ) / σ (where X is the analyzed variable, μ is the mean
value and σ is the standard deviation). Results are consistent for both
variables (Fig. 11B and C), pointing to the fact that the subsidence de-
tected is largely associated with water withdrawal in the confined Sierra
de Mijas aquifer that produced the decreasing of the interstitial pressure
at the overlying detritic sediments.
Deformation related to karstic aquifers is broadly attributed to col-
lapse and sinkhole formation in unconfined aquifers (Waltham et al.,
2007; Salvati and Sasowsky, 2002). Examples of land subsidence
Fig. 13. Scheme representing the piezometric and subsidence evolution at the study area before 1992 (A), during 1992–2000 (B) and during 2002–2009 (D). Pumping wells are
represented by red tower symbols.
683
associated with confined carbonate aquifers are less prominent
(Meinzer, 1923; Li et al., 2006), although some cases have been linked
to gas extraction in mouldic limestone reservoirs (Dudley et al., 2009;
Van Ditzhuijzen et al., 1984) or intensive use of groundwater in con-
fined carbonate aquifers (Davis et al., 1963; Stringfield and Rapp,
1976; Ruiz-Constán et al., 2016). In this context, subsidence usually
happens by the decrease of pore pressure and compaction of the highly
compressible fine-grained sediments that constitute the aquitard
sealing of the aquifer, as consequence of water extraction in the con-
fined carbonate aquifer (Poland and Davis, 1969). In our study area,
the lithological column of the Bajo Guadalhorce detritic aquifer com-
prises up to 400 m of upper Pliocene marls, depending on the particular
site, which could be compressed due to exploitation of the confined Si-
erra de Mijas carbonate aquifer. Hence, the subsidence maxima de-
tected would be the result of interplay between depocenter location
and fine grained-size facies distribution within the infilling of the
depocenters.
The gravity study was intended to locate sedimentary depocenters
that could justify the relative subsidence observed. Results point to a
heterogeneous basin geometry conditioned by the presence of a NNE-
SSW furrow limited by a basement high next to the coastline (Fig. 12).
Its orientation may be originally conditioned by the NNE-SSW fault set
described by Sanz de Galdeano and López Garrido (1991) at the eastern
border of Sierra de Mijas. The superposition of the deformation and
gravity profiles (Fig. 10) indicates that subsidence maxima coincide
with the location of the greatest sedimentary depocenters only in pro-
file AA-AA′. In the rest of the basin, the high subsidence values appear
to be displaced seawards (EA-EA′, EB-EB′ and AB-AB′) and towards
the north (ED-ED′ and AD-AD′) in the Envisat with regard to the ERS-
1/2 time span. In other words, subsidence first takes place at the borders
684 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687
(Fig. 13B) where the exploitation boreholes are located and the sedi-
mentary thickness is lower, then migrates towards the center of the
basin (Fig. 13C), involving a greater amount of compressible sediments.
Furthermore, a common ascending pattern at the end of all the profiles
(usually 0.5–1 km far from the coast) reveals the interference of the sea,
apparently tied to the fairly constant piezometric level of the detritic
aquifer owing to a good hydraulic connection, probably through the Pli-
ocene sandy levels (Carrasco et al., 2012).
These results suggest that several factors are responsible for the gen-
eral compaction of the sedimentary infill. The initial triggering factor of
subsidence is the pore pressure reduction linked to intensive exploita-
tion of the carbonate aquifer. To this regard, a homogeneous basin
would entail a similar subsidence rate for the whole area. However,
other conditioning factors blur this trend: the aforementioned sedimen-
tary thickness, the exploitation borehole locations and the fine-grained
facies distribution, together with the influence of the Mediterranean Sea.
Man-made constructions such as skyscrapers or highways are the
origin of subsidence in many urban settlements worldwide (InSARap,
2016; Hu et al., 2004; Xue et al., 2005; Wu et al., 2008; Perissin et al.,
2012; Dong et al., 2014). Between the late 20th century and the onset
of the economic crisis in 2008, the Spanish shoreline underwent very in-
tense urbanization. This process was not governed by any strategic
planning in the context of the territorial model adopted, or analysis of
its environmental and socioeconomic consequences, evoking the unbri-
dled development of Florida (USA) (Galacho Jiménez, 2005; Fernández
Muñoz and Barrado Timón, 2011). The rapid superposition of external
loads is therefore an additional contributing factor that should be
taken into account. The induced settlement can be essentially broken
down into a contemporaneous compression (2–5 years after urbaniza-
tion) and a primary consolidation process, possibly taking up to
20 years, depending on the hydraulic conductivity and thickness of
the fine-grained sediments (Stramondo et al., 2008). A secondary
Fig. 14. Orthophotos showing the urbanization evolution N-NW of the Benalmádena Port (A) and N of Torremolinos (B). The area locations are marked on Fig. 12A and B, respectively.
consolidation process (usually N20 years) can be also seen, but mostly
related to the presence of organic soils. Differential subsidence distribu-
tion may be conditioned by the spatio-temporal evolution of the urban-
ized areas. For example, urbanization N-NW of Benalmádena Port
(Fig. 14A) started in the 70s, although the vast majority took place in
the first half of the 1980s. The ERS-1/2 maximum subsidence located
around this area should be emphasized by the building load, but its in-
cidence is unexpected for the Envisat period as the consolidation pro-
cess should have finished. Other areas, e.g. the NE end of Sierra de
Mijas (in Torremolinos), experienced late urban development that
roughly started in the last years of the 90s (Fig. 14B), so the main
stage of subsidence was reported during the Envisat time span. How-
ever, further detailed studies should be performed to confirm urbaniza-
tion as a contributing factor of the observed subsidence.
Future extended drought periods (Mishra and Singh, 2010) pre-
dicted by climate change models presume significant challenges for
water management of aquifers subjected to intensive use in arid and
semiarid areas (Wanders et al., 2010; Van Lanen et al., 2013) like
those of southern Spain. Recurring water table lows will produce irre-
versible damage in the form of permanent decreases in porosity and
structural building damage (Wilson and Gorelick, 1996). Our study
points to the dire need to dedicate additional effort in monitoring subsi-
dence around confined karstic aquifers subjected to intensive exploita-
tion. In the Torremolinos area, more research regarding the lithology
column of affected areas or/and the location and flow rate of wells is
necessary to assess the risks involved and to better understand the sub-
sidence mechanism. Sound knowledge regarding these parameters is
invaluable for the design and proposal of appropriate mitigation mea-
surements to prevent or alleviate further damage in future drought pe-
riods. Two possible means of intervention would be the cessation of
withdrawal of fluids, or the increase/restoration of fluid pressure by
means of artificial recharge.
 A. Ruiz-Constán et al. / Science of the Total Environment 636 (2018) 670–687
7. Conclusions
To understand the effects of the vast and rapid urbanization along
the Costa del Sol over the past decades, we applied InSAR to two inde-
pendent sets of SAR scenes (ERS-1/2 and Envisat) and analyzed the
spatio-temporal evolution of subsidence in a highly urbanized area in
Costa del Sol (S Spain) during a 17-year period (1992–2009). This
coastal area underwent a huge growth in population together with a
massive arrival of tourists who relied heavily on groundwater pumping
to satisfy water demand. An accumulated deformation of −102 mm,
with maximum displacement rates of −6 mm/yr (1992–2000) and
− 11 mm/yr (2003–2009), were recorded. Satellite information com-
bined with hydrogeological data led us to improved knowledge about
the effects of intensive exploitation of the confined Sierra de Mijas car-
bonate aquifer in terms of ground deformation detected at the detritic
sedimentary infill that overlies it and experiences the main urbanization
pressure. Furthermore, during the whole period, an accumulated de-
scent of the confined water level of 140 m and several fluctuations of
N80 m were recorded. Correlation of these parameters points to a com-
mon triggering factor related to the decrease in interstitial pressure due
to water withdrawal. Gravity data reveal the presence of great hetero-
geneities in the basement geometry, such as the presence of a NNE-
SSW furrow parallel to the coast, up to 800 m thick. Location of the sed-
imentary depocenters coincides only partially with subsidence maxima,
as deformation may be also conditioned by the interplay of factors such
as lateral-spatial changes of lithofacies, the proximity of the sea, and
rapid urbanization. The findings put forth here underline the dire
need for additional efforts in monitoring subsidence linked to intensive
exploitation of confined karstic aquifers as one step towards adopting
water management policies that help to prevent or alleviate further
damage during drought periods to come.
Acknowledgements
SAR data are provided by the European Space Agency (ESA) in the
scope of 7629 CAT-1 project. Piezometric data are accessible from
IGME (http://info.igme.es/BDAguas/) and the DHCMA (http://sig.
magrama.es/recursossub/visor.html?herramienta=Piezometros)
websites. Orthophotos were obtained from IDEMAP (http://www.
idemap.es). This research was supported by PRX 12/00297, ESP2006-
28463, CGL2016-80687-R AEI/FEDER and CGL2015-71510-R projects
from the Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad (Spain),
PAIUJA 2017-2018 and CEACTierra projects from the University of Jaén
(Spain). Additional support came from the RNM-148 and the RNM-
282 research groups of the Junta de Andalucía (Spain). Interferometric
data were processed using the public domain SAR processor DORIS
and StaMPS/MTI. The DEM is freely provided by Instituto Geográfico
Nacional de España. The satellite orbits used are from Delft University
of Technology and ESA. This work was also supported by the Ministry
of Education, Youth and Sports from the National Programme of Sus-
tainability (NPU II) project “IT4Innovations excellence in science -
LQ1602” (Czech Republic).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.280.
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