Fruergaard2009M.sc - Thesis MidHolocenetoRecentsedimentaryevolutionofamicro Tidal

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/278930901
Mid Holocene to Recent sedimentary evolution of a micro-tidal coastal

lagoon, Northern Wadden Sea, Denmark
Research · June 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1211.9201
CITATIONS READS
2 1,833
1 author:
Mikkel Fruergaard
University of Copenhagen
35 PUBLICATIONS 304 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Call for session - 15th June 2017 - Short-term evolution and sedimentary and/or human controls of coastal depositional systems: lessons gained from ancient to
Holocene examples View project
Beach ridge and lagoon systems as indicator of sea-level changes (BRIDGES) View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Mikkel Fruergaard on 22 June 2015.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Mid Holocene to Recent sedimentary
evolution of a micro‐tidal coastal lagoon,
Northern Wadden Sea, Denmark
M. Sc. Thesis
Mikkel Fruergaard

Supervisors:
Morten Pejrup, Thorbjørn Joest Andersen &
Anni Tindahl Madsen

External supervisor:
Andrew S. Murray

Faculty of Science
Department of Geography & Geology, September 2009
Mid Holocene to Recent sedimentary evolution of a
micro-tidal coastal lagoon, Northern Wadden Sea,
Denmark
M.Sc. Thesis
Mikkel Fruergaard
Supervisors: Morten Pejrup, Thorbjørn Joest Andersen

& Anni Tindahl Madsen
External supervisor: Andrew S. Murray
Faculty of Science
Department of Geography & Geology
Submitted:
September 2009
Front page images:

Upper left: Fanø and the back-barrier coastal lagoon in the Danish Wadden Sea (Landsat ETM+ 31. May 2003)
Lower right: Intertidal deposits at the tidal divide between the tidal areas of Grådyb and Knudedyb (Photograph by
Lasse Christensen).
Contents
Contents .................................................................................................................................. ii
Abstract in English .................................................................................................................. iv
Abstract in Danish ................................................................................................................... v
Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................................ vi
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Objectives ................................................................................................................... 2
2. Literature review ........................................................................................................... 3
2.1. Barrier islands formation and characteristics ............................................................ 3
2.2. Coastal lagoon formation and characteristics ........................................................... 4
2.3. Distribution of sediments and sedimentary structures in coastal lagoons ............... 6
2.3.1. Characteristics of dominant bedding types in coastal lagoons ............................. 7
2.3.2. Sedimentary signatures of sea level changes ........................................................ 9
2.3.3. Preservation potentials ........................................................................................ 11
2.4. Sedimentary subunits in coastal lagoons ................................................................. 12
2.4.1. Deltas ................................................................................................................... 12
2.4.2. Washover deposits ............................................................................................... 13
2.5. The evolution of the European Wadden Sea ........................................................... 14
2.5.1. Sea level fluctuations in the Wadden Sea region ................................................ 15
2.6. Summary .................................................................................................................. 18
3. Regional setting ............................................................................................................ 20
3.1. The Wadden Sea ...................................................................................................... 20
3.1.1. Fanø ...................................................................................................................... 22
3.1.2. The lagoon of Fanø ............................................................................................... 23
4. Methods ....................................................................................................................... 26
4.1. The vibracoring technique ....................................................................................... 26
4.2. Core processing ........................................................................................................ 27
4.3. Optical dating ........................................................................................................... 27
4.3.1. Sample preparation ............................................................................................. 28
4.3.2. Luminescence measurements ............................................................................. 30
4.3.3. Dosimetry measurements .................................................................................... 32
4.3.3.1. Correction for water content ........................................................................... 33
4.4. Radiocarbon dating .................................................................................................. 33
4.5. Loss on Ignition ........................................................................................................ 34
4.6. Grain‐size analyses ................................................................................................... 35
4.7. Determination of modern channel displacement rates .......................................... 36
ii
5. Results ......................................................................................................................... 37
5.1. OSL ages and luminescence characteristics ............................................................. 37
5.1.1. The dependence of equivalent dose on preheat temperature ........................... 39
5.1.2. Thermal transfer test ............................................................................................ 40
5.1.3. Dose recovery test ................................................................................................ 41
5.2. Independent age control of the OSL ages ................................................................ 43
5.3. Core descriptions ...................................................................................................... 44
5.3.1. Facies analysis ...................................................................................................... 45
5.3.2. The age‐elevation relationship ............................................................................. 56
5.3.3. Unconformities ..................................................................................................... 59
5.4. Modern channel displacement ................................................................................ 59
5.5. Summary .................................................................................................................. 61
6. Discussion .................................................................................................................... 63
6.1. Evaluation of the OSL results ................................................................................... 63
6.1.1. Sources of uncertainties in the luminescence datings ......................................... 63
6.1.2. Applicability of OSL to coastal lagoon sediments ................................................ 64
6.1.2.1. Compaction and isostasy .................................................................................. 66
6.2. Evaluation of the coastal lagoon development ....................................................... 67
6.2.1. Facies, distribution, and preservation potentials in the lagoon .......................... 67
6.2.2. Sediment accumulation rates and sea level fluctuations .................................... 71
6.2.3. Transgressive sedimentation ............................................................................... 76
6.2.4. Regressive sedimentation .................................................................................... 78
6.3. Coastal lagoon sedimentation in response to present and future sea level rise .... 80
7. Summary and conclusions ............................................................................................ 82
7.1. Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 84
8. Perspectives ................................................................................................................. 85
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. 86
References ............................................................................................................................ 87
I. Appendix – Abbreviation, units, and isotopes ................................................................ 97
II. Appendix – 14C calibration curves ................................................................................... 98
III. Appendix – Grain‐size analysis ..................................................................................... 100
IV. Appendix – Loss on ignition .......................................................................................... 128
V. Appendix – Photographs of core sequences ................................................................. 129
VI. Appendix – Radionuclide concentrations ..................................................................... 134
VII. Appendix – List of figures and tables ............................................................................ 136
iii
Abstract in English
Mid Holocene to Recent sedimentary evolution of a micro-tidal coastal lagoon,
Northern Wadden Sea, Denmark
Fruergaard, M
A detailed absolute chronology composed of 35 Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) ages

and a facies analysis of five sediment cores, form the basis for reconstruction of the
paleoenvironmental evolution of the coastal lagoon behind the barrier island Fanø, the Northern
Wadden Sea, SW Denmark. The investigated lagoonal sedimentary sequence has been deposited
within the last approximately 5500 years and 7 different sedimentary facies associations have
been identified in the sequence. The tidal channel association is by far the most abundant,
constituting 51 % of a total of approximately 18 m of core.
This study presents a new conceptual model accounting for the Holocene marine transgressive
sedimentation in a channel dominated lagoon. Sedimentation alternates between slow intertidal
flat sedimentation (0.6 mm yr-1 to 2.8 mm yr-1) and fast tidal channel sedimentation (13 mm yr-1
to 16 mm yr-1). Frequent and comprehensive reworking of the tidal flat sediments by tidal
channel displacement entail loss of sedimentary structures and bioturbation related with
intertidal flat deposits. Only intertidal flat sediments, deposited after the last channel
displacement are preserved in the sedimentary sequence. These sediments are often intensively
bioturbated.
High displacement rates of tidal channels hinder the recognition of sea level fluctuations in the
sedimentary archive in most cases. Two periods of regression have however been identified in
the predominantly transgressive lagoonal evolution. A hiatus from 1450 to 900 years before
present is interpreted as an erosional surface and indicative of a relative decrease in sea level. A
distinct fine grained sediment bed, 400 to 500 years old, reflects a stable or slow falling sea level
during the Little Ice Age.
Long-term sedimentation rates found in the lagoon are lower than the present and future sea
level rise according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, but locally are
sedimentation rates sufficient to keep up with an increased sea level rise observed.
Key words: OSL dating; Facies analysis; Transgressive sedimentation; Sedimentation rates; Sea
level Rise; Coastal lagoon; Danish Wadden Sea
iv
Abstract in Danish
Midt til Nyere-Holocæn sedimentær udvikling af en mikrotidal kystlagune, det
nordlige Vadehav, Danmark
Fruergaard, M
En detaljeret absolut kronologi, som udgøres af 35 Optisk Stimulerede Luminescens (OSL)

aldre, og en faciesanalyse af fem sedimentkerner, danner grundlaget for rekonstruktionen af den
paleomiljø-mæssige udvikling af kyst-lagunen bag barriereøen Fanø, det nordlige Vadehav, SV-
danmark. Den undersøgte lagunale sedimentære sekvens er aflejret inden for de sidste 5500 år,
og 7 forskellige sedimentære facies-associationer er identificeret i sekvensen. Tidevandskanal-
associationen er langt den mest hyppigt forekommende og udgør 51 % af den totale
kernelængde på cirka 18 m.
Dette studie præsenterer en ny konceptuel model, som redegør for den Holocæne marine
transgressive sedimentation i en lagune domineret af tidevandskanaler. Sedimentationen skifter
mellem langsom sedimentation på de intertidale flader (0,6 mm år-1 til 2,8 mm år-1) og hurtig
tidevandskanal-sedimentation (13 mm år-1 til 16 mm år-1). Hyppig of omfattende omlejring af
sedimentet i de tidale flader forårsaget af tidevandskanalforskydning medfører tab af de
sedimentære strukturer samt af bioturbation, som er relateret til sedimentation på intertidale
flader. Kun intertidalt sediment aflejret efter den sidste kanal forskød sig forbi er bevaret i den
sedimentære sekvens. Dette sediment er ofte intensivt bioturberet.
Tidevandskanalernes høje forskydningsrater forhindrer i de fleste tilfælde genkendelsen af

havspejlsfluktuationer i det sedimentære arkiv. Det har imidlertid været muligt at identificere to
perioder med regression i den ellers overvejende transgressive lagunale udvikling. En hiatus fra
1450 til 900 år før nu er tolket som en erosiv flade og indikerer et relativt fald i
havspejlsniveauet i perioden. Et udtalt 400 til 500 år gammelt finkornet sedimentært lag
afspejler et stabilt havspejlsniveau under Den Lille Istid.
De langvarige sedimentationsrater som er fundet i lagunen er lavere end den nuværende og

fremtidige havspejlsstigning ifølge IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), men
lokalt er der blevet observeret sedimentationsrater tilstrækkelige høje til at kunne følge med en
forøget havspejlsstigning.
Nøgleord: OSL-datering; Faciesanalyse; Transgressiv sedimentation; Sedimentationsrater;

Havspejlsstigning; Kystlagune; det Danske Vadehav
v
Structure of the thesis
This thesis is presented in 8 chapters and two additional sections containing the references and
acknowledgements.
Chapter 1 introduces the context and relevance of the thesis and identifies the objectives of the
study.
Chapter 2 gives an overview of the literature dealing with barrier island systems and coastal
lagoons and discusses their formation and basic characteristics, e.g. bedding types, sedimentary
structures and their preservation potentials. Further this chapter introduces the evolution of the
European Wadden Sea together with a review of the literature treating sea level fluctuations in
the Wadden Sea region.
Chapter 3 introduces the regional setting of the study site.
Chapter 4 contains the practical and theoretical methods applied during in this research. First
two sections examine the vibracoring technique and core processing. Hereafter follows a section
approaching the methods and theories of optical stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating. As this
thesis is based on an absolute luminescence chronology, understanding the method, its
advantages and limitations is particularly important. Consequently this method is described
thoroughly. The following four sections, in fewer details, describe radiocarbon dating, loss on
ignition, grain-size analysis and determination of channel displacement rates. Supplementary
results are located in Appendix II to Appendix VI.
Chapter 5 presents the results of the study with the two first sections dealing with the overall
luminescence-based lagoonal chronology and issues relating to the datings. The subsequent
section presents the results from the facies analysis together with selected morphological and
sedimentary characteristics and sediment-sea-level diagrams.
Chapter 6 discusses and analyses the results from the study and among other things, a new
conceptual model is presented, illustrating the evolution of the coastal lagoon.
Chapter 7 contains summary and conclusions of this thesis.
Chapter 8 outlines the perspectives of the study.
vi
Chapter 1: Introduction
1. Introduction
Situated at the interface between land and ocean coastal lagoons occupy about 13 % of coastal
areas worldwide. Coastal lagoons are characterised by high biotic diversity and primary
production and form anthropogenic important areas regarding fishery, transportation and
recreation (Hobbie, 2000; Kjerfve, 1994). It is believed that this importance will continue to
increase as the population concentration grow in coastal areas (Lamberti & Zanuttigh, 2005).
This does also apply to the Danish part of the Wadden Sea where numerous species of fish and
birds breeds together with large banks of blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). Esbjerg, the fifth largest
town in Denmark is located in the Danish Wadden Sea and it holds the largest of the Danish
North Sea harbours.
The evolution of the modern coastal lagoons began during the last stage of the world-wide Late
Quaternary marine transgression, which brought the sea up to approximately its present level.
These backbarrier tidal basins represent very dynamic depositional units, which are protected
from the sea by a chain of barrier islands and located close to the mean sea level. Several studies
have treated the long-term evolution of coastal lagoons (Billeaud et al., 2007; Bungenstock &
Schafer, 2009; Chang et al., 2006; Kelley et al., 1995; Nichols, 1989) but most of these studies
have relied on the combination of stratigraphic interpretations and radiocarbon datings. The low
content of organic material for 14C dating in intertidal sediments is however a limitation of this
approach. In Optical Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating quartz sand is dated, thus enabling
a detailed absolute chronology to be established. In combination with sedimentological core logs
rates of sedimentation, timing of erosional events and overall changes in the sedimentary
process can be estimated and compiled, accurately rendering of ancient sedimentary
environments can be produced (Clemmensen et al., 2001; Clemmensen et al., 2006; Madsen et
al., 2007c; Pejrup et al., in prep).
How the global warming and the expected sea level rise will affect the sediment dynamics in the
densely populated, shallow-water coastal areas is still a question of debate. Some authors argue
that a sea level rise represents a seriously threat towards low-lying marine areas including the
wildlife living in these areas e.g. Hughes (2004) whereas e.g. Morris et al. (2002) reasons that
wetlands remain stable against variations in sea level. In spite of uncertainties about the effects
of expected sea level rise it is assumed that coastal lagoons will respond with increased
morphological adjustments than previous observed (Allen, 2000; Flemming, 2002; Flemming &
Bartholomä, 1997; Vos & van Kesteren, 2000).
1
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Objectives
This study will investigate the internal sedimentary architecture of a transgressive Holocene
micro-tidal coastal lagoon situated behind the barrier island of Fanø in the Danish Wadden Sea
to determine its morphological and stratigraphical development. The accumulation of sediments
in these areas are determined by a number of processes and parameters where climate, tidal
amplitude, accommodation space, and sediment supply are among the most important (Roep et
al., 1998). Despite disagreement of the consequences of the global warming the lateral position
close to the mean sea level makes coastal lagoons vulnerable to fast increases in sea level and it
is feared that these systems may be permanently covered by water if IPCC’s prediction of the
future sea level should prove to be right (Meehl et al., 2007). However, little is known about the
absolute chronology as well as about the stratigraphy of coastal lagoons which complicate
prediction on future coastal lagoon evolution. In order to understand and to make genuine
predictions of future coastal lagoon development it is necessary to recognise and understand
ancient depositional environments of similar origin and to decipher the processes which formed
the relict sedimentary patterns. Under favourable conditions environmental changes may be
recorded in the sedimentary archive of coastal lagoons why investigation of such environments
can help reconstruct past environmental changes and improve the understanding and prediction
of future lagoonal evolution during a rising sea level. Furthermore, a broader and more profound
understanding of this evolution and the main processes creating the internal architecture of
coastal lagoons will allow for an improved management of these systems.
The overall objectives of this study are therefore:
To establish an absolute chronology across a micro-tidal coastal lagoon by the use of

Optical Stimulated Luminescence dating.
To analyse the different sedimentary facies found in a micro-tidal coastal lagoon and
determine the importance of each facies.
To reconstruct the Mid Holocene to Recent stratigraphic development of a micro-tidal

coastal lagoon and relate it to the depositional environment and sea level fluctuations.
To analyse the temporal and spatial variations in sedimentation rates in a micro-tidal

coastal lagoon.
To investigate whether the sedimentation in a micro-tidal coastal lagoon is able to keep

up with future sea level rise.
2
Chapter 2: Literature review
2. Literature review
The aim of this introductory chapter is to present the characteristics of barrier/lagoonal systems,
e.g. forming processes, geomorphology, and sedimentology and relate the evolution of these
systems to sea level fluctuations and the Holocene evolution of the coastal zone. In section 2.1 a
general review of barrier islands is given, followed by section 2.2 which approaches the
definition, formation and features of coastal lagoons. Section 2.3 examines the distribution of
sediments and sedimentary structures in lagoons and defines the different bedding types found
in this environment. Further this section will go through the different sedimentary signatures of
sea level changes. Section 2.4 reviews two characteristic morphological and sedimentary
subenvironments in coastal lagoons – deltas and washover deposits. The evolution of the
European Wadden Sea is outlined and related to the marine transgression during the
Weichselian Late Glacial and Holocene period in section 2.5. In subsection 2.5.1 four different
sea level curves from the Wadden Sea and Kattegat region are compared and evaluated and their
reliability are discussed. Finally in the same section, present and future sea level fluctuations are
accounted for.
2.1. Barrier islands formation and characteristics

By definition a barrier island is an elongate, essentially shore-parallel island, composed
dominantly of unconsolidated sediments which protects the adjacent land mass. The primary
requisites for formation of barrier islands are: (I) a sediment supply, (II) processes that will
develop and maintain the barrier, and (III) a geomorphic setting where this can take place
(Davis, 1994). In 1845 de Beaumont as the first published a theory on barrier island formation,
which since has been the subject of some disagreement (Davis, 1994). Three theories on modes
of barrier island formation exist. Upward-shoaling of shallow sand bars, as proposed by de
Béaumont (1845), was the first. The second theory by Gilbert (1885) ascribed barrier islands to
a spit origin from longshore drift. The third theory proposed by McGee (1890) suggests that
barriers originate from the drowning of coastal ridges. Some difference on opinion still exists
but today it is generally accepted that barrier islands are formed by landward transport and
upward accretion of sand. In spite of disagreements, most authors agree that sea level changes
are of profound importance to barrier island development and that the sea level rise during
Holocene is responsible for the shape of present coastlines (Davis, 1994).
Barrier islands form most readily along coasts with a low tidal range and high wave energy.
Such conditions are present in areas with a relative narrow continental shelves located opposite
to open oceans (Nichols, 1999). The size of the tidal range is of significant importance to the
development of barrier islands. Within coastal plain shorelines, barrier islands are restricted to
areas with a tidal range of less than approximately 4 m and only 10 % of all barrier islands are
located in areas where the tidal range exceeds 3 m (Hayes, 1979). Dependent of the size of the
tidal range either wave energy or tidal current will be the dominant energy factor. In areas with
3
average marine wave conditions, coasts with a small tidal range are usually dominated by wave
energy, and coasts with large tidal range are usually dominated by tidal currents and tidal-level
fluctuations. Coasts with intermediate tidal range show influence of both waves and tides
(Hayes, 1979). On the basis of tidal range Davies (1964) classified shorelines into (a) micro-
tidal coasts with a tidal range <2 m, (b) meso-tidal coasts with a tidal range from 2 to 4 m, and
(c) macro-tidal coasts with a tidal range >4 m. Dependent on the tidal range Hayes (1979)
identified distinct differences in morphology in coastal areas (Figure 2.1).
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.1: Classification of coastlines on the basis of tidal range. (a) Micro-tidal coasts with a tidal range <2 m, (b)
meso-tidal coasts with a tidal range of 2 to 4 m, and (c) macro-tidal coasts with a tidal range > 4 m. After Hayes
(1979)
Along macro-tidal coasts no barrier islands are formed and sand deposition is restricted to linear
sand shoals or tidal-current ridges. Meso-tidal coasts consist of a great number of large tidal
inlets which break through the barrier separating them into short barrier islands with a
characteristic drumstick shape, and creating significant tidal deltas. Along micro-tidal coast the
largest abundance of barrier islands are found. These are relatively long (30 to 100 km), only
separated by a few inlets. Due to lack of conduit barriers in micro tidal environments are often
over-washed by storms, forming washover fans (Hayes, 1979). Barrier islands are situated some
distance from the mainland coast and the area in-between the mainland and the barrier is
occupied by a wetland often consisting of tidal flats, lagoons, and salt marsh areas (Davis,
1994).
2.2. Coastal lagoon formation and characteristics

Coastal lagoons are elongated shallow water bodies running parallel to the coast and are
connected with the open sea through one or more inlets. Coastal lagoons are situated on the
landward side of sand bars or barrier islands which protect them from the high energy conditions
found on the seaward side of the barrier (Federico, 1995; Kjerfve, 1994; Reineck & Singh,
1980). Coastal lagoons occupy 13 % of coastal areas worldwide, corresponding to
approximately 32000 km of the world’s combined continental coastline. Hereof is the
4
contribution estimated to 17.6 % for North America, 12.2 % for South America, 5.3 % for
Europe, 17.9 % for Africa, 13.8 % for Asia, and 11.4 % for Australia (Federico, 1995; Kjerfve,
1994). Lagoons cannot exist without a barrier enclosing them and therefore it is important to
understand the factors determining the formation of barriers. The three most important factors
controlling the origin and maintenance of sandy barriers are the sea level, the availability of
adequate sand-size sediment and sufficient wave activity to the formation of a sand bar or
barrier (Martin & Dominguez, 1994; Reineck & Singh, 1980) (for additional information see
section 2.1). Many modern lagoons have developed during the rising sea level of the last 6000 to
8000 years. Around 7000 years ago a slowdown in the sea level rise made time for the formation
of a beach ridge. This sand deposit grew upward and prograded landward with the rising sea
level to form a lagoon barrier (Davis, 1994; Federico, 1995; Martin & Dominguez, 1994;
Phleger, 1981).
Water salinity in lagoons depends on the degree of access to the open sea, the amount of fresh
water supported by rivers and rain, and the tidal range. The salinity is to a large degree crucial to
the flora and fauna found in lagoons and species living in these areas have to be able to adjust to
rapid and frequent salinity fluctuations. Only a few species have adapted to this environment but
these are normally found in very large numbers (Reading & Collinson, 1996). The connection
between the open sea and the lagoon is through on or more tidal inlets. It is also through these
entrances the exchange of water and sediments between the sea and enclosed backbarrier area
takes place. Lagoon entrances are backed by partly or fully submerged shoals or fans also called
‘tidal deltas’, which are deposited by the flood and ebb current (Bird, 1994).
Lagoons have many similarities with estuaries and their definition and facies are often
overlapping. Estuaries were defined by Pritchard (1967) as, semi-enclosed bodies of water
having a free connection with the open sea and within which sea-water is measurably diluted
with fresh water derived from land drainage. This definition is widely adopted in the literature
but to some degree it omits geomorphological features. Kjerfve (1994) categorised inland
coastal ocean-connected systems into six groups with emphasis on their geomorphological
characteristics: Estuaries, Coastal Lagoons, Fjords, Bays, Tidal Rivers, and Straits. Kjerfve
(1986) and Kjerfve and Magill (1989) further subdivided coastal lagoons into three geomorphic
types according to water exchange with the ocean. These are Choked Lagoons, Restricted
Lagoons, and Leaky Lagoons (Figure 2.2).
5
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.2: Coastal lagoons subdivided into (a) Choked Lagoons, (b) Restricted Lagoons, and (c) Leaky Lagoons
based on the degree of water exchange with the adjacent coastal ocean. After Kjerfve (1994).
According to Kjerfve (1994) a Leaky Lagoon has many ocean entrance channels, strong tidal
current and a salinity close to that of the coastal ocean are essential. The term bar-built estuaries
mentioned by Perillo (1995) correspond to the coastal lagoon as proposed by Kjerfve (1994). An
example of Leaky Lagoon or a bar-built estuary is the European Wadden Sea. In the following
‘coastal lagoon’ or ‘tidal lagoon’ will be applied instead of estuary, since it is believed that these
terms to a greater extent are adequate for this study.
2.3. Distribution of sediments and sedimentary structures in coastal lagoons

Like all geomorphic features of the earth’s surface, a coastal lagoon is a dynamically evolving
landform. On a geologically time-scale coastal lagoons will be filled up and become extinct or
fossil due to their ability to trap sediments (Fairbridge, 1980). Coastal lagoons are characterized
by marine sources of sediment as well as fluvial sources. The tidal current together with
estuarine circulation adds both littoral sand and marine suspended sediment to the fluvial
discharge within the lagoon. Therefore lagoon facies normally contains both marine and fluvial
sediments with imprints from the action of waves as well as tides (Bokuniewicz, 1995;
Dalrymple et al., 1992).
The controlling parameters of sediment distribution and sediment structures are hydrograpic
factors and availability of sediment. Generally, horizontal silty-clay lamellae originate in areas
with little water movement. Cross bedded sands result from greater water movement. Flaser,
wavy, and lenticular bedding originates from changing water velocities while horizontally
laminated sand is developed in strong turbulence (Reineck, 1967). Coastal lagoons can be
grouped into different zones according to sedimentary structures. The lower most areas termed
the subtidal zone are permanently water covered and can be subdivided into channel and lagoon
bottom (Reineck & Singh, 1980). In tidal channels the water depth can range from 1 to 4 m and
according to the tidal range and water velocity sediments deposited will either be sandy or silty
and muddy. Channels contribute to an important part of the development of lagoons and due to
lateral migration channels are able to rework large areas. Reineck & Singh (1980) demonstrated
by comparing old maps that ~58 % of a tidal flat has been reworked by tidal channels and this
6
without the total area covered by tidal channels did change. Rates of lateral migration depend
upon the prevailing material. In sandy sediments the rate of migration can reach 25 to 30 m yr-1
and rates as high as 100 m yr-1 have been observed (Reineck & Singh, 1980). Lateral migration
takes place as meandering, where the channel erodes the concave side of the channel meander
and deposit it as a point bar in the convex side (Reineck, 1967). Bioturbation in tidal channel
deposits are normally weak due to high sedimentation rates. Furthermore, current ripples are
usually developed if water velocities are high. At lagoon bottoms the energy level is low which
favours deposition of muddy sediments (clay and silt) often intercalated with fine sand brought
in by storms. Lagoon bottoms are often intensively bioturbated (Macintosh, 1994; Reineck &
Singh, 1980). The higher elevated areas located around lagoon edges also termed the intertidal
zone are made up of clean sand near to inlets and muddy sediments near tidal creeks or mudflats
and away from inlets. The lower part of the intertidal zone becomes progressively sandier
towards tidal channels and muddier towards the supratidal areas. In this zone the major bedding
types are small-ripple bedding, laminated sand, and thin mud-algal mat layers (Reineck &
Singh, 1980). As well as lagoon bottom the intertidal zone is intensively bioturbated primarily
by benthonic organism (Andersen et al., 2002; Cadée, 1998). It should be emphasised that most
sedimentation in lagoons takes place in point bars of channels or gullies and the net deposition
on flat horizontal areas are close to zero (Straaten, 1954).
2.3.1. Characteristics of dominant bedding types in coastal lagoons

Longitudinal cross-bedding: As indicated by the name this bedding type runs parallel to the
current direction which is in contrast to other types of cross-beds all running perpendicular. It is
produced by the shifting of meandering cannels. Sedimentation takes place laterally as inclined
curved beds on the point bars, and if these inclined beds are superposed by horizontal beds of
tidal flat sedimentation it looks like a cross bedded unit. Straight channels can also shift
laterally, not by meandering, but by wave erosion on one side of the channel and deposition on
the other. The beds produced are inclined but straight instead of curved. Another diagnostic
feature of this bedding type is an accumulation of coarse sediments such as sand, gravel, and
shell debris at the base of the packet of longitudinal cross-beds, called a ‘channel lag’. (Figure
2.3) (Reineck, 1967; Reineck & Singh, 1980).
7
Figure 2.3: Diagram showing the generation of longitudinal cross-bedding on the point bar of a tidal channel. In the
base of the channel a shell and pebble bed represent channel lag deposits. After Reineck & Singh (1980).
Flaser, wavy, and lenticular bedding: In tidal environments where the deposition of sand and
mud in ripples are influenced by changing current flaser, wavy, and lenticular bedding are
commonly produced. The episodic nature of tidal flows allows only deposition of fine grained
material during slack water which gives an alternating sequence of sand and mud. Depending on
the potential for preservation of sand in proportion to mud either flaser, wavy, or lenticular
bedding will develop. If the preservation potential for sand is high flaser bedding will develop
and if the contrary apply lenticular bedding develops. In conditions where the potentials for
preservation of both sand and mud are even wavy bedding develops (Figure 2.4).
Conditions for deposition and preservation
becoming favourable for:
Mud
Sand
Figure 2.4: Scheme of classification of flaser, wavy, and lenticular bedding. Varying proportions of mud and sand
produces different forms of bedding. Modified after Reineck & Singh (1980) and Nichols (1999).
Flaser bedding is formed when both sand and mud are available and when periods of current
activity is followed by periods of quiescence. Current ripples are formed during periods of
current activity and only sand is available, as fine material is held in suspension. During the
following period of slack water mud will fall out of suspension and deposit on top of the current
ripples. The following period with current activity will partly or fully erode the mud streaks
deposited on the ripples crest while the material in the troughs is preserved. New ripples will
8
form and cover the underlying set (Nichols, 1999; Reineck & Singh, 1980). Lenticular bedding
is produced when incomplete sand ripples are formed during periods of current activity as
isolated lenticular bodies on a muddy substratum. During the following slack water period
ripples will be covered by a layer of mud (Reineck & Singh, 1980). Wavy bedding develops
when condition for deposition and preservation lies in between those for flaser and lenticular
bedding. This bedding type consists of alternating layers of sand and mud where the upper edge
of a layer follows the contours of the underlying layer (Reineck & Singh, 1980). Flaser, wavy,
and lenticular bedding are commonly found and especially well developed in the layers of
longitudinal cross-bedding of point bar deposits of channels (Reineck & Singh, 1980).
Coarsely interlayered bedding: This bedding type has many similarities with flaser, wavy, and
lenticular bedding, especially in relation to mode of formation. As the name indicates, this
bedding type is composed of alternating layers of coarser and finer grained layers which are
several millimetres to several centimetres thick. Coarse layers normally consist of sand and silt
and fine layers of mud and clay. Three types of coarsely interlayered bedding can on the basic of
relative thickness of sand and mud layers, be distinguished: (1) Sand and mud layers are almost
equally thick, (2) thicker sandy layers are separated by thin clayey or finer-grained layers, and
(3) thicker mud layer alternates with relatively thin sand layers. The bedding type is common in
sediments of mixed intertidal flats and despite some uncertainties on the mode of origin the
pattern is in tidal environments related to the alternating of current activity and slack water
periods (Reineck & Singh, 1980).
To describe alternate layers of sand and mud Thomas et al. (1987) proposed the term ‘inclined
heterolithic stratification’. This term or simply ‘heterolithic stratification’ will onwards also be
applied to describe flaser, wavy, and lenticular bedding. Further, Reineck & Singh (1980) uses
the term tidal bedding as a general term for describing all bedding types associated with
deposition in tidal environments, and this term will also be used in later descriptions of tidal
deposits.
2.3.2. Sedimentary signatures of sea level changes

Sediments can only be accumulated in lagoon areas if accommodation space is available. If no
accommodation is available lagoons will act only as a transfer zone of water and sediment from
land to sea, with an equal amount of sediment entering and leaving the lagoonal environment. If
both sediment and space for deposition are available, sand and mud can built up in the lagoon.
The balance between the size of sediment supply and accommodation space further determines
the character of the stratigraphy developed. This particular applies to shallow marine
environments whereas deeper marine areas only to a minor degree are affected by the size of the
accommodation space (Jervey, 1988; Nichols, 1999). In shallow marine realms the size of
accommodation space should be considered in relation to the sediment-water interface. A certain
point at the sea bed would experience a relative sea level rise both if the sea level itself is rising
or if the sea bed is subsidising (Nichols, 1999).
9
If the rates of creation of accommodation space and supply of sediment at a point are considered
relative to each other, generally four situations exist; aggradation, regression, forced regression,
and transgression (Figure 2.5) (Myers & Milton, 1996; Nichols, 1999).
Figure 2.5: Patterns of strata relative to sediment supply and sea level. (a) Aggration occurs when there is a balance
between the rates of sediment supply and sea level rise. (b) Regression occurs when the sediment supply exceeds
the sea level rise and patterns of progradation forms. (c) Forced regression takes place under a relative sea level fall
and causes shift of facies basinward. (d) Transgression occurs when the sea level rise exceeds the sediment supply
and patterns of retrogradation forms. After Nichols (1999).
Aggradation takes place when the creation of accommodation space is exactly matched by the
sediment supply. Coastlines where aggregation occurs will stay at the same position through
time and a facies sequence from an aggradating coast line will shift neither sea- nor landward.
Aggration normally only exists for short time because of changing rates of sea level rise and fall
(Figure 2.5a) (Myers & Milton, 1996; Nichols, 1999).
Regression takes place if the creation of accommodation space does not counterbalance the
sediment supply. The deposits will fill the space available and built seawards, termed
10
progradation. This result in seaward displacement of the coastline, and in a facies sequence an
upward change towards more shallow deposits, e.g. beach sediments will be preserved on top of
foreshore deposits. (Figure 2.5b) (Myers & Milton, 1996; Nichols, 1999). If a regression is
caused by a sea level fall and not just because sedimentation is faster than the creation of
accommodation space the term forced regression is used to describe the seaward displacement
of the coastline. A forced regression not only shows a basinward shift in facies but also erosion
in the shallower environments in response to the lowering of the base level (Figure 2.5c)
(Nichols, 1999).
If rates of sediment deposition cannot keep up with the creation of accommodation space, the
coastline migrates landward and transgression ensues. This results in a landward shift in facies
and that the facies in a vertical sequence deepens upwards (Figure 2.5d) (Myers & Milton, 1996;
Nichols, 1999).
2.3.3. Preservation potentials

When dealing with sedimentary analysis, preservation potentials are a constant concern. The
chances of a particular facies being preserved vary considerably depending on the environment,
subsidence rate and position of the deposit with respect to erosional base level. Coarse channel
base deposits are more likely to be preserved than topographic high supratidal deposits. In
shallow water environments most sediments are removed soon after deposition by physical or
biological processes and the preservation is directly dependent on the generation of
accommodation space (section 2.3.2) (Reading & Levell, 1996). If not taking preservation
potentials into account in subsurface core analysis, it may lead to misinterpretation of the setting
and e.g. erroneous assume low-energy micro-tidal environments to be high energy meso- or
macro-tidal (Chang et al., 2006).
Rieu et al. (2005) describes the high preservation potentials of tidal channel networks found
offshore the Western Netherlands. At time of formation the tidal channels drained a tidal basin
protected by a barrier island. The active Mid-Holocene network filled in between 7300 14C yr
B.P. and 5500 14C yr B.P. caused by a rapid transgression of the coastline. Despite severe
shoreface erosion the deepest part of the tidal channel succession was preserved. Paleo-tidal
channels are found several places e.g. under the prograding barrier island Rømø in the Danish
part of the European Wadden Sea (Johannessen et al., 2008) indicating it is not just a local
phenomenon. Studies of fine-grained sediment deposition at a tidal mudflat located in a micro-
tidal basin in the Danish Wadden Sea showed very low preservation potential for fine grained
sediment deposited with net-deposition one to two magnitudes lower than the yearly gross-
deposition (Andersen et al., 2006).
11
2.4. Sedimentary subunits in coastal lagoons

Two sedimentary subunits with relation to the coastal lagoon behind Fanø will be described in
the following section. The two are deltas and washover deposits.
2.4.1. Deltas
Where rivers enter into oceans, semi-enclosed seas, lakes or lagoons and supply sediment more
rapidly than it can be redistributed by basinal processes, sediment-cones, known as deltas, are
deposited (Bhattacharya & Walker, 1992; Hart, 1995; Masselink & Hughes, 2003; Reineck &
Singh, 1980). The factors, which influence the form and character of a delta can be divided into
(i) hinterland controls, e.g. river discharge, climate, and (ii) basinal controls, e.g. strength and
orientation of waves and tides (Nichols, 1999). Several ways of grouping and classifying deltas
exists. Three major groups exists; (I) shallow-water/shelf-type fan deltas, (II) deep water/slope-
type fan deltas, and (III) Gilbert type fan deltas (Reading & Collinson, 1996). The former of the
three includes both the very large to moderate sized deltas that protrude on to continental
shelves and many smaller ones that built out into lakes, bays, lagoons, and estuaries. This group
will be treated here. On the basis of the controlling processes Galloway (1975) classified deltas
into (1) fluvial-dominated, (2) wave-dominated, and (3) tide-dominated. One different between
fluvial dominated and tide dominated deltas is the origin of sediment. The sediment in a fluvial
dominated delta is normally derived directly from fluvial sources in contrast to tide dominated
‘deltas’ where sediment is mainly of marine origin (Bhattacharya & Walker, 1992).
Deltas comprise three main subenvironments; the delta plain where river processes dominate,
the delta front where river and basinal processes are important, and the prodelta where basinal
processes dominate (Bhattacharya & Walker, 1992). Across the delta plain one or several
distributary channels transport water and sediment towards the delta front. Rivers carrying
coarse sediment load across a steep delta plain have several active distributary channels,
whereas rivers carrying a fine sediment load across a gently sloping delta plain normally have
relatively few (Masselink & Hughes, 2003). The delta front is the most active part of the delta
and most of the sediment transported in the distributary channels is deposited here forming a
distributary mouth bar (Figure 2.6a). The formation of the distributary mouth bar is a direct
result of the decrease in current velocity and in carrying capacity of the stream as it leaves the
channel (Reineck & Singh, 1980). Mouth bar deposits are typical coarsening upwards as the bar
progrades and sedimentation rates are very high (Figure 2.6b). The slope of the delta front is in
cross section shown as a steep incline away from the delta top but in the nature the angle is not
more than 1 to 2º and will in a core log appear horizontal. The energy of the current decreases
away from the channel resulting in progressively finer and finer material being deposited with
increasing distance to the distributary (Nichols, 1999). Deformational processes like e.g.
slumping are associated with the distributary mouth bar (Reineck & Singh, 1980).
12
Figure 2.6: (a) diagram showing the various sedimentation zones in a delta front environment. Modified after
Reineck & Singh (1980). (b) Cross section of a seaward prograding depositional environment. Due to prograding of
the delta coarsening-upward succession is generated. Modified after Nichols (1999).
In most cases the seaward growth of a delta stops after a certain period of time, and the delta
lobe is abandoned. This normally takes place because the river shifts lateral to construct a new
delta. Generally two phases in a delta cycle exist; a constructional phase, where the delta
extends further into the sea, and a destructional phase where the sea encroaches on the delta
(Nichols, 1999; Reineck & Singh, 1980). The destructional phase begins as soon the forward
growth of the delta stops and the abandoned delta undergoes a compaction and sediment is
reworked by current and waves. This reworking causes a winnowing of the sediment where fine
grained materials are carried away and a sheet of almost clean sand is produced, which protects
the sequence below (Reineck & Singh, 1980).
2.4.2. Washover deposits

The formation of washover deposits relates to storm surge situation where an increased water
level erodes coastal sediments and distributes them further inland (Reineck & Singh, 1980). The
washover sediments are deposited in fan shaped bodies (therefore often related to as washover
fans) either on the barrier and/or in the back-barrier lagoon (Reinson, 1992). Two sedimentary
structures dominate in washover deposits; sub-horizontal (planar) stratification and small- to
medium-scale forest strata, where washover detritus builds into the lagoon (Schwartz, 1982).
The deposits range from fine to gravel with fine to medium grained sand being most common.
Studies by Boothroyd et al. (1985) and Nichols (1989) shows that a significant portion of
transgressive sandy barriers located in micro-tidal environments consist of washover deposits.
Further the process of washover is the main process by which barrier islands migrate landward
during a transgression (Reinson, 1992).
13
2.5. The evolution of the European Wadden Sea

The evolution of the modern Wadden Sea began during the Middle Weichselian approximately
22000 to 18000 yr B.P. when the sea level in the North Sea reached a lowstand of 120 to 130 m
below present level (Jelgersma, 1979), thus extensive areas of the present North Sea floor were
dry and the coast line had retreated to a position 350 km north of Dogger Bank (Streif, 2002;
Streif, 2004). At the same time the western margin of the ice sheet front extended in a line from
the Hamburg area in Germany to south of Limfjorden in Denmark where it turned northwest
into the North Sea (Figure 2.7) (Houmark-Nielsen, 2004; Streif, 2002; Streif, 2004). From the
ice margin situated approximately 80 km east of the present Danish Wadden Sea glacial rivers
drained into the low lying-area between Denmark and England and deposited layers of glacial
and glaciofluvial sediments as an outwash plain sloping westward (Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994;
Jacobsen, 1993). Today this Pleistocene subsurface lies in varying depths (~10 to ~20 m) below
the present surface and forms the base for Holocene deposits.
Figure 2.7: Main Weichselian Advance. M: Main Stationary Line, F, S, and V: Re-advances during general
deglaciation. After Houmark-Nielsen (2004).
Streif (2004) identified three phases of sea level rise in the Southern North Sea areas through the
Weichselian Late Glacial and Holocene period. During the first phase from 18000 yr B.P. to
10250 yr B.P. the sea level rose from approximately 130 m to 72 m below present-day sea level
with an average sea level rise of 6 to 10 mm yr-1, resulting in a displacement of the coastline
several hundreds of kilometres toward east (Streif, 2004). In the second phase from 10250 to
7100 yr B.P., the marine transgression continued and after 7000 yr B.P. full marine conditions
were established in the North Sea (Eisma et al., 1981). Streif (2004) estimated the sea level rise
during this period to approximately 15 mm yr-1 and from 8600 yr B.P. to 7100 yr B.P. to 21 mm
yr-1. The third phase identified by Streif (2004), ranges from 7500 yr B.P. to today with a sea
level rise from -25 m to the present position. The sea level continued its fast rise from the
14
second period but levelling-off around 6000 to 7000 yr B.P. where the sea level rise fell to less
than 2 mm yr-1 (Behre, 2007). During this period an accumulation wedge approximately 10 to
20 km wide consisting of Holocene coastal sediments on which the present coastal landscape
with barrier islands, tidal flats, lagoons, and coastal marshlands was formed (Hoselmann &
Streif, 2004). The area between the barrier islands and the marshland, which is occupied by
lagoons and tidal flats consist of layers of fine sand, silt, and clay alternating with layers of peat.
This sequence of clastic sediments and extensive peat layers are interpreted as the result of
changing periods of transgression and regression where the coastline on several occasions
shifted seaward and landward during the last 6000 to 7000 years (Behre, 2007; Chang et al.,
2006; Mörner, 1976; Streif, 2004).
2.5.1. Sea level fluctuations in the Wadden Sea region

As emphasised above sea level fluctuations during the last approximately 20000 years have been
the most important controlling factor for the development of the present coastal zone. Therefore
the construction of an accurate sea level curve for the Southern North Sea basin has for many
years been of great interest. Several attempts have been published by e.g. Jacobsen (1964),
Mörner (1976), Jelgersma (1979), Streif (2004), Behre (2007), and Pedersen et al. (2009). It has
long been discussed if eustatic sea level changes should be reflected in a smooth or oscillating
curve (Baeteman, 2008; Behre, 2007). Jelgersma (1979) produced a relative sea level curve
which combines the effects of tectonic, eustatic and isostatic movements (Figure 2.8). The curve
is constructed using sea level data primarily collected in the coastal zone of the Netherlands. As
a proxy for mean sea level, datings of shells in growing position are used. Past sea level
fluctuations were determined by 14C datings of Lower Peat, which are layers of peat situated
directly upon the inclined Pleistocene surface. The Lower Peat was formed by the influence of a
rising ground water level, controlled by the rising sea level. By using Lower Peat, compaction as
a factor of error can be eliminated because Pleistocene sediments show very little compaction.
To be able to make an accurate prediction of past sea level by the use of Lower Peat dating,
information on ground water level is required as well as the relation between ground water and
sea level has to be ascertained. The assumption that Lower Peat was formed close to mean sea
level can be questioned. Condition with upwelling water from the hinterland or stagnant ground
water in local depressions will alter the condition for formation of Lower Peat. Taking these
uncertainties into consideration Jelgersma (1979) provided a sea level curve rising rapidly from
~8000 yr B.P. to 6000 yr B.P., where it gradually levels off but continues to rise until today. The
curve is without oscillations since only points located in the lowest places for a given age are
taken as representative for a ground-water table that coincides with sea level. The datings used
by Jelgersma (1979) to reconstruct the sea level curve are given in uncalibrated radiocarbon
years. Before a comparison with other proposed sea level curves is possible calibration of the
14
C datings are necessary. This has been conducted using the Intcal04 calibration curve (Reimer
et al., 2004).
15
Mörner (1976) provided a sea level curve from the Kattegat region, based on correlation
between radiocarbon dating, and the identification of more than ten Postglacial Transgression
Maximums (PTM) which could be related to transgression/regressions events (Figure 2.8). As
the curve by Jelgersma (1979) the sea level rise starts to level off after 6000 yr B.P. One
particular feature of the sea level curve provided by Mörner (1976) is that the sea level at several
occasions have been higher than present sea level.
A detailed sea level curve from the German part of the Wadden Sea is given by Behre (2007),
based upon new datings of 118 samples of basal and intercalated peat from the Holocene
sequence and archaeological dates form the last 3000 years (Figure 2.8). Due to tectonic and
isostatic stability of the South-Eastern North Sea combined with high sensitivity to sea level
changes caused by an open coastline without barrier islands, this region is especially suitable for
evaluation of regional sea level changes (Behre, 2007). The simultaneous and wide spread
formation of intercalated peat along the open northern coast of Germany caused by a change to
freshwater condition signifies with certainty a fall in sea level. Therefore, several datings of
intercalated peats form part of the sea level curve regardless of intercalated peats normally are
not suitable to establishing a reliable 14C chronology because of possible compaction of the
underlying sediment. The overall trend of the sea level is the same as in the sea level curve
provided by Jelgersma (1979) but Behre (2007) further identifies seven periods with regression,
all of them corresponding to a sea level fall. The curve shows a continuous rapidly rising sea
level in the beginning of the Holocene period until ~7300 B.P. where the first slowing or
stagnation of the sea level rise is recognized and a gradual levelling-off starts. The first
regression occurs in R1 (4950 to 4350 yr B.P.) followed by R2 (3450 to 2950 yr B.P.), R3 (2750
to 2350 yr B.P.), R4 (2100 B.P. to 1900 yr B.P.), R5 (1600 to 1250 yr B.P.), R6 (1100 to 850 yr
B.P.), and R7 (500 to 250 yr B.P.) corresponding to a MHW (German Ordnance Datum) at -2.5
m, -1.6 m, -1.6 m, -0.65 m, +0.5 m, ±0.0 m, and +0.40 m, respectively. The most remarkable
feature of the curve is probably the distinctive regression and lowstand from ~3500 yr B.P.
termed R2 where the sea level dropped in the range 1.6 to 2.0 m. From around 2400 years ago
the sea level reached its present level and fluctuates both above and below this level until today.
16
10
-10
MSL, m
Pedersen, 2009
Jelgersma, 1979
-20 Mörner, 1976
Behre, 2007
-30
-40
10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
Time, cal. yr. B.P.
Figure 2.8: Holocene sea level reconstruction according to Mörner (1976), Jelgersma (1979), Behre (2007), and
Pedersen et al. (2009).
Pedersen et al. (2009) presents a relative sea level curve from the Danish Wadden Sea (Figure
2.8). The overall trend and level of the curve is in agreement with Behre (2007) and Pedersen et
al. (2009) also identifies a major lowstand ~3500 yr B.P. with a sea level drop to -4.7 m below
the present level. This is 3 m lower than suggested by Behre (2007). From ~3000 yr B.P.
continuing to today the sea level shows a constant rise with only a minor fall at 1200 yr B.P.
The sea level, according to Pedersen et al. (2009), never exceeds the present level.
The overall trend of the four presented sea level curves is the same which supports the validity
of the curves. It should be emphasised that no good correlation between the last 6000 years of
sea level fluctuation exists, neither between the time nor the size of the fluctuations. The curve
by Behre (2007) is constructed from a large numbers of datings spread across a relatively large
area, which support the validity of this curve. The curve by Pedersen et al. (2009) is based on
sea level index points obtained very close to the researched area of this study and therefore
account for local sea level variations. The curves by Behre (2007) and Pedersen et al. (2009)
will on this basis be used in the further assessment of the lagoonal evolution.
In a technical report the Danish Coastal Authorities stats a mean sea level rise of 4 mm yr-1 in
the period from 1972 to 2007 and in the period 1993 to 2003 5 mm yr-1 in the Danish part of the
Wadden Sea (Figure 2.9) (Klagenberg et al., 2008). Compared to the period 1889 to 2006 with a
mean sea level rise of 1.35 mm yr-1 this is a significant increase (Knudsen et al., 2008). Studies
17
of the annual Maximum Water Level over the past 100 years indicate an increase of 3 mm yr-1
while the annual Minimum Water Level has remained almost constant. The increase in the
Maximum Water Level is a factor 3 larger than the increase in Mean Sea Level (Aagaard et al.,
1995). The sea level rise in the Wadden Sea in the period 1993 to 2003 shows a faster rise
compared to the global rise (3.1 mm yr-1) and the rise in the North Sea (2.3 mm yr-1) (Knudsen
et al., 2008; Meehl et al., 2007). It is still uncertain if the sea level rise is due to global climate
changes or is the result of periodic oscillations. The short-term constructions of the sea level rise
for the periods 1972 to 2007 and 1993 to 2003 in Figure 2.9 should only be accepted with
certain scepticism since the basis of the data are low and naturally fluctuations of the sea level
cannot be abandoned to cause the rapid sea level rise in these periods.
150
1889-2007 1,35 mm yr-1

100
Sea level change, mm
1972-2007 4.00 mm yr-1

1993-2003 5.00 mm yr-1
50
-50
-100
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Time, yr
Figure 2.9: The average rate in sea level rise in the Wadden Sea as measured in Esbjerg. The measured rise in sea
level for the periods 1972 to 2007 and 1993 to 2003 should only be accepted with some reserves. After Knudsen et
al. (2008).
Much effort has been done to predict the future global sea level rise. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts in their 2007-assessment of the global sea level an
accelerating rise until 2100, estimating a total rise of 0.18 m to 0.59 m in 2100 (Meehl et al.,
2007). With a constant rate of sea level rise this would correspond to 1.94 mm yr-1 to 6.3 mm yr-
1
.
2.6. Summary
The scope of this chapter has been to present a review of existing knowledge dealing with tidal
coastal lagoons and their evolution. The chapter has mainly focused on describing the
sedimentary stratigraphy and morphology of coastal lagoons and tried to account for processes
responsible for creating the physical ‘appearance’ of this environment. Section 2.1 and 2.2
provided a general literacy to understand the environmental frame when addressing issues
regarding barrier and lagoonal systems. A more thorough examination of the depositional
environment was given in section 2.3 as well as in section 2.4 with the purpose of providing
18
sufficient knowledge to interpret sedimentological core logs and perform an exhaustive facies
analysis. Further these two sections serve to understand and assess the OSL chronology. The
present study deals with a coastal lagoon in the northern part of the European Wadden Sea and
given that coastal lagoons and their evolution are closely related to sea level it has, in addition,
been the purpose of this literature review to account for knowledge regarding the evolution of
the Wadden Sea and sea level changes during Holocene (section 2.5). This information will
improve the reconstruction of the lagoonal evolution.
19
Chapter 3: Regional setting
3. Regional setting
This chapter presents the regional setting of the study site. First a broader overview of the
Wadden Sea, primarily with focus on the Danish part is given. The following section 3.1.1
briefly describes the barrier island of Fanø and finally, section 3.1.2 gives a more exhaustive
review of the coastal lagoon situated in-between Fanø and the main coastline of Jutland.
3.1. The Wadden Sea

From Blåvandshuk in the north to Den Helder in the south, the European Wadden Sea extends
over more than 450 km of coastline, covering approximately 7700 km2, and has a maximum
width of approximately 35 km (Bartholdy & Folving, 1986; Eisma, 1997; Klagenberg et al.,
2008). The Danish part constitutes 800 km2 distributed between the tidal areas of Grådyb (135
km2), Knudedyb (175 km2), Juvre Dyb (155 km2), and Lister Dyb (525 km2 of which 190 km2
belongs to Germany) (Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994; Pedersen, 2007) (Figure 3.1). A semidiurnal
tidal wave, controlled by the amphidromic point located in the North Sea approximately 150 km
west of Blåvandshuk, moves in an anticlockwise direction with a velocity of 25 km per hour
causing average maximum tidal velocities in the inlets are in the order of 1 to 2 m s-1. The mean
tidal range varies from 1.3 m at Skallingen in north to 2.0 m at the Danish-German border in
south (Vølund et al., 2006) and according to Hayes (1979) the Danish Wadden Sea can be
classified as micro-tidal. Due to the exposed condition towards the North Sea strong winds once
or twice a year generate storm surges adding up to ~4 m to the astronomical mean sea level
(Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994; Vølund et al., 2006).
20
Figure 3.1: Location map. (a) The European Wadden Sea stretches from Blåvandshuk in north to Den Helder in
south. (b) Landsat image (ETM+ 31. May 2003) showing the Danish part of the European Wadden Sea.
Southernmost part not included.
The coastline of the Danish Wadden Sea consists of the main barrier islands of Rømø, Fanø and
the barrier spit Skallingen. A chain of small islands composed of Langli, Mandø, and Jordsand
is located east of the present line of barriers and it is believed that these barriers developed
during a paleo-sea level approximately 2900 yr B.P. (Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994). The extent and
position of the Danish Wadden Sea is at south defined by a Pleistocene core in the island of Sylt
(Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994). The position of the northern margins of the Wadden Sea is
controlled by Horns Rev which until recently was interpreted as Saalian terminal moraine
pushed up from the north (Larsen & Andersen, 2005). Recent research initiated by Leth et al.
(2004) shows that Horns Rev consists of Holocene sand with gravel deposited after the sea
transgressed the area in Early Holocene time, about 8500 yr B.P.
An important factor in the development and maintenance of the Danish Wadden Sea is the
supply of sediment from a southward directed littoral drift along the west coast of Jutland
21
amounting 0.5 to 1.0*106 m3 yr-1 (Aagaard et al., 2004; Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994). From
Blåvandshuk towards Grådyb the littoral drift amounts to approximately 0.6*106 m3 yr -1 of
which a large part is deposited in Grådyb (Kystdirektoratet, 2001). From Grådyb and
southwards to Rømø the estimated littoral drift is 0.5*106 m3 yr -1. In the southern part of the
Wadden Sea the littoral drift becomes northwards directed, carrying sand from Sylt depositing it
around Rømø (Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994). Due to the large availability of sand several parts of
the coastline of the Wadden Sea experience a progradation despite of the relative sea level rise.
Progressive areas are: The northern part of the barrier island of Fanø called Søren Jessens Sand
(Jacobsen, 1998), Peter Meyers Sand south of Fanø (Ehlers, 1988), Koresand, which is a large
sand body accumulating west of the barrier island of Mandø, and the west coast of the barrier
island of Rømø which is fringed with very wide tidal sand flats (Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994;
Johannessen et al., 2008).
The Wadden Sea experiences a residual influx of sediments consisting mainly of sand, silt and
clay. Deposition occurs mainly on the watersheds, in embayments, along inner margins, and
along dikes that connect islands with the mainland (Eisma, 1997). The material found in the
Wadden Sea originates from different sources with the North Sea, as the dominant contributor
attaining approximately 64 to 85 % of the total fine grained input (Bartholdy & Madsen, 1985;
Pejrup et al., 1997).
The evolution of the Danish Wadden Sea is related to the last period of the marine transgression
approximately 7000 to 6000 years B.P. (Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994) (Section 2.5). Uncertainties
about the exact time of the transgression still exist but new research from the barrier island of
Rømø and Fanø implies that the evolution of the Danish Wadden Sea actual began
approximately 8000 years ago, when rising sea level inundated a local ridge (Pejrup et al., in
prep).
3.1.1. Fanø
To the north Fanø is bound by Grådyb tidal inlet and to the south by Galgedyb and Knudedyb.
The island is approximately 15 km long and 5 km wide. The island is dominated by a positive
sand budget, which has resulted in sequences of fan-like dune ridges in the northern part of the
island and dune ridges parallel with the beach in the central parts of the island. Only in the
southern end of the island traces of erosion are found (Ehlers, 1988). This pattern classifies Fanø
as a ‘drumstick’ barrier (Davis, 1989; Hayes, 1979). It is believed that the development of the
northern part of the island and Søren Jessens Sand is linked to the ebb and flood currents
through Grådyb. Due to erosion of the north-western part of the ebb delta and accretion on the
south-eastern part the ebb delta progrades towards Fanø. Søren Jessens Sand has progressively
been approaching Fanø and in 1980 a connection developed. The channel of Hamborg Dyb is
becoming more and more narrow and shallow (Jacobsen, 1998). On the back-barrier side of
Fanø which is facing the lagoon widespread salt marsh formation is found.
22
3.1.2. The lagoon of Fanø

The lagoon is located on the landward side of Fanø and to the east bound by the main coast of
Jutland and to the west by the barrier island of Fanø. In the north the tidal inlet of Grådyb
separates the lagoon from Ho Bugt, and toward south the lagoon is bound by the tidal inlet of
Knudedyb and the barrier island of Mandø. The northern part of the lagoon is narrow (~1.5 km)
but gradually broadens towards the south (~11.0 km) (Figure 3.2).
Tidal divide
Tidal divide
k
Denmar
North Sea
North Sea
0 2
Km
4 6 8
¯
Figure 3.2: The lagoon between Fanø and Jutland. Modified after KMS (1997). The tidal divide after Klagenberg et
al. (2008).
The two tidal areas of Grådyb and Knudedyb form the lagoon. Both tidal areas are under
influence of semidiurnal tides with mean tidal range of 1.3 m in Grådyb tidal area and 1.5 m in
Knudedyb tidal area (Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994; Pedersen, 2004) and according to Hayes
(1979), it classifies the area as micro-tidal. The two tidal areas have a total average tidal prism
of ~310*106 m3 of which the average size of Kundedybs inner tidal prism corresponds to
~150*106 m3 (Bartholdy & Pejrup, 1994; Klagenberg et al., 2008).
Three smaller rivers flow into the lagoon. On the northern side of the tidal divide, Sneum Å
discharges an annual of ~3.80 m3 s-1 from a drainage area of approximately 504 km2 (Ribe Amt,
1992). The water and sediment from the river normally drift north into the tidal area of Grådyb
but have in recent years occasionally shifted southwards (Klagenberg et al., 2008). On the
southern side of the tidal divide, the Konge Å and Ribe Å rivers drain into the lagoon. Together
23
these two rivers discharge an annual mean of ~22 m3 s-1 from a drainage area of 1396 km2
(Bartholdy & Hasholt, 1986). The total input of fine-grained material from the three rives to the
lagoon amounts to ~11*103 t yr-1. The amount of sediment into the lagoon derived from the
rivers is relative small compared to the amount derived from the North Sea. According to
Pedersen & Bartholdy (2006), the input of fine-grained sediment from the North Sea to Grådyb
and Knudedyb tidal areas compose 59 % and 52 %, respectively of the total input of fine grained
material.
Water from the North Sea is transported into the lagoon towards the tidal divide through the
tidal inlets of Grådyb and Knudedyb and further in smaller sub-channels. The main channel
north of the tidal divide is Havneløbet. South of the tidal divide Knudedyb split up into Lundvig
Løb and Kelding Lo. Water is regularly transported across the tidal divide, predominantly from
south towards north and primarily through Kelding Lo (Klagenberg et al., 2008). The channels
in the inner part of the lagoon are fringed with intertidal flats characterized as low sand flats (<
25 % < 63 µm) and on the tidal divide as mixed flats (25 to 75 % < 63 µm) (Sørensen et al.,
2006) (Figure 3.3). The channels primarily consist of sand sized sediments since the current
velocity is too high for deposition of fine-grained sediment (Klagenberg et al., 2008). During
storm events displacement of the tidal divide has been observed, together with a redistribution of
the sediment in the lagoon (Klagenberg et al., 2008).
The wind regime in the lagoon was until 1986 dominated by westerly winds whereupon south
westerly winds became dominant, and winds from a southern and western direction also
increased. The marked change in frequency of south westerly winds and decrease in winds from
a northern direction has led to a significant modification of the dynamical conditions for
westerly exposed coastlines (Aagaard et al., 1995). Due to the shape of the lagoon with a wide
open end towards the south it is likely that the change to a south westerly dominated wind
regime will affect the hydrodynamics controlling the sedimentation in the lagoon.
24
Tidal divide
Figure 3.3: Sediment types in the lagoon between Fanø and Jutland. Modified after Sørensen et al. (2006). The tidal
divide after Klagenberg et al., (2008).
As mentioned in section 3.1.1 the evolution of the Danish Wadden Sea and the barrier islands of
Fanø and Rømø probably started approximately 8000 years ago. With the formation of Fanø
together with an ongoing marine transgression the potential for accumulation of sediment in the
sedimentary basin between Fanø and the west coast of Jutland was established. No deep borings
have been undertaken in the central part of the lagoon, thus the depth of the marine succession is
unknown. Resent research from the lagoon area behind Rømø has shown a ~10 to 15 metres
thick succession of lagoonal deposits above the underlying Pleistocene subsurface (Johannessen
et al., 2008).
In the northern part of the lagoon Esbjerg, which is the only larger city in the area, is situated.
The authority of the Port of Esbjerg conducts continuous dredging of Grådyb and the inner part
of Havneløbet. The average amount of sediment dredge from Grådyb and Havneløbet is 1.2*106
t yr-1 and 0.42*106 t yr-1, respectively (Vølund et al., 2006). Except from dredging the lagoon
area is anthropogenic influenced by intensive diking of its eastern margin. From Esbjerg in north
to Hjerpsted Bakkeø south of Rømø a large continuous sea dike shelters the low lying areas
behind the dike from inundation during storms (Smed, 1982). In the southern part of the lagoon
area Låningsvejen between Mandø and the mainland of Jutland is situated. Låningsvejen is an
elevated road and it functions as a barrier between the Knudedyb and Juvre Dyb tidal areas.
25
Chapter 4: Methods
4. Methods
This chapter reviews the different laboratory and technical methods applied in this study.
Section 4.1 presents the vibracoring technique and issues related to the use of this approach to
obtain sedimentary cores, e.g. compaction and plugging. Section 4.2 briefly outlines the core
processing. Methods related to the Optical Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating are
accounted for in section 4.3. This section firstly presents the basic principles of this dating
method, followed by a description of the sample preparation and instrumentation, the
luminescence measurement, and the dosimetry measurement approach. Section 4.4 examines the
basic of the radiocarbon dating method and the approach used in the calibration of the 14C
datings. Since the radiocarbon datings have been conducted by Leibniz-Laboratory for
Radiometric Dating and Stable Isotope Research at the Christian-Albrechts-University in Kiel
no detailed description of the sample preparation and measurement is presented. Sediment
characteristics i.e. Loss on Ignition and grain size analysis are dealt with in section 4.5 and 4.6.
Finally the method for determination of modern channel displacement rates is accounted for in
section 4.7.
4.1. The vibracoring technique

The sediment cores were obtained using the vibracoring technique. This method was originally
developed as a shipboard underwater system used to sample continental shelves (Smith, 1998).
Due to the size and weight of this original setup it was not suited for small boats and land based
vibracoring and was therefore further developed by e.g. Finkelstein & Prins (1981); Lanesky et
al., (1979); Smith (1984); Smith (1992); Smith (1998). The vibracore equipment used in this
study is based on the design of Lanesky et al. (1979) and Finkelstein & Prins (1981). It consists
of a concrete vibrator, 6 m aluminium tube lengths with a diameter of 8 cm and sharpened in the
ends, a clamp to fit the aluminium pipes to the vibrator, a four stroke gasoline powered engine to
drive the concrete vibrator, a tripod and a chain hoist which is used for extracting the core tubes.
When mounted on the aluminium pipes the vibrator sends high-frequency low-amplitude
standing waves through the pipe liquefying a 1 to 2 mm thick layer of sediment both inside and
outside the core tube (Smith, 1998). With the pipes in vertical position the fluidisation makes it
possible to penetrate water-saturated unconsolidated fine grained sediments (sand, silt, clay,
peat, gyttja) though the rate of coring and amount of recovery varies considerably with sediment
type (Lanesky et al., 1979). The only downwards directed force is gravity, but the weight of a
person can help to keep the downwards momentum. Fine-grained low-energy deposits are easy
to core and on the contrary well-sorted compacted quartz sand and compact pure clay is almost
impossible to penetrate. Organic interbeds of peat absorb and dampen the vibrations but can
usually be cut through by rotating the core tube forth and back (Smith, 1984). Lanesky et al.
(1979) states that a recovery rate less than 75 to 80 % usually is the result of ‘plugging’ of the
26
Chapter 4: Methods
core tube and not compaction. For example, layers of consolidated sand overlaying less resistant
muddy sand or mud can cause ”plugging”.
In this assessment five cores were obtained using the vibracoring technique and plugging and
compaction ranged from 0 to 34 % in the five cores. To compensate for this it is assumed that
the plugging/compaction are evenly distributed through the whole core length and the correction
was then applied linearly. All sampling depths and core lengths employed in this study will be
the corrected numbers. To avoid sliding loss when retrieving the core tubes, these were filled
with water and sealed off with a lid to create vacuum during hoisting of the cores. This method
proved to work very well and only few centimetres of material were lost.
4.2. Core processing

In a dark lab the core tubes were cut in lengths of approximately 1 m to ease the handling of the
cores. The aluminium tubes were subsequently cut on opposite sides and separated in two halves
with a thin wire. Luminescence dating determines the time of the last light exposure for which
reason it is important to avoid exposure of the samples to daylight. One half was wrapped in
lightproof plastic and stored for OSL dating. The other half was first photographed and later
used for doing the sedimentological core logs, grain size analyses and loss on ignition
measurements.
4.3. Optical dating

The optical stimulated luminescence method makes use of the ability of common minerals, such
as quartz and most feldspars, to store energy in their crystal structure. This energy is deposited
within the crystal structure mainly by ionising radiation provided by thorium, uranium and
potassium-40 in the surrounding sediment. The charge is stored by electrons which are trapped
in excited states above the valence band; the more prolonged the exposure to ionising radiation
are the more electrons will be trapped. This provides a ‘clock’, which is the basis of the
luminescence dating. Sediments transported in a natural geological environment are exposed to
daylight, which releases all energy stored in the sediment grains and sets the ‘clock’ back to
zero. The sediment will subsequently be deposited, buried, and shielded from exposure to
daylight. Energy will then start to accumulate inside the crystal structure of the mineral again.
Furthermore these two minerals are very abundant and found in large numbers of geological
settings (Aitken, 1998; Duller, 2004; Murray & Olley, 2002).
In the laboratory, the trapped energy in the crystals can be released with exposure to a
stimulation light or a heat source. Dependent on the stimulation source this is optical stimulated
luminescence (OSL) or thermoluminescence (TL). The luminescence is emitted in the form of
ultraviolet light and the amount of released light energy is proportional to the time of last
exposure to bright light (Duller, 2004). This time interval is an important aspect working with
Quaternary geology and geomorphology since it corresponds to the time of deposition of a
27
Chapter 4: Methods
particular sediment facies or landform. The OSL signal emitted when laboratory irradiated
sediment is exposed to light is used to estimate the dose of radiation the sediment has absorbed.
In the laboratory this dose is termed the equivalent dose (ED or De) and is measured in Grays
(Gy; 1 Gy = 1 J kg-1) (Duller, 2004). The method most commonly used for calibrating the OSL
signal in terms of dose is the use of a single aliquot regenerative (SAR) dose protocol (Murray
& Roberts, 1998; Murray & Wintle, 2000; Murray & Wintle, 2003). In section 4.3.2 the SAR
protocol is described in detail. The only further information required to calculate an age is the
natural occurring radioactivity in the sediment and the contribution from cosmic rays per year,
together called the dose rate (Gy yr-1). The burial age of a sample is then given by:
Equivalentdose, De (Gy)
Age( year) =
(
Dose rate Gy year−1 )
Equation 4.1: Modified after Aitken (1985). 1 Gy = 1 J kg-1.
Before optical dating became the foremost used luminescence dating method,
thermoluminescence was prevailing. This method was especially used to date pottery but also
dating of sediments were possible with thermoluminescence though it was not ideal (Aitken,
1998). Huntley et al. (1985) was the first to propose optical dating of sediment and subsequently
the method and technology have undergone extensive development (Aitken, 1998). The
automated Risø TL/OSL reader (Bøtter-Jensen, 1997) has together with the development of the
SAR protocol (Murray & Wintle, 2003) and the refinements and improvements of more
powerful light-emitting-diodes (Thomsen et al., 2006) (Bøtter-Jensen et al., 2000; Thomsen et
al., 2006) all contributed to OSL dating of quartz today being a reliable chronological tool
(Murray & Olley, 2002). This is further substantiated by numerous studies in Quaternary
geology where OSL dating is applied to a wide range of sediment types. E.g. fluvial (Rittenour,
2008; Wallinga, 2002), aeolian (Aagaard et al., 2007a; Clemmensen et al., 2001; Mason et al.,
2004; Murray & Clemmensen, 2001), marine (Kortekaas et al., 2007; Murray & Funder, 2003;
Nielsen et al., 2006) and tidal sediments (Madsen et al., 2005; Madsen et al., 2007b; Mauz &
Bungenstock, 2007). Optical dating has proven able to date sediment ranging in age from a few
years (Ballarini et al., 2003; Madsen et al., 2007a; Madsen et al., 2007b) to ~100.000 years
(Murray et al., 2007; Murray & Funder, 2003) and along with the fact that optical dating is
directly dating the sediment it has several advantages to 210Pb, 137Cs, and 14C dating.
4.3.1. Sample preparation

The halve core tubes, which had been shielded from daylight were used for sampling for the
luminescence dating. The sampling was undertaken in subdued red-orange light conditions to
avoid bleaching the quartz grains before measuring. Since material for both estimation of the
equivalent dose (De) and dosimetry (dose rate estimation) was needed, a sample consisting of
two subsamples was taken. First subsample had a size of 3 to 6 cm. Although no smiring was
observed in the cores, it was carefully avoided to include any sediment directly along the sides
28
Chapter 4: Methods
of the core tube since this material might originate from higher levels in the core, and therefore
represent a younger age. Second subsample consisted of approximately 3 cm of sediment
together with what remained after taking the first subsample (Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1: The sampling method from the halve core tube. 1. subsample is used for equivalent dose estimation and
2. subsample for dose rate estimation.
Quartz was extracted from the first subsample, using a conventional sample preparation
techniques (Aitken, 1985; Aitken, 1998). The sample was first wet sieved to obtain the 90 to
180 µm fraction. This fraction was then treated with HCl (10 %) followed by a treatment with
H2O2 (10 %) to remove carbonates and organic material, respectively. Between every step the
sample was washed with distilled water. Finally feldspar and the outer edge of the quartz grain
were etched by adding HF (40 %) to the sample for 40 min. After etching, the sample was rinsed
in HCl (10 %) to remove any residual fluorides and re-sieved.
The quartz extracts were checked for its purity by means of an Infra-Red- (IR) test. In an IR-test
the etched sample is stimulated with infra-red light and the OSL-signal measured. Because of
the ability of feldspar to store energy emitted in the infra-red light spectrum a sample still
containing a residual feldspar component will respond upon illuminating with IR light. A
sample solely containing quartz shows no respond upon illuminating with IR light. Three
aliquots from every sample went through a cycle of preheating to 260°C for 10 s followed by
first IR stimulation for 50 s at 200°C and stimulation with blue light for 40 s at 125°C. A
regenerative dose of ~50 Gy was given and the preheat stimulation cycle was repeated. If the
ratio between the natural and regenerated signal of the Infra-Red Stimulated Luminescence
(IRSL) to the Blue Light Stimulated Luminescence (BLSL) was ≤10 % the samples were
considered clean. The IR-test revealed a minor feldspar contamination of most samples and the
treatment with HF (40 %) for 40 min, HCL (10 %) and re-sieving was repeated. The second IR-
test revealed an IRSL / BLSL ration for both the natural and regenerated signal ≤10 % and the
samples were considered pure enough for equivalent dose measurements.
Second subsample was used for dosimetry measurements. The sample was first air dried and
manual homogenised. A subsample with a weight of ~200 g was ignited at 450°C for 24 h and
then grinded. About 150 g of the ground sample was then mixed with wax and cast in cups to
ensure a constant counting geometry. The cups were stored for three weeks to allow for
establishment of secular equilibrium between 222Rn and 226Ra before counting on a gamma
detector (Ankjaergaard & Murray, 2007).
29
Chapter 4: Methods
4.3.2. Luminescence measurements

The purified quartz grains were mounted on stainless steel discs with a diameter of ~10 mm
using silicon oil and measured in an automated Risø TL/OSL reader (Figure 4.2). Dose
administration, heat treatment, signal recording, and bleaching are all automatically controlled
by the reader. For irradiation the reader includes a Strontium-90/Yttrium-90 beta radiation
source (strength: 0.0563 and 0.0375 Gy s-1) and for light exposure a light source consisting of
blue LEDs (470 ± 20 nm). A photo multiplier tube records the luminescence signal through U-
340 transmission filters, removing the stimulating blue light from the LEDs. The aliquots were
mounted on a turntable, capable of containing 48 samples at the time, and a single aliquot
regeneration (SAR) dose protocol was applied for De measurements (Table 4.1) (Murray &
Roberts, 1998; Murray & Wintle, 2000; Murray & Wintle, 2003).
Figure 4.2: Schematic drawing of the Risø TL/OSL luminescence reader. After Thomsen (2004).
Table 4.1: Generalised single-aliquot regeneration sequence (SAR protocol). After Murray & Wintle (2003).
Treatment Observe
1. Give dose, Di -
2. Preheat (160 to 300°C for 10 s) -
3. Optically stimulate for 40 s at 125°C Li
4. Give test dose, Di -
5. Heat to 160°C (to < preheat in step 2) -
6. Optically stimulate for 40 s at 125°C Ti
7. Optically stimulate for 40 s at > preheat -
8. Return to 1 -
The SAR protocol obtains the luminescence signal as a function of dose, also called the growth
curve, by first measuring the natural signal and thereafter applying varying laboratory doses to
30
Chapter 4: Methods
each sample and measuring their luminescence responses. The natural signal is interpolated onto
the curve to produce an estimate of the dose needed to generate an equivalent signal response
(Figure 4.3).
16
Regenerated
Recuperation
Recycling
Corrected OSL, Li/Ti

12
8 Natural
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Regenerative dose, Gy
Figure 4.3: Sensitivity corrected growth curve for sample L2/296. Regenerated signals are shown as filled circles
(●), recycling point shown with an open circle (○) is derived from repeating of an earlier dose. The recuperation
signal corresponds to a zero Gy dose measurement shown with an open square (□).
Another important aspect of this regenerative dose-protocol is its ability to correct for sensitivity
changes during measurements. This is done by dividing all measured luminescence signals by
the luminescence response to a fixed test dose in every measurement cycle. Hereby all
sensitivity changes, which may arise from repeated heating, irradiation, and stimulation of the
quartz grain, will be offset by the test dose response normalisation.
As outlined in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.3 the SAR protocol works in a seven-step cycle with
different administrated doses and a constant test dose. The first given dose is the natural dose or
equivalent dose, (De or D0). The following doses given (D1, D2, and D3) correspond
approximately to 0.5x, 1x, and 2x the estimated natural dose and it is from these three doses the
growth curve is build up. Additionally two doses are given; zero dose or recuperation (usually
D4) and a repeated dose (usually D5) equal to D3. The recuperation signal should be close to zero
if signals are properly reset after each measurement cycle and when the preheat temperature is
low enough to prevent generation of an artificial signal. The ratio between the repeated and
original signal, termed the recycling ratio, should be close to 1. If the recycling ratio differs from
1, inconsistencies in the luminescence characteristic exist and the SAR protocol is not able to
produce accurate equivalent dose measurements.
In addition to the above outlined advantage of the SAR protocol, it should be mentioned that the
single-aliquot approach produces accurate De values much faster than traditional protocols e.g.
multiple aliquot and additive dose protocols (Vandenberghe, 2004). Especially the SAR
protocol’s ability to conduct multiple measurements on just one aliquot rather than using one
31
Chapter 4: Methods
aliquot per measurement step is a large advantage (Bøtter-Jensen et al., 2003; Murray & Wintle,
2000).
4.3.3. Dosimetry measurements

Before being able to produce an age estimate of a sample, it is necessary to determine the size of
the dose rate for that sample (cf. Equation 4.1). The dose rate in most geological deposits is due
to natural occurring radioactivity in the sediments. Decay of isotopes in the 238U and 232Th series
as well as 40K decays are the main source to radioactivity and their contribution in sandy
deposits is estimated to approximately 7 %, 6 %, and 65 %, respectively (Nielsen & Murray,
2008). In addition, internal activity, 87Rb, and the cosmic ray contribute to the dose rate and
especially the cosmic ray contribution can be significant in near-surface deposits especially in
high altitudes and/or high latitudes (Nielsen & Murray, 2008; Prescott & Hutton, 1988).
As described in section 4.3.1 the sediment for the dosimetry measurement was ground, ashed,
and cast in a wax to prevent radon loss and to provide a constant counting geometry. The dose
rate was determined by high-resolution gamma spectrometry counting for >24 hours (Murray et
al., 1987) and the radionuclide concentration was converted to dose rate data, using the
conversion factors from Olley et al. (1996). Doing this, the amount and energy levels of all
decays detected in the gamma spectrometer are converted to activity concentrations (Bq kg-1) of
the decaying isotopes. The sediment bulk density was assumed to be 1.8 g cm-3 in all
calculations of the dose rate (pers. comm. Murray, 2009).
Attenuation of the alpha and beta radiation when entering the mineral grain has been
compensated for in the dose rate calculations. The alpha radiation is believed to be completely
attenuated by the outer crust of the grains. Due to pre-measurement treatment of the grains the
outer crust of the grains is etched away and alpha radiation is disregarded in the dose rate
calculations. The beta attenuation is calculated as function of the grain size and an attenuation of
8 % is applied in all dose rate measurements. No gamma attenuation is included in
measurements.
The contribution from the cosmic rays to the dose rate was calculated using the approach
described by Prescott & Hutton (1988) and together with an internal dose rate of 0.06 ± 0.03 Gy
ka-1 applied to the dose rate calculations. The infinite dose rate (Dinf) was calculated by
summarising all contributions using Equation 4.2.
Dinf = D I + D β + Dγ + Dc
Equation 4.2: Dinf is the infinite matrix dose rate, DI is the internal dose rate, Dβ is the beta dose rate, Dγ is the
gamma dose rate, and Dc is the cosmic ray dose rate.
Before applying the estimation of the dose rate to Equation 4.1 only correction for the water
content is necessary.
32
Chapter 4: Methods
4.3.3.1. Correction for water content

The total dose rate is affected by the water content of the sediment as water absorbs the energy
emitted by radioactive disintegration without emitting any radiation to compensate for the
attenuation. If no compensation for water content is performed, the total dose rate will be
overestimated and thus the age estimation erroneously underestimated.
All samples taken for OSL dating were assumed to be water saturated at all times for which
reason the saturated water content is equal to the field water content. The water content was
calculated as a percentage weight loss of the total mass after drying for three weeks at room
temperature. A subsample was weighted immediately after sampling to obtain the saturated
mass (msat) and after drying the sample was weighted again to obtain the mass of solids (ms).
The saturated water content is given by Equation 4.3 (Shaw, 1994).
msat − ms
θs = *100
ms
Equation 4.3: The saturated water content θs (%). msat is the saturated mass (g) and ms is the dry mass (g).
The above outlined approach revealed too low saturated water contents for several of the sandy
sediment samples. To compensate for the low water contents, an average of all sandy samples
was calculated and used instead of the erroneously measured water contents. A water content of
40 % will result in approximately 32 % attenuation of the total dose rate, thus accurate
estimation of the water content is crucial. An uncertainty of 4 % was attributed to the water
content estimation.
4.4. Radiocarbon dating

Radiocarbon dating makes use of naturally occurring radioisotope carbon-14 to determine the
age of carbonaceous materials with an age up to ~50000 years. Three natural occurring isotopes
are found in carbon namely 12C, 13C, and 14C. In nature the two former stable isotopes comprise
98.89 %, and 1.11 %, respectively, whereas the radioactive 14C only is found in very small
quantities amounting 1.176*10-12 atoms per atom 12C. 14C is continuously created in the
atmosphere by cosmic radiation of 14N. It almost instantaneous oxidises to 14CO2 which enters
the plant biomass by assimilation of CO2 during photosynthesis and subsequently the
heterotrophic organism via the food chain. When the organism dies, the 14C in it starts to decay
with a half-life of 5730 years and the residual 14C left in an organism (the 14C/12C ratio) is thus
an estimate of the time since death of the organism.
Radiocarbon dating results are reported in a conventional radiocarbon age in years Before
Present (B.P.). This age is not directly comparable to a historical age due to several matters. The
conventional age comprises the incorrect Libby half-life of 5568 years (Libby, 1952) instead of
the later revised ‘Cambridge’-value of 5730 years. The conventional age is further corrected to
1950 AD as 0 years B.P. and includes variations in the atmospheric 14C concentration. To relate
33
Chapter 4: Methods
a conventional radiocarbon age to a historical age a calibration is therefore necessary. In this

study the calibration program CALIB v. 5.0.2 (Stuiver et al., 2005; Stuiver & Reimer, 1993) has
been used to correct the age of marine samples into calendar years (cal. B.P.). For marine
samples, such as shells, the Marine04 curve is used (Hughen et al., 2004). Radiocarbon ages of
samples formed in the ocean are normally several hundred years older than their terrestrial
counterparts. The age difference is due to the large carbon reservoir of the oceans (Figure 4.4).
This calibration dataset represent the ‘global’ ocean and therefore incorporates the 400 years
reservoir effect and no additional marine reservoir correction should be made to the sample
radiocarbon age prior to calibration. However the regional difference ΔR should be applied. The
ΔR used has been determined from the Marine Reservoir Correction Database (Reimer &
Reimer, 2001). No ΔR is available from the European Wadden Sea, thus the estimation of ΔR
originates from three known reservoir ages in the western most parts of Limfjorden, Denmark.
A weighted mean of the three reservoir ages yield a ΔR of 181 years with a standard deviation
of 60.
3000
2500 Marine04
R
IntCal04
2000
C , yr B.P.
1500
14
1000
500
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Caleder age, yr B.P.
Figure 4.4: The atmospheric (IntCal04) (Reimer et al., 2004) and marine (Marine04) (Hughen et al., 2004) 14C level
for the last 3000 years. The atmospheric 14C level changes quickly but is muted in the ocean mix layer. ‘R’ is the
global marine reservoir age, and it is necessary to assign the regional difference ΔR when using the Marine04
calibration curve.
4.5. Loss on Ignition

The organic content was determined by the common used procedure of Loss On Ignition (LOI)
which yield a percent loss of dry mass after two hours combustion at 550°C (Dansk
Standardiseringsråd, 1991).
34
Chapter 4: Methods
mt − mi
LOI = *100
mt
Equation 4.4: Loss On Ignition (LOI) (%). mt is the total mass (g) and mi is the ignited mass (g).
Before combustion samples with a weight of 1 to 2 g were oven dried for 24 h at 105°C and
subsequently weighted to obtain the dry mass. Before combustion crucible containing the
samples were covered with a lit as recommended by Heiri et al. (2001) to avoid escaping of
material in the case of sand grain explosion during heating.
4.6. Grain-size analyses

Several methods for grain size analysis exist, e.g. sedigraphs, settling tubes, hydrophotometers,
electrozone particle counters, laser diffractometry, the hydrometer method and the traditional
sieve-pipette method (Beuselinck et al., 1998; PingYin et al., 1999; Singer et al., 1988). All
grain size analysis in this study have been analysed by laser diffractometry using a Malvern
Mastersizer 2000 (Malvern, 2009), which is capable of measuring in the range of 0.02 µm to
2000 µm.
Laser diffraction grain-size analyses rely on the principle that grains of a given size will diffract
light in a given angel inversely proportional to the grain size. A narrow beam of monochromatic
light is passed through a sample cell containing an upward moving suspension. The diffracted
light is focused onto several detectors and the angular distribution of light intensity is given by
Equation 4.5 (Beuselinck et al., 1998; Mccave et al., 1986).
∞
1 2
I (Θ) = ∫
Θ0
r n(r ) J i2 (krΘ)dr
Equation 4.5: The angular distribution of light intensity. Θ is the scattering angle, r is particle radius, n(r) is the size
distribution function, J is the Bessel function of the First Kind, k = 2π/λ, where λ is the wave length of
monochromatic light passed through the suspension. After Singer et al. (1988).
One drawback when using laser diffractometry to determine grain sizes is the potential for
underestimation of the clay content compared to the sieve-pipette method. The sieve-pipette
method measures equivalent fall-diameters of the fraction <63 µm whereas the Malvern
Mastersizer 2000 measures the optical grain-size and these two sizes are not necessarily
identical (Loizeau et al., 1994).
In the present study, 58 sediment samples, primarily consisting of sand were analysed. It is
believed that changes in the most frequent grain size fraction are the best proxy for
environmental changes (pers. comm. Johannessen, 2009), why the focus of the grain-size
analysis has been to determine the primary mode of the sediment samples. Underestimation of
the clay content is therefore of minor significance. Subsequent processing of the grain-size
analysis results from the Malvern Mastersizer 2000 was conducted using GRADISTAT v.4.0
35
Chapter 4: Methods
(Blott & Pye, 2001) which is a grain-size distribution and statistical packed for analysing
unconsolidated sediments. All values are calculated by Geometric Method of Moments and
stated in µm. Where the grain size is given in a descriptive terminology the Udden-Wentworth
grad scale is used (Udden, 1914; Wentworth, 1922).
4.7. Determination of modern channel displacement rates

The rates of modern channel displacement in the lagoon were determined on the basis of two
orthophotos from 02-05-1990 and two Landsat ETM+ scenes from 09-05-2001 and 31-05-2003,
respectively. The orthophotos were black and white hard copies with a negative size of 23x23
cm and a phocal length on the camera used on 15.2 cm. With a flight height of 4 km the scale in
the centre of the photo is 1:25000 (KMS, 2009). The two Landsat scenes have a spatial
resolution of 30x30 m. Lundvig Løb together with three sub-branches of Kelding Lo were
selected for the analysis (see Figure 3.2 for location). The central line through the four channels
was digitalised on all the scenes. By digitising the central part of the channels it was possible to
disregard differences in the sea level at the time of recording of the scenes. To measure the
average distance of shifting of the channels, transects were drawn perpendicularly between the
digitalised lines (Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5: Example of the digitisation of Lundvig Løb. Background is the aerial photo from 1990. Red line shows
the position of Lundvig Løb in 1990 and the green line the position in 2003. The small black lines are transects
between the two digitised lines used to measure the size of displacement. The white arrow shows the general
direction of displacement.
36
Chapter 5: Results
5. Results
In this chapter all results from the study are presented. In section 5.1 all OSL ages are presented
together with luminescence characteristics of the lagoon sediment in the Wadden Sea. In section
5.2 the results from the independent validation of the OSL dates with AMS datings are outlined.
Section 5.3 presents the results from the core analysis, which includes a presentation of the
facies analysis, the five sedimentological core log descriptions, grain size analysis, depth-age
relations and identified unconformities. Section 5.4 contains the results from the analysis of
modern channel displacement and finally a brief summary is given in section 5.5.
5.1. OSL ages and luminescence characteristics

Thirty-five samples from 4 cores were taken for OSL dating. The OSL ages are presented
together with various related data in Table 5.1. The samples are grouped according to core site
with data at the top of the table (L1) representing the eastern margin of the lagoon and data from
the western part (L5) of the lagoon at the bottom of the table. For location see Figure 5.7. The
column containing the OSL ages is of most interest, but the table contains information on
several other parameters influencing the age calculations. The water content fluctuates between
19 to 60 % with an average of 31 %. The n value is the number of aliquots used in the
calculation of the equivalent dose De. The numbers of aliquots used range from 18 to 24. Values
of De range from 0.06 to 6.73 Gy with an average of 2.58 ± 0.04 Gy and vary with the age,
whereas the dose rate is fairly constant (1.12 to 2.29 Gy yr-1, average 1.48 ± 0.06 Gy yr-1) (For
further information on radionuclide concentrations and infinite matrix dose rates see Appendix
VI). Only few and minor age reversions are present in Table 5.1 and the size of the reversions
are within the range of uncertainty of the sample above and below.
37
Chapter 5: Results
Table 5.1: Summary of sample depth below surface, depth in Danish Vertical Reference 1990 (DVR90), grain size,
estimated water content values as weight percentage, n the number of aliquots of the sample used to determining
the equivalent dose (De), total dose rate, luminescence ages with standard error in years, and standard error in
percentage for the L1, L2, L3, and L5 core sites.
Core Sample Depth below Elevation Grain Water n De, Total dose OSL age, Std. Err.,
name id surface, cm size, content Gy rate, yr %
cm DVR90 µm % mGy yr-1
L1/38 38 -4 90-180 32 24 0.21 ± 0.00 1.42 ± 0.06 145 ± 7 5
L1 L1/82 82 -48 90-180 41 24 0.40 ± 0.01 1.31 ± 0.05 303 ± 14 5
L1/120 120 -86 90-180 33 24 0.91 ± 0.01 1.42 ± 0.06 643 ± 30 5
L2/34 34 -127 90-180 27 22 0.12 ± 0.00 1.54 ± 0.06 77 ± 4 5
L2/76 76 -169 90-180 39 23 0.35 ± 0.01 1.57 ± 0.06 221 ± 12 5
L2/86 86 -179 90-180 29 24 0.93 ± 0.01 2.29 ± 0.11 408 ± 21 5
L2/138 138 -231 90-180 30 21 3.13 ± 0.02 1.94 ± 0.08 1613 ± 74 5
L2/149 149 -242 90-180 31 24 3.72 ± 0.05 1.99 ± 0.08 1864 ± 90 5
L2/177 177 -270 90-180 30 24 3.55 ± 0.05 1.75 ± 0.07 2029 ± 95 5
L2/195 195 -288 90-180 60 23 3.61 ± 0.05 1.70 ± 0.07 2126 ± 99 5
L2
L2/221 221 -314 90-180 26 18 3.14 ± 0.03 1.37 ± 0.06 2289 ± 113 5
L2/234 234 -327 90-180 26 24 2.99 ± 0.04 1.19 ± 0.05 2506 ± 130 5
L2/263 263 -356 90-180 29 24 3.37 ± 0.05 1.45 ± 0.06 2333 ± 118 5
L2/296 296 -389 90-180 29 24 3.91 ± 0.08 1.62 ± 0.07 2417 ± 124 5
L2/325 325 -418 90-180 55 22 4.07 ± 0.05 1.69 ± 0.06 2412 ± 107 4
L2/348 348 -441 90-180 49 23 4.21 ± 0.07 1.69 ± 0.07 2498 ± 121 5
L2/371 371 -464 90-180 33 24 3.31 ± 0.06 1.26 ± 0.05 2635 ± 134 5
L3/43 43 -61 90-180 26 21 0.06 ± 0.00 1.58 ± 0.06 40 ± 2 6
L3/92 92 -110 90-180 27 24 1.29 ± 0.02 1.48 ± 0.07 868 ± 45 5
L3/145 145 -163 90-180 28 24 2.50 ± 0.04 1.38 ± 0.06 1805 ± 91 5
L3/193 193 -211 90-180 35 23 2.59 ± 0.03 1.52 ± 0.06 1698 ± 80 5
L3/202 202 -220 90-180 22 18 2.40 ± 0.03 1.35 ± 0.07 1785 ± 98 5
L3 L3/249 249 -267 90-180 21 24 2.23 ± 0.04 1.30 ± 0.06 1718 ± 92 5
L3/300 300 -318 90-180 24 21 2.48 ± 0.03 1.40 ± 0.06 1778 ± 89 5
L3/319 319 -337 90-180 28 24 5.87 ± 0.09 1.23 ± 0.05 4779 ± 235 5
L3/386 386 -404 90-180 19 22 6.03 ± 0.12 1.26 ± 0.06 4799 ± 258 5
L3/438 438 -456 90-180 31 23 6.67 ± 0.11 1.39 ± 0.06 4817 ± 236 5
L3/495 495 -513 90-180 26 24 6.47 ± 0.08 1.32 ± 0.06 4886 ± 248 5
L5/54 54 -86 90-180 24 24 0.27 ± 0.01 1.55 ± 0.07 173 ± 9 5
L5/105 105 -137 90-180 24 24 0.27 ± 0.01 1.29 ± 0.06 212 ± 12 6
L5/161 161 -193 90-180 24 24 0.48 ± 0.01 1.48 ± 0.07 324 ± 16 5
L5 L5/210 210 -242 90-180 24 22 0.49 ± 0.01 1.40 ± 0.06 353 ± 20 6
L5/291 291 -323 90-180 25 23 0.46 ± 0.01 1.33 ± 0.06 345 ± 18 5
L5/344 344 -376 90-180 25 24 1.68 ± 0.15 1.15 ± 0.05 1463 ± 153 10
L5/366 366 -398 90-180 21 23 6.09 ± 0.10 1.12 ± 0.06 5450 ± 333 6
Before applying a SAR protocol to routine dating, a test of the ability of the protocol to produce
accurate and consistent results together with the luminescence characteristic is necessary. In the
following three sections, the results from the preheat plateau test, the thermal transfer test, and
the dose recovery test are presented; together these tests constituting an internal validation of the
OSL ages.
A conventional SAR protocol was used for determination of De, and as described in section
4.3.2 the strength of the SAR procedure is its ability to correct for any luminescence sensitivity
38
Chapter 5: Results
changes that may occur during repeated heating, irradiation and stimulation of the quartz grains.
Figure 5.1 shows three decay curves from three samples taken from different depths. A clear
pattern with depth is seen regardless of no attempt has been made to normalize the signals. The
signal from sample L3/43 taken only 43 cm below the surface shows a very little OSL signal,
which is hardly detectable. As the depth increases, the signal intensity increases and the signal
from L3/438, taken at a depth of 438 cm below the surface, is approximately 100 times more
intense than from sample L3/43.
105
L3/438
4 L2/296
Intensity, counts per 0.16 s
10
L3/43
3
10
2
10
1
10
100
0 10 20 30 40
Stimulation time, s
Figure 5.1: Natural decay curves from a sample close to the surface (L3/43), a relative deep lying sample (L3/438),
and a sample with an intermediate depth (L2/296) (a log scale is used for clarity).
5.1.1. The dependence of equivalent dose on preheat temperature

The influence of preheat temperature on the De value, recycling ratio and recuperation was
examined using a preheat plateau test. Thermal treatment of quartz grains is known to affect its
luminescence behaviour, e.g. heating can cause sensitivity changes or transfer charge form heat-
sensitive to light-sensitive traps or from light-sensitive traps to other light-sensitive traps
(Rhodes, 2000). Testing the influence of different preheat temperatures was conducted by
applying a SAR protocol with 8 different preheat temperatures to 24 aliquots from sample
L2/296. The temperature ranged from 160°C to 300°C and the cut-heat was 160°C for all
measurements. The result is shown in Figure 5.2 and it appears that the equivalent dose (De) is
independent of the preheat temperature from 160°C to 280°C first showing an increasing
tendency at temperatures > 280°C. The recycling ratio follows the same pattern as the De value
first increasing >280°C. The recuperation is stable in the temperature range from 160°C to
240°C, but deviates from unity with temperatures >240°C. The test implies that preheat
temperatures <280°C are preferred if overestimation of De should be avoided.
39
Chapter 5: Results
12
(a)
10
Epuivalent dose, Gy
8
0
2 (b) 1
Recuperation, Gy
Recycling ratio
1.5
0.5
1
0.5 0
160 200 240 280 320

Preheat temperature, ºC
Figure 5.2: Preheat plateau test on sample L2/296. (a) Equivalent dose (●) as a function of 8 different preheat
temperatures. (b) Corresponding recycling (○) ratio and recuperation (■) for each of the temperatures. The dashed
lines highlight the ideal measurements of unity. The cut heat was 160°C and the test dose was 3.4 Gy. Each point
represents the average of three aliquots.
5.1.2. Thermal transfer test

With 24 new aliquots from sample L2/296 a thermal transfer test was carried out. First optical
bleaching of every sample was done by exposing the quartz grains to light from blue LEDs for
40 s, followed with a pause on 10000 s and then bleaching for 40 s again. This procedure
completely removes all charge from light-sensitive traps but does not affect charge trapped in
light-insensitive traps. A SAR measurement protocol was carried out with the same 8 different
preheat temperatures as in section 5.1.1 and a cut-heat of 160°C. Figure 5.3 presents the results
from the thermal transfer test. No thermal transfer is observed in the 160°C to 260°C range and
the thermal transfer only increases slightly with preheat temperatures >260°C. The same pattern
is true for the recycling ratio and recuperation where a decrease and increase are observed
>260°C, respectively. These results imply that no charge is transferred from heat-sensitive traps
to light-sensitive traps if a preheat temperature <260°C is used for the routine SAR protocol
measurements.
40
Chapter 5: Results
1.5
(a)
Thermal transfer, Gy
1
0.5
2 (b) 1
Recuperation, Gy
Recycling ratio
1.5
0.5
1
0.5 0
160 200 240 280 320

Figure 5.3: Thermal transfer test on sample L2/296. (a) Equivalent dose (De) (●) as a function of 8 different preheat
temperatures. (b) Corresponding recycling ratios (○) and recuperation (■) for each of the temperatures. The dashed
lines highlight the ideal measurements of unity. The cut-heat was 160°C and the test dose was 3.4 Gy. Each point
represents the average of three aliquots.
5.1.3. Dose recovery test

If no other age information is available a dose recovery test provides the best estimate of the
reliability of the SAR protocol in measuring a dose (Murray & Wintle, 2003; Wallinga et al.,
2000). In this test natural conditions are imitated by first bleaching the sample without heating,
then giving it a dose and then measuring the given dose as if it was a natural dose. In this
experiment, the first bleaching was conducted with blue light twice for 40 s separated by a
10000 s pause at room temperature, to allow for thermal decay of any photo transferred charge
in the 110°C TL trap. Then, a known laboratory dose approximately equal to the measured De
was given and determined with SAR in the same way as the natural dose.
The influence of preheat temperature on the measured to given dose ratio was examined for
sample L2/296. Again a SAR measurement protocol was carried out on 24 aliquots with varying
preheat temperatures in the 160 to 300°C spectrum. A fixed cut-heat of 160°C and a 3.4 Gy dose
was used (Figure 5.4). In the 160 to 280°C temperature range the measured to given ration is
close to one. At temperatures >280°C the ratio increases indicating thermal transfer. A dose
recovery test was subsequently performed on all samples using a preheat of 180°C and a cut-
heat of 160°C both for 10 s. The dose given was approximately De. In Figure 5.5a the measured
dose is plotted against the given dose. The ratio is most consistent with the 1:1 line at lower
given doses (<3 Gy) and the deviation from the 1:1 ratio increases only insignificant with higher
given doses. In Figure 5.5b the individual results are presented in a histogram. The average
41
Chapter 5: Results
measured to given ratio is 0.965±0.0125 (n=105) and 69 % of the measured ratios fall within the
0.9 to 1.1 interval. On the basic the preheat plateau test, thermal transfer test, and the dose
recovery test, a preheat of 180°C and a cut-heat of 160°C were chosen for the routine SAR
measurements.
2.5
(a)
2
given dose
Measured/
1.5
0.5
2 (b) 1
Recuperation, Gy
Recycling ratio
1.5
0.5
1
0.5 0
160 200 240 280 320

Figure 5.4: Dose recovery test on sample L2/296. (a) Measured / given dose ratio (●), as a function of 8 different
preheat temperatures. (b) Corresponding recycling ratios (○) and recuperation (■) for each of the temperatures. The
dashed lines highlight the ideal measurements of unity. The cut-heat was 160°C and the test dose was 3.4 Gy. Each
point represents the average of 3 aliquots.
7 30
(a) (b)
6 25
Measured dose, Gy
5
1:1 20
Frequency
4
15
3
10
2
1 Y = 1.01 * X - 0.04 5
r2 = 0.99
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Given dose, Gy Measured / given dose
Figure 5.5: Summary of dose recovery data on all samples. (a) Dose recovery tests were done for all samples using
3 aliquots per sample. The given dose was ~De for all samples. The 1:1 line is dashed but is behind the linear fit
through all samples and only visible in the top (r2=0.99, n=105, p<0.05). (b) Same aliquots as in (a) but shown as a
histogram. The dashed line marks the interval 0.9 to 1.1; 69 % of the aliquots have dose recovery ratios within this
interval (n = 105, average = 0.965 and standard err. = 0.012).
42
Chapter 5: Results
5.2. Independent age control of the OSL ages

The final test is the independent age control where OSL ages are compared to dates obtained
from other techniques. In this study, three Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dates of shells
extracted from the cores are compared with three OSL dates. See section 4.4 for further
information on the AMS dating method. The AMS dates are displayed in Table 5.2, which both
contains the uncalibrated 14C dates and the calibrated (see Appendix II for calibration curves for
the three AMS datings).
Table 5.2: AMS radiocarbon ages for the L3 and L5 site calibrated with CALIB v. 5.0.2 (Stuiver et al., 2005;
Stuiver & Reimer, 1993) using the Marine04 calibration curve and the Marine Reservoir Correction Database
(Hughen et al., 2004; Reimer & Reimer, 2001).
Core Sample Depth below Depth, Material Uncalibrated δ13C, ΔR Calibration Calibrated age
site id surface, cm analyzed age, ‰ curve 2σ,
14
cm DVR90 C yr B.P. cal. yr B.P.
AMS- Hydrobia
190 -208 2480 ± 25 -1.6 ± 0.21 181 Marine04 1830 ± 165
L3/190 ulvae
L3
AMS- Macoma
491 -509 5705 ± 35 -8.71 ± 0.30 181 Marine04 5740 ± 145
L3/491 balthica
AMS- Mytilus
L5 145 -177 790 ± 25 0.97 ± 0.38 181 Marine04 210 ± 165
L3/145 edulis
Figure 5.6 displays the calibrated 14C ages of three shell samples (Table 5.2) as a function of the
OSL ages for the same depths (Table 5.3). The OSL ages have been corrected from years before
2008 into years before 1950 which applies for 14C ages. Figure 5.6 shows a general acceptable
agreement between the two dating methods. This is especially valid for the two youngest ages
where the deviation is approximately 10 % and 7 %, respectively. The deviation falls within the
range of uncertainty. The difference between the OSL age and the 14C age for the oldest samples
is approximately 15 %.
Table 5.3: The three corresponding OSL samples used for the comparison with the AMS datings. No OSL dating
did directly correspond with the 14C dating of the shell in the L5 core why the OSL age marked with (*) has been
converted, by linear interpolation, to correspond to a depth of 145 cm below the surface which is the depth of the
14
C sample.
Core Sample Depth below Depth, Material OSL age, yr OSL age, yr
site id surface, cm analyzed B.P.
cm DVR90
L3 L3/193 193 -211 Sand 1698 ± 80 1698 ± 80

L3/495 495 -513 Sand 4886 ± 248 4828 ± 248
L5 L5/161 161 -193 Sand 292* ± 16 234* ± 16
43
Chapter 5: Results
6000
5000 1:1
O S L age, yr B .P .
4000
3000
2000
Y = 0.83 * X + 113.424
r2 = 0.99
1000
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Cal. C14 age, yr B.P.
Figure 5.6: Plot of OSL ages as a function of calibrated 14C ages. The dashed line represents the 1:1 relationship
and the solid line represents a linear fit through all data points (r2=0.99, n=3, p<0.05). The horizontal and vertical
error bars displays the standard error of the OSL ages and AMS ages, respectively. The OSL ages have been
corrected into years before present to allow for direct comparison with the 14C ages.
5.3. Core descriptions
Figure 5.7: Landsat ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) scene from 2003 with location of coring sites indicated
with red crosses. Tidal divide is shown with a dashed line after Klagenberg et al. (2008). The network of tidal
channels transporting water from the Grådyb and Knudedyb tidal inlets towards the tidal divide are indicated with
the light gray lines. These lines have been drawn on the basis of a Landsat ETM+ 2001 scene at low water.
44
Chapter 5: Results
5.3.1. Facies analysis

After careful examination of the cores, it was possible to distinguish between 10 different types
of sedimentary facies (Fs.). The facies analysis was carried out on the basis of lithology,
sedimentary structures, biogenic structures, and fossils (e.g. shells and rootlets). The facies
analysis is primarily based on the classic work of Dalrymple (1992) and Reineck & Singh
(1980) (Table 5.4).
The 10 facies are:
Fs 1: Channel lag facies:
Fs 2a: Lower tidal facies - high energy
Fs 2b: Lower tidal facies - low energy
Fs 3: Upper tidal sand and mixed flat facies
Fs 4: Upper tidal mudflat facies
Fs 5: Supratidal/salt marsh facies
Fs 6: Distributary mouth bar facies
Fs 7: Storm bed facies
Fs 8: Freshwater swamp facies
Fs 9: Washover facies
The identified facies are all related to a tidal influenced back-barrier lagoon area and closely
related to the position of the mean water level. The dominant facies are the two lower tidal
facies and predominantly the facies related to lower velocity currents. Both facies are relating to
channel displacement and point bar deposition with weak upward coarsening. This applies to the
L3, L4, and L5 core logs. In the lowermost part of L4 and L5 the washover facies is found. L1 is
made up of freshwater swamp facies in the bottom directly overlain by upper tidal mixed flat
facies. L2 has like L1 the freshwater swamp facies in the bottom overlain with an upward
coarsening sequence of the distributary mouth bar facies again overlain by variable sequences of
upper tidal mudflat and supratidal flat and salt marsh facies. The cores from site L2 and L3 have
a high variety of different facies whereas L1, L4, and L5 have a low variability. Common for all
core sites are the sequence of upper tidal sand and mixed flat facies in the upper part of the core
logs.
From left to right Table 5.4 summarises the result of the facies analysis. The 10 different facies
are described with a descriptive name relating the facies to the depositional environment.
Second column contains a photo showing a characteristic segment of the facies type with a scale
bar with a length of approximately 1 cm. Third column gives a description of characteristic
features related to the facies type e.g. sedimentary structures, bed boundaries, fossils, and
biogenic structures. Fourth column presents the results from the grain size analysis with a
frequency curve. Dashed lines marks the limits for clay (<4µm), silt (4 to 63 µm), and sand (63
to 2000 µm) according to the Udden-Wentworth grain size scale (Udden, 1914; Wentworth,
1922) (detailed information on every grain size sample can be obtained from Appendix III).
Column five shows the average organic content (see Appendix IV for further information on
LOI) and column six contains a description of the depositional environment associated with the
facies type.
45
Chapter 5: Results
Table 5.4: Summary of the facies analysis from the core logs.
Facies type Photo Characteristic features Grain size distribution Loss on Depositional environment
ignition, %
Fs 1: Beds of densely packed n/a n/a Channel lag is associated with the
Channel lag sand and silt mixed with process of lateral channel
facies shells, gastropods, and migration, where shells,
pebbles above an gastropods, and pebbles in the
erosional base. overlying sediment are reworked
Structureless. and concentrated on the bed of the
channel (Davis & Flemming,
1995; Reineck & Singh, 1980;
Reinson, 1992).
Fs 2a: Slightly cross bedded 16
Clay Silt Sand
0.6 ±0.1 Tidal bedding associated with
Lower tidal medium to fine sand. channel deposits. The few mud
facies – high Only very few mud 12
drapes and lack of bioturbation
Class weight, %
energy. drapes and no Primary
mode: structures indicate deposition
µ
m
8
bioturbation. Some 148 under high energy conditions
small-scale upward Mean:
found in tidal channels and high
µ
m
4
fining is observed. 160 to very high sedimentation rates
0
associated with point bar
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
deposition (Reineck, 1967).
Particle diameter, µm
Fs 2b: Low inclined heterolithic 16

Clay Silt
1.7±0.2 The low inclined heterolithic
Sand
Lower tidal stratification made up of stratification is associated with
facies – low fine sand and silt. Weak 12 deposition on point bars in tidal
Class weight, %
energy. upward fining is Primary

channels. The existence of flaser,
observed. Flaser, wavy 8 mode: wavy, and lenticular bedding is
µ
m
and lenticular bedding 148 related to alternating current and
are abundant. Few shells Mean: slack water conditions. The
µ
m
4
and gastropods observed 141 energy conditions are low enough
and bioturbation is low. 0 for the preservation of silt and
Burrow from Teilhilhnus 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
clay deposits. High sedimentation
is observed. Particle diameter, µm rates. (Reineck, 1967; Reineck &
Wunderlich, 1968).
46
Chapter 5: Results
Fs 3: Sand or mixed sand and 12

Clay Silt Sand 1.7±0.1 The upper tidal bedding facies is
Upper tidal mud beds. Weak or no 10 associated with upper tidal flat
sand and planar bedding. Primary deposition according to tidal
Class weight, %
8 Primary
mixed flat structures are almost mode: rhythmites. High bioturbation and
113 µm
facies gone due to high 6 low to moderate sedimentation
bioturbation. 4
Mean: rates obliterate or completely
Gastropods and shells are 77 µm
removes primary structures
few and scattered. Weak 2
(Reineck & Singh, 1980).
upward coarsening trend. 0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Fs 4: Almost homogenous 5
Clay Silt Sand 6.1±0.7 This facies is typical associated
Upper tidal laminated mud with flat 4
with high lying mudflats in the
mudflat sand lenses and thin Primary
interface between mixed/sand
Class weight, %
mode:
facies lamination of very fine 3
19 µm flats and salt marsh. Sand
sand. No rootlets but Mean: lamination and shell fragments
scattered shell fragments 2 12 µm
indicate inundation during storm
and gastropods. High events. The bioturbation is high.
1
bioturbation. (Chang et al., 2006).
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Fs 5: Beds of homogenous 4
Clay Silt Sand
7.1±0.5 The homogenous mud and clay
Supratidal mud and clay. Thinly bedding with rootlets is found at
flat/ salt laminated with silt and 3 Mean: Primary supra tidal flats and salt marshes.
mode:
marsh facies fine sand. 12 µm The lamination with silt and fine
Class weight, %
11 µm
Rootlets and scattered Secondary sand demonstrates continuous
gastropods are present. 2 modes: inundations during storm events.
113 µm,
High bioturbation. 0.2 µm The bioturbation is high. (Reineck
1 & Gerdes, 1996; Reineck &
Singh, 1980).
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
47
Chapter 5: Results
Fs 6: Upward coarsening bed 14

Clay Silt Sand n/a This facies is associated with a
Distributary of alternating sand and 12 prograding tidal influenced
mouth bar mud. Stratification is Primary distributary mouth bar resulting in
10
Class weight, %
facies almost horizontal and mode: deposition of gradually coarser
148 µm
bioturbation is very low. 8 and coarser material. The beds are
Weak cross beds are 6
Mean:
110 µm
almost horizontal due to the low
observed. Few shattered angel of the delta. Bioturbation is
4
shells, gastropods, low due to the hostile
organic clasts and slump 2 environment found in delta
structures. 0
environments (Bhattacharya &
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Walker, 1992).
Fs 7: Thick sand layers with n/a n/a The storm bed facies is often
Storm bed shell fragments, organic preserved on tidal flats due to the
facies debris and gastropods. deep reworking of sediment
Poorly sorted. during storms (Chang et al.,
2006).
Fs 8: Compact layer of dark- n/a 65.6±6.6 Freshwater swamp facies is found

Freshwater brown peat. This layer in the lowermost section of the
swamp contains no or very little cores and characterised by
facies clastic sediments. condensed layers of peat. The
very little clastic sediments found
in this facies indicate a higher
lying position not exposed to
inundation during storm events
e.g. a bog (Chang et al., 2006).
48
Chapter 5: Results
Fs 9: Compact layer of almost 20

Clay Silt Sand
n/a Washover facies is found in the
Washover homogeneous fine sand. lower most part of the western
facies Very weak lamination. 16 Primary cores. These deposits are
mode:
µ
m
Root mottles. associated with deposition during
Class weight, %
196
12 storm surges. Sediment from the
Mean:
206 µm
coastline is eroded and
8 transported landward to be
deposited either on the barrier or
4 in the lagoon behind the barrier
(Reading & Collinson, 1996;
0 Reineck & Singh, 1980).
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
49
Chapter 5: Results
The 10 identified facies types can be grouped into seven major groups or associations called
facies associations (fs. ass.) on the basis of their sedimentary structures and depositional
environment. The seven associations are: (a) freshwater swamp or bog, (b) tidal channel, (c)
intertidal flat, (d) salt marsh and mudflat, (e) distributary mouth bar, (f) storm beds, and (g)
washover. Figure 5.8 presents the sedimentological logs with optical ages and facies
associations. (See Appendix V for high resolution pictures of all core logs).
a. Freshwater swamp or bog association: Facies (Fs.) 8 is only found in the lowermost part
of the cores from site L1 and L2. The peat in the cores contains very little clastic
sediments, and in addition, the peat is separated from the overlying intertidal flat deposits
with an erosional base. The clean peat indicates a location where inundations during
storm events do not occur and the direct superposing of tidal flat sediments suggest
deposition in a freshwater environment.
b. Tidal channel association: The three facies Fs. 1, Fs. 2a, and Fs. 2b constitute the tidal
channel association. The association represents sandy tide dominated sequences of
alternating layers of sand and mud. Deposition in relation to higher energy levels is
identified as thick sand beds with very little fine grained material in the form of simple
flasers. Sedimentation during lower energy conditions produces sand beds of heterolithic
stratification where various types of flaser, wavy and lenticular bedding can be identified
(Reineck & Wunderlich, 1968). The almost complete absence of inclined cross beds
indicates deposition in an environment with very low gradient and general low current
velocities. The lower most part of the tidal channel association is the channel lag made
up of a mixture of shells, gastropods, and pebbles in a muddy of sandy matrix. This
association is recognised in and dominant in L3, L4, and L5.
c. Intertidal flat association: This association consist of the Fs. 3 facies. This association is
found in the top of every core log and represents the present depositional environment.
Characteristic for the intertidal flat association is horizontal tidal bedding and low
preservation potential of primary structures, which is caused by the high rates of
bioturbation. Depending on the position in the lagoon the intertidal flat association differ
between being sand flat or mixed flat (Figure 3.3). The top part of L1, L2, and L5 being
mixed flat whereas the top part of L3 and L4 is characterised as sand flat.
d. Salt marsh and mudflat association: The Fs. 4 and Fs. 5 together comprise the salt marsh
and mudflat association, which is related to deposition in high lying or sheltered areas in
the in transition from the intertidal to the supratidal area. Characteristic for this
association is the homogenous mud with horizontal thin layering of sand resulting from
inundation during bad weather situations. The pivotal difference between salt marsh and
mudflat is the presence of rootlets in the salt marsh facies. At the L2 and L3 sites both
sequences of the salt marsh and mudflat facies are found, whereas only the mudflat
facies is identified at the L4 site. The association is not identified in L1 and L5.
e. Distributary mouth bar association: Fs. 3 constitutes the distributary mouth bar
association. The upward coarsening is a result of a gradual prograding delta front and the
50
Chapter 5: Results
alternating layers of sand and mud are ascribed to tidal rhythmicity. Slump structures are
related to relatively fast sedimentation which also causes unfavourable living condition
for animals for which reason only low bioturbation is observed. The sequence is overlain
with a sheet of clean sand indicating abandonment of the delta. This association is only
present in L2.
f. Storm bed association: Fs. 7 makes up the storm bed association which is characterised
by massive sand layers with scattered shell fragments. This association is often preserved
due to deep reworking of sediments during storms but has only been identified in L2.
g. Washover association: The washover association is only located in the lowermost part of
core L4 and L5 and only a very thin section is present in the two cores. Almost
homogeneous fine sand with very weak laminations dominates this association. Few root
mottles are seen. It should be stressed that due to the very thin section of washover
deposits the interpretation of this association is uncertain.
51
Chapter 5: Results
East ~0.8 km ~1.8 km ~1.3 km

L1 L2 L3
Litology Structures Litology Structures Litology Structures
O S L a ge OSL a g e
OSl-age 34 0 -93 0 -18 0
-38 20
14 20 -113 20 c
-58 40
145±7 77±4 40±2
-6 40 -133 40
c
-78 60
d
-26 60 -153 60
-98 80
c
221±12 868±45
303±14 -46 80 -173 80
-118 100
4 0 8± 2 2 c
d -138 120
-66 100
-193 100
-158 140 c
c 1805±91
643±30 -86 120
-213 120
-178 160
d
d
-106 140 1613±78
-233 140 -198 180
1864 ±93
a 1698±80
-126 160 c -218 200
-253 160 1785±98
-238 220
-146 180 2029 ±99
-273 180
Cm Cm -258 240
2 1 2 6± 1 0 9 d
C lay
DVR90 below
Silt
Peb
VF
VC
M
F
C
surface 1 71 8 ± 9 2 b
Sand -293 200
-278 260
c
2 2 8 9 ± 1 2 2 -313 220 -298 280
f
2506±126
-318 300
1778±89
-333 240
4779±235 -338 320
2 3 3 3 ± 1 2 4 -353 260
-358 340
-373 280 -378 360
2 4 1 7± 1 3 1
-398 380
-393 300
e 4799±258
-418 400
b
2 4 1 2 ± 11 4 -413 320
-438 420
-433 340
2 4 9 8± 1 3 1 4 8 1 7 ± 2 3 6 -458 440
-453 360 -478 460

2 6 3 4± 1 3 9
f
-498 480
-473 380 a
4886±248
-518 500
Cm Cm
C lay
P eb
Cm Cm
S ilt
Clay
VF
VC
Peb.
M
F
C
VC
DVR90 below
Silt
VF
M
C
F
surface DVR90 below

Sand surface Sand
Figure 5.8: Sedimentological core logs from the L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5 sites (for location see Figure 5.7) with
approximately distance between core sites. Optical ages in years before 2008 (no dates available from L4),
lithology, and structures. To the right the facies associations related to the lithology and structure are shown. (a)
freshwater swamp or bog association, (b) tidal channel association, (c) intertidal flat association, (d) salt marsh and
mudflat association, (e) distributary mouth bar association, (f) storm bed association, and (g) washover association.
52
Chapter 5: Results
~4.1 km W es t
L4 L5
Legend
Litology Structures Litology Structures
O SL age Litology
-15 0 -32 0
c
Peat
-35 20 -52 20
Clay
c
-55 40 -72 40
Heterolith 80 %
Clay, 20 % sand
173±10
-75 60 -92 60
Sand
-95 80 -112 80
Organic rich clast
d
-115 100
212±13
-132 100 Pebbles
-135 120 -152 120 Structures
Parallel lamination
-155 140 -172 140
Interlayered
sand/mud bedding
-175 160 3 2 4 ± 1 8 -192 160
Biogenic structure
-195 180 -212 180
Bioturbaion
b
-215 200 -232 200
Fossils
353±21
-235 220
b -252 220 Rootlets
-255 240 -272 240 Shells
-275 260 -292 260 Gastropods
-295 280 -312 280
345±21
-315 300
-3
-332 300
-335 320 -352 320
-355 340 -372

- 340
g 1463±170
-375 360 -
-392 360
Peb
Clay
g
VC
Silt
VF
C
M
Cm Cm 5450±367
F
DVR90 below Sand

surface
Peb
Cm Cm
Cla y
S ilt
VF
VC
F
C
M
DVR90 below
surface Sand
Figure 5.8 (continued): Sedimentological core logs from the L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5 sites (for location see Figure
5.7) with approximately distance between core sites. Optical ages in years before 2008 (no dates available from
L4), lithology, and structures. To the right the facies associations related to the lithology and structure are shown.
(a) Freshwater swamp or bog association, (b) tidal channel association, (c) intertidal flat association, (d) salt marsh
and mudflat association, (e) distributary mouth bar association, (f) storm bed association, and (g) washover
association.
53
Chapter 5: Results
The five cores illustrate the spatio-temporal sedimentary evolution along an east-west profile
across the tidal divide in the lagoon. Core L1 was sampled in the low energy area close to the
west coast of Jutland, at an elevation of +34 cm DVR90. The core log contains a marine
sequence composed of facies association (fs. ass.) c directly overlying the terrestrial fs. ass. a
(Figure 5.8). A weak upward coarsening of the intertidal deposits is recognised in Figure 5.9
despite of a low correlation.
µ
m
Primary mode,
0 20 80 100 120 140

0
Y = -0.17 * X + 121.36
20 r2 = 0.39
Depth below surface, cm
40
60
80
100
L1
120
Figure 5.9: The primary mode grain size as a function of depth on the basic of 10 grain size analysis from the
intertidal flat association in L1. The solid line displays a linear fit (r2=0.39, n=10, p>0.05).
Core L2 also shows a transition from a terrestrial to a marine environment with the fs. ass. a
directly overlaid with fs. ass. f (storm bed deposits). An upward coarsening sequence (Figure
5.10) of interlayered mud and sand interpreted as a prograding distributary mouth bar in a mixed
fluvial and tidal environment. The upper part of the distributary mouth bar consists of a sheet of
clean sand. The mouth bar sequence progressively evolve into a solely tidal dominated
environment with alternating sequences of intertidal flat associations and mud and salt marsh
associations (Figure 5.8).
54
Chapter 5: Results
µ
m
Primary mode,
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210

210

240
Y = -0.88 * X + 383.94
270 r2 = 0.86
300
330
L2
360
Figure 5.10: The primary mode grain size as a function of depth on the basis of 9 grain size analysis from the
upward coarsening distributary mouth bar association in L2. The solid line displays a linear fit (r2=0.86, n=9,
p<0.005).
The L3, L4, and L5 core logs only contain deposits of marine origin. The lower and middle part
of L3 consist of two tidal channel succession (fs. ass. b), and the upper part of alternating
intertidal flat, mud, and salt marsh deposits (fs. ass. c and d). The L4, and L5 are very similar. In
the lowermost part of the cores washover deposits are found (fs. ass. g) overlaid with a weak
single upward fining sequence of the tidal channel association (Figure 5.11) developing into the
intertidal flat association (Figure 5.8).
µ
m
Primary Mode,
0 120 140 160 180 200

40
80
120
Y = 0.05 * X + 132.24
160 r2 = 0.14
200
240
280
320
360
L5
400
Figure 5.11: The primary mode grain size as a function of depth on the basis of 16 grain size analysis from the tidal
channel association in L5. The solid line displays a linear fit (r2=0.14, n=16, p<0.05).
From Table 5.5 it appears that the dominant facies association according to the total metres
preserved in all cores is the tidal channel association. Approximately 9 metres or 50 % out of a
55
Chapter 5: Results
total of 18 metres of core consist of the tidal channel association. Especially the three cores from
site L3, L4, and L5 are mainly made up of sequences of meandering tidal channel deposits. The
intertidal flat association comes second according to total metres preserved in the five cores
constituting approximately 5 metres or 27 % of the total. This facies association is found in the
upper part of all cores. The fresh water swamp or bog association, the salt marsh and mudflat
association, and the distributary mouth bar association composes between 5 and 7 % each which
correspond to approximately 4 metres. The storm bed and washover association comprise
approximately 1 % each.
Table 5.5: The percentage of each facies association of a total of 18 metres of core obtained from the lagoon.
Facies association Percentage of total core length

Freshwater swamp or bog 5
Tidal channel 51
Intertidal flat 27
Salt marsh and mudflat 7
Distributary mouth bar 7
Storm bed 1
Washover 1
5.3.2. The age-elevation relationship

Using the optical ages presented in Table 5.1 Figure 5.12 displays these ages plotted against the
elevation of the samples (DVR90) and the mean sea level according to Behre (2007) in four
Sediment-Sea-Level (SSL) diagrams. As the slope of the graph is an estimation of the relative
vertical accretion rate in centimetres per year at the sites, this figure not only conveying
information about the elevation age relationship, but just as importantly the shape and gradient
is an indicator for the nature of the depositional environment. Further Figure 5.12 relates the
elevation of the sediment deposition to the sea level at a given time which adds an important
aspect to the facies analysis and therefore to the understanding of the depositional environment.
Thus the SSL diagrams acts as an independent check of the facies interpretations.
The relative vertical accretion rates vary considerably throughout the cross section of the lagoon
as well as over time in the individual cores. Following the transgression of the terrestrial
subsurface the sedimentation at core site L1 (Figure 5.7) can be divided into two phases (Figure
5.12L1). A first phase with a sedimentation rate of 1.1 mm yr-1 and a second phase with a
sedimentation rate of 2.8 mm yr-1. Ages ranges from 145±7 years (-4 cm DVR90) to 643±30 (-
86 cm DVR90). The sedimentation has been taken place close to mean sea level and the upper
part of the sedimentary sequence has been deposited above mean sea level. The SSL-diagram
from the L2 site (Figure 5.12L2) is characterised by sedimentation below the mean sea level.
The ages range from 77±4 to 2635±134 years (-127 to -464 cm DVR90). The lower part of the
diagram (approximately -263 to -348 cm DVR90) shows a relative rapid sedimentation rate of
~5.2 mm yr-1 related to the progradation of the distributary mouth bar or micro delta. As tidal
56
Chapter 5: Results
condition starts to prevail the sedimentation rate decreases to ~1.3 mm yr-1 (~-221 to -138 cm
DVR90). The upper part of the core is dominated by tidal flat deposits with a rate of ~1.6 mm
yr-1. A disconformity or hiatus separates the older intertidal flats deposits from the younger. The
age of the L3 core ranges from 40±2 years to 4886±248 years. The sedimentation at the site L3
can be subdivided into three preserved sequences of sedimentation on the basis of Figure
5.12L3. A lower sequence (~-520 to -400 cm DVR90) of very fast deposition, ~16 mm yr-1
separated from a similar sequence with sedimentation rates of ~13 mm yr-1 (approximately -400
to -210 cm DVR90) by a large hiatus of approximately 3200 years. The two sequences are
related to point bar sedimentation resulting from tidal channel displacement (Figure 5.8) but the
rapid sedimentation in the middle sequence continues as mudflat and salt marsh deposits at the
same accumulation rate. The upper part of the sedimentation at the L3 site is dominated by a
slow sedimentation rate (~0.6 mm y-1) related to sedimentation on an intertidal flat. The upper
most point of the oldest tidal channel sequence is located above the sea level curve. Since the
channel deposition is related to the subtidal environment it is unlikely that sedimentation has
occurred above the mean sea level. The ages at the L5 site (Figure 5.12L5) range from 173±9 to
5450±333 years (-86 to -366 cm DVR90). The large age span is related to an old sediment bed,
likely composed of washover deposits, at bottom of the core, separated from a much younger
overlying sequence, by a large disconformity of approximately 5000 years. The graph reveals a
very fast sedimentation rate of ~14 mm yr-1 related to point bar sedimentation prompted by
channel meandering. The oldest point is located well above the mean sea level curve which
indicates subaerial deposition which supports the interpretation of the sequence as washover
deposits.
57
Chapter 5: Results
40 100
L1 L2
0
0
Elevation, cm DVR90
Elevation, cm DVR90
2.8 mm yr-1
-100
-40 1.6 mm yr-1
1.1 mm yr-1
-200
-80
-300 1.3 mm yr-1
-120
-400
5.2 mm yr-1
-160 -500
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
Optical age, yr Optical age, yr
100 100
L3 L5
0 0.6 mm yr-1
Elevation, cm DVR90 0
Elevation, cm DVR90
-100 -100
-200 -200 14 mm yr-1

13 mm yr-1
-300 -300
-400 -400
16 mm yr-1 -500
-500
-600
-600
-700
-700
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
Optical age, yr Optical age, yr
Figure 5.12: The variation of optical ages with elevation (cm DVR90) of samples taken at the L1, L2, L3, and L5
core sites. The error bars indicate the standard error and the slope of the dashed line is the average vertical accretion
rate in cm yr-1. The solid line is the mean sea level as proposed by Behre (2007). Except from expressing an
accretion rate the slope of the graph is an indicator for the type of depositional environment. The position of the
graph in relation to the sea level indicates whether the sediment was deposited above or below the sea level. Note
that the scale of the axes is not the same.
From Figure 5.12 it appears that the shape of the age-elevation curve only to a minor degree is
defined by the sea level. The general accretion of the lagoonal deposits is reflected by the rising
sea level the last 6000 years but it is only to a limited extent possible to recognise the sea level
fluctuation in the age-elevation curves. Therefore it would be very difficult to create more than a
rough sea level estimate from the age-elevation relation using lagoon sediment.
58
Chapter 5: Results
5.3.3. Unconformities
From the OSL dates (Table 5.1) and the age-elevation plots (Figure 5.12), it appears that the
OSL ages are not evenly distributed through time. By plotting the sample ages in a frequency
diagram it has been possible to identify two unconformities in the sedimentation which may be
attributable to periods of non-deposition or erosion (Figure 5.13). The first period, which is the
longer of the two, lasted for approximately 2000 years, from 4700 to 2650 years before present.
That is approximately 1/3 of the total time span covered by the chronology. The second period
started 1450 years ago and lasted approximately 550 years until 900 years before present.
5
4
Frequency
0
7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
Age, yr
Figure 5.13: Frequency histogram showing the thirty-five OSL dates grouped with a bin size of 145 years. Dashed
line marks two age intervals (approximately 4700 to 2650 years and 1450 to 900 years before present) in which no
ages are obtained indicating periods of non-deposition or erosion.
5.4. Modern channel displacement

Using an aerial photograph from 1990 and two Landsat ETM+ scenes from 2001 and 2003,
modern yearly channel displacement rates have been calculated. Lundvig Løb and Kelding Lo
form the basis of the analysis (Figure 5.14). Lundvig Løb is confined in one channel, whereas
Kelding Lo is split in several channels of which three are used in the analysis. In Table 5.6 the
results of the analysis are presented, showing displacement rates ranging from 2 to 9 m yr-1. The
average displacement rates for the four investigated channels are 3 m yr-1, 6 m yr-1, 5 m yr-1, and
4 m yr-1.
59
Chapter 5: Results
Figure 5.14: Investigation of modern channel displacement at the tidal divide in the lagoon. (a) Landsat ETM+
2003 scene showing the location of the examined channels (tidal divide after Klagenberg et al. (2008)). (b) Aerial
photograph from 1990 showing Lundvig Løb. (c) The same photo as in (b) but showing Kelding Lo. Red lines mark
the position of Lundvig Løb and Kelding Lo in 1990. The green lines mark the position of Lundvig Løb in 2003
and Kelding Lo in 2001. The small black lines are transects used to calculate the displacement of the channels and
the white arrows shows the direction of displacement.
Table 5.6: Average displacements rates per year for Lundvig Løb and Kelding Lo in the periods 1990 to 2003 and
1990 to 2001, respectively.
Lundvig Løb 1990 to 2003 Kelding Lo 1 1990 to 2001

Length, Displacement, Length, Displacement,
Transect m m yr-1 Transect m m yr-1
1 24 2 1 54 5
2 24 2 2 38 3
3 37 3 3 94 9
4 51 4 4 68 6
5 55 4 5 65 6
Average: 3 6 44 4
Direction: Towards east Average: 6
Direction: Towards west
Kelding Lo 2 1990 to 2001 Kelding Lo 3 1990 to 2001

Length, Displacement, Length, Displacement,
Transect m m yr-1 Transect m m yr-1
1 46 4 1 47 4
2 59 5 2 41 4
3 74 7 3 41 4
4 39 4 4 47 4
Average: 5 Average: 4
Direction: Towards west Direction: Towards east
60
Chapter 5: Results
5.5. Summary
This study involved optical dating of thirty-five samples recovered from 4 cores taken across a
~11 km long tidal divide in the lagoon between the mainland of Jutland and the barrier island of
Fanø. Together with 5 sedimentological logs and facies analysis the OSL age are presented in a
west-east profile approximately covering the upper 5 metres of the lagoon (Figure 5.15). A
basal-peat layer and the Pleistocene subsurface represent the bottom of the present marine
sequence. It should be emphasised that the existence of the peat horizon in the central lagoon
area is based on a few points and therefore rather speculative. The isochrones (green dashed
lines) are based on the OSL age and they provide a description of the temporal development of
the lagoon. If the distance between the isochrones is large it is indicative of fast sedimentation or
a large age difference. Contrary a small distance points to a slow deposition rate, erosion, or a
small age difference. The lower parts of the cores have ages ranging from ~5500 years in core
L5 to ~650 years in core L1. The upper part of all core sites is dominated by a sequence of
intertidal deposits (facies association c), which represent the modern depositional environment.
The age of the upper part of the lagoon deposits range from ~170 years in L5 to ~145 years in
L1.
61
Chapter 5: Results
m, DVR90 m, DVR90
2 2
West East
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 Mean tidal L1 0.5

range ~1.3 m
MSL
0 L4 L3 145±7 0
L5
c 303±14
c
-0.5 c
173 ±10 c
40± 2 -0.5
d
L2 643±30
-1 212 ±13 ~300 yr a -1
d 868±45
77±4
c
c ~300 yr
-1.5 2 2 1±12
-1.5
324 ±18 1805±91
Clay
P eb
VF
VC
Silt
4 4 4±22
M
F
C
S and
d d
-2 ~600 yr
1698±80 c -2
353 ±21 ~600 yr
b 1785±98 d 1 6 1 3±78
b 1 8 6 4±93
-2.5 c -2.5
b 1718±92 2 0 2 9±99
d 2 1 2 6±109
345±19
-3 ~1600 yr c
-3
1778±89 2 2 8 9±122
4779±258 2 5 0 6±126
ce
-3.5 2 3 3 3±124 at rfa -3.5
pe
-
1463±1 7 0 g su
al ub
as
-
s
Clay
Peb
VC
M
VF
Silt
C
F
2 2 4 1 7±131 B e
-4 g 5450±367 Sand 4799±258 e en -4
oc
st
Clay
Peb
VC
2 4 1 2± 11 4
VF
Silt
M
C
F
b
ei
Pl
Sand
~4700 yr 2 4 9 8±131
-4.5 4817±236 -4.5
c 2 6 3 4±139
a
-5
P eb
-5
C lay
VC
S ilt
VF
M
4886±248
F
C
Sand
e
f ac
M
Clay
C
VC
Peb
ur
VF
F
Silt
bs
Sand
-5.5 es
u -5.5
en
pe a t is to c
Ba sa l P le
-6 -6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Distance, km
Figure 5.15: West-east profile of approximately upper 5 metres of the lagoon. Coring sites are indicated with red vertical lines from which all sedimentary boundaries and
timelines are measured from. Isochrones (green dashed lines) are based on thirty-five OSL dates of sediment samples, provides a description of the temporal development of the
lagoon. OSL ages in years before present. The peat subsurface is indicated with partial solid and partial dotted brown line. The solid part of the line is based on 8 eigelkamp
gauge auger drillings. The dashed section is more speculative and only relies on the peat at the bottom of L2. The gray line represents the Pleistocene subsurface and is
composed of the same eigelkamp gauge auger drillings as the peat surface.
62
Chapter 6: Discussion
6. Discussion
6.1. Evaluation of the OSL results
6.1.1. Sources of uncertainties in the luminescence datings
Before the optical ages are applied to the stratigraphic and geomorphological analysis of the
lagoon an assessment of their reliability are necessary. Uncertainties of OSL ages originate from
random and systematic errors. Random errors are related to the experiment and the contribution
from random errors is estimated by undertaking repeated measurements. Random errors are
unpredictable and tend to be scattered around the true value. In measurements of the equivalent
dose (De) random errors can originate from quartz samples having inhomogeneous
luminescence characteristics. Some grains may be properly bleached while others contain
remnant signals from earlier depositions. By repeated measurement of the same sample (n ≥ 18)
the order of the random error is revealed which can be assigned to the mean dose estimation.
One should be careful, if the dose distribution from a sample is not expressed by a Gaussian
distribution or if it is bimodal, since this implies that the sample constitutes of both young and
old sediment. However, it would be possible to recognise such samples because of their large
random errors on the De estimate. Systematic errors are often easier dealt with than random
errors because of the more predictable nature of systematic errors but if not identified, this type
of error could prove more serious than random errors. Systematic errors are biases in
measurement which entail that the mean of many separate measurements differs significantly
from the actual value of the measured attribute. Imperfect calibration of measurement
instruments, environmental changes, which interfere with the measurement process and
imperfect methods of observation, all adds a systematic error to the measurement. If the cause of
the systematic error can be identified usually it can be eliminated. In relation to equivalent dose
estimation systematic errors primarily originates from beta source calibration.
Random errors, when measuring the dose rate, are reduced by counting the samples for as long
time as possible (>24 h). Several assumptions are made in relation to measuring the dose rate,
which adds to the systematic error. It is presumed that the measured dose rate represents the
average dose rate since deposition. This assumption relies on a constant radioactivity through
time but redistribution of one or more of the decay series isotopes will potential lead to
disequilibrium and constant radioactivity are being disrupted. Escape of gaseous radon and its
daughters from the sediment is one such process which can affect the 238U series. Atmospheric
deposition of 210Pb can also lead to an increased level of isotopes and their daughters in the very
top of the sediment surface. Disequilibrium issues regarding 210Pb can normally be disregarded
when working with sediments older than ~100 yr because the majority of the isotopes and their
daughters have very short half-lifes and maximum 22.2 years. Further Radon escape is
addressed in the laboratory where sediment samples are stored for 3 weeks to allow for a new
equilibrium to regain before the gamma spectrometry measurement.
63
In relation to the dose rate calculations, the water content of the samples is of particular interest.
It is important to assess the water content history of the depositional setting both in terms of
seasonal and long-term fluctuations to determine the effective mean value for water content. The
interpretation of the sedimentary environment did not reveal any significant deviation from the
present environment. Only altitudinal changes in relation to mean sea level should be accounted
for in the analysis of the water content but since no samples were collected from supratidal
environments, this is of no concern in this study. It is therefore assumed that the actual water
content represents the water content of the sample since deposition.
The mass water content in the samples ranged from 11 to 60 %. Four samples from L5 had mass
water contents below 15 %, which do not correspond to water saturation. Due to the low
elevation (-3 m to -5 m below mean sea level) it is unlikely that water saturation should not have
prevailed since deposition why the average water content (24 %) of all samples from the core
was applied instead. The average volumetric water content of average quartz sand according to
Shaw (1994) and Soulsby (1997) is 40 % corresponding to a gravimetric water content of ~20
%, which is in good agreement with the measured values in this study.
6.1.2. Applicability of OSL to coastal lagoon sediments

Studies where OSL dating is applied to coastal lagoon sediments are still relative scarce and
have mostly investigated tidal flat deposits. In the Danish part of the European Wadden Sea
Madsen et al. (2005), Madsen et al. (2007b) and Madsen et al. (2007c) examined the
applicability of OSL on young tidal sediments with satisfactory results and the technique was
also successfully applied to tidal sediments in the German part of the European Wadden Sea
(Mauz & Bungenstock, 2007). Outside the Wadden Sea area young tidal flats deposits have
been IRSL dated in Korea by Hong et al. (2003) and in Australia Bostock et al. (2007) OSL
dated Holocene deposits. As far as the author is aware of, OSL dating of tidal channel
succession has not been published before but quite similar fluvial deposits have successfully
been dated (Rodnight et al., 2005).
A number of tests of the luminescence characteristics of the sediment were conducted e.g.
preheat plateau test, thermal transfer test, and dose recovery test. These tests attempt to quantify
the errors of the SAR protocol and measures the systematic errors associated with determining
the equivalent dose (De). The test results are presented in section 5.1. The dose recovery test is
the most important of these tests and from Figure 5.5 it appears that 69 % passes the criteria of
the dose recovery test (i.e. given/measured dose ratio between 0.9 and 1.1). The number of
samples with a given/measured dose ratio between 0.9 and 1.1 and therefore passing the dose
recovery test are lower than similar test performed by e.g. Nielsen et al. (2006). From Figure
5.5b it is evident that most samples which do not pass the dose recovery test are situated close to
the 0.9 to 1.1 interval. If the criterion for passing the dose recovery test is expanded to 0.85 and
1.15, which is still an acceptable interval, the number of aliquots passing the test will increase to
64
83 %. In conjunction with a mean dose recovery ratio of 0.97 it is concluded that the test results
are acceptable.
The internal test of the luminescence characteristics implies that the OSL technique produces
accurate optical ages with high reliability, but the internal OSL test does not reveal if the optical
ages are equal to a real age. In this study, an independent age control using 14C dating has been
employed to investigate the accuracy of the OSL dates. Figure 5.6 presents the results from the
validation of the OSL ages with the AMS 14C ages where a total of three sediment samples from
core L3 and L5 were compared with shell samples from corresponding depths. The 14C shell
samples yielded ages of 210±165, 1830±165, and 5740±45 years and OSL ages from equivalent
depths yielded ages of 234±16, 1698±80, and 4828±248 years, respectively. Good agreement
between the dating methods generally exists with <10 % age deviation for the two younger
samples which are within the range of uncertainty and approximately 15 % for the older one. It
should be noted that accurate radiocarbon dating of samples with an age between 300 and 50
years are seldom achieved (Trumbore, 2000). This is why the calibrated 14C age has been
assigned a very high error (±165 years). A ~15 % deviation between the old 14C age and the
OSL age from L3 most likely attributes to the 14C sample. The dated Macoma balthica was not
in growth position at the time of sampling which suggest transportation and thus an older age
than the wreathing sediment (Figure 6.1). A direct comparison with the OSL dating is therefore
not possible.
Figure 6.1: Lowermost part of core L3 with the Macoma balthica used for 14C dating. The mussel is out of growth
position and possibly transported which can explain the inconsistency between the OSL and 14C age.
The analysis of the two chronologies does not show any significant age different, and from the
independent age control it was confirmed that the OSL method is capable of producing
comparable results with radiocarbon dating. Furthermore, the discrepancies in the age
determination between the radiometric and the optical dating might just as well be attributed to
the radiocarbon approach as well as to the OSL approach.
65
Finally, the OSL dates in all cores show a progressively decreasing age with decreasing depth
and only few and minor age reversals are present in the data set. All reversals are however
within the range of uncertainty of the age calculations and the OSL ages appear to be consistent
with the logical stratigraphical and morphological evolution of the area – the lagoon fill has
progressively been aggrading.
Overall the performance of the OSL technique on the lagoon sediment has produced some very
reliable dates which are both internally consistent and accurately compared to the external
validation. The reliability of the OSL ages is therefore good and these can without reservation
be used in further analysis of the lagoon evolution.
6.1.2.1. Compaction and isostasy

An assessment of the size of compaction and isostasy since deposition of the sediment is
necessary for two reasons: (1) In relation to the dose rate determination a progressive
compaction since time of burial will decrease the pore volume which affects the water content
and thus the age calculation. (2) Compaction can affect the paleoenvironmental interpretation of
coastal lithofacies from which a vertical reference is needed, e.g. a facies relation to sea level.
Massey et al. (2006) found that large differences in vertical displacement rates exist. The highest
compaction rates were identified within organic-rich sediments and at the contact between peat
and minerogenic sediments. Basal minerogenic sediments showed the lowest compaction rates.
This is to a certain extent in agreement with Meckel et al. (2007) who found that high
compaction rates were found for peat overlain with deposits of high porosity, which act as a
poor hydrologic barrier. Opposite combinations of low portions of peat and dense deposits of
mud showed the lowest compaction rates. No direct measurements of the compaction have been
conducted but the SSL-diagrams in Figure 5.12 indicate to some degree that no significant
compaction has taken place. Assuming a compaction rate of 1 mm yr-1 the gross compaction in
3000 years would amount 3 m. This is not realistic as the points in the SSL-diagram would all
plot high above the mean sea level curve and therefore be contradicting the interpretation of all
facies attributing to a marine origin. In addition, the back-barrier lagoon facies from the L2, L3,
L4, and L5 core sites primarily consist of minerogenic sediments with a low portion of organic
matter. Only L1 contains a thick layer of peat but the relative young age of the overlain deposits
would not have allowed time for significant compaction. Therefore, it is assumed that the
compaction of the lagoon sediment has been negligible and without influence for neither the
dose rate estimation nor the interpretation of paleoenvironment.
The isostasy in the area is generally affected by a forebulge subsidence. Concurrently with
postglacial rebound of the Fennoscandia Shield after the deglaciation of the Scandinavian the
adjacent areas are experiencing a subsidence. Figure 6.2 displays the contours of the present
crustal movement affecting the European Wadden Sea. The 0 mm yr-1 line is situated
approximately 66 km north of the study site and the -1 mm yr-1 line approximately 180 km
towards the south but it is difficult to determine the exact size of the Holocene isostasy affecting
66
the study site. Figure 6.2 shows the regional crustal movements but local variations do exist and
are complicated to compensate for. The aspect of isostasy is especially important when relating
the deposition-depth of a sediment sample to the sea level at a certain time. However all sea
level curves applied in this study are from the Wadden Sea region, and it can therefore be
presumed that they are subject to almost the same size of isostasy and for that reason this aspect
can be disregarded in the following discussion.
Figure 6.2: Contours of contemporary crustal movement in mm yr-1 affecting the European Wadden Sea. The study
site is located south of the 0 mm yr-1 line which indicates a lowering of the area. Isostasy measured by Global
Positioning System. After Scherneck (2001).
6.2. Evaluation of the coastal lagoon development

6.2.1. Facies, distribution, and preservation potentials in the lagoon
To be able to undertake a proper interpretation of the evolution of the lagoon, it is important to
evaluate the importance of each facies and its preservation potentials. Misinterpretation of the
paleoenvironment is a risk because of differences in how well the individual facies are preserved
in sedimentary sequences (see section 2.3.3 for further information on preservation potentials).
The five core sequences show different stratigraphic developments according to their location in
the lagoon (Figure 5.8). The lower part of the L4 and L5 cores consist of washover deposits. In
spite of the very thin sequence preserved of the washover facies this sedimentary interpretation
is favoured by the fact that washover is one of the main processes by which a barrier island
migrates landward during a transgression (Reinson, 1992). Similar findings are observed at the
lagoonward side of the barrier island of Rømø, situated in the southern part of the Danish
Wadden Sea (Pejrup et al., in prep). In addition, this facies is only identified in the two western
67
most cores closest to the barrier island. No washover deposits younger than approximately 5500
years old are present in the cores, indicating to that the lateral extent of Fanø at the time became
sufficient to prevent sediments being washed across the entire island. Consequently, washover
deposits are no longer of any significance for the accumulation of sediment in the lagoon.
The distribution of the freshwater swamp and bog facies association (Fs. ass. a) is confined to
the lower most part of the L1 and L2 cores and only comprises a minor part (<5 %) of the
sedimentary environment in the lagoon. The peat is interpreted as being basal peat deposited
directly upon the Pleistocene subsurface. This interpretation is based on eigelkamp gauge auger
drillings through the peat, which revealed dark brown medium sized sand beneath the peat. The
colour of the sand most likely originates from soil developing processes, which prevailed before
the marine transgression. The preservation potential for this facies association is high because of
a low location in the marine system why basal peat has been identified several places in the
European Wadden Sea e.g. in the melt-water valley of Varde Å in the northern part of the
Danish Wadden Sea (Pedersen et al., 2009) and in the German and Dutch part of the Wadden
Sea (Behre, 2007; Streif, 2004).
At core sites L3, L4, and L5 the tidal channel association (Fs. ass. b) is dominant. In the L4 and
L5 cores the tidal channel succession is separated from the underlying washover deposits by an
erosional base. The tidal channel association is related to deposition in the central part of the
lagoon. This facies account for 50 % of the total core length which is in agreement with Heron
et al. (1984) and Moslow and Tye (1985), who found that facies deposited in the deepest part of
a wave dominated micro-tidal lagoon in North Carolina, e.g. migrating tidal channel inlets,
constituting approximately 30 to 50 % of the Holocene subsurface. Similar rates are observed by
Reineck & Singh (1980) in the German part of the Wadden Sea where 58 % of a tidal flat had
been reworked by tidal channel in 68 years. It is likely that the westward displacement of
Lundvig Løb (Figure 3.2) has deposited the tidal channel sequences in L4 and L5 which took
place during the last approximately 350 years (Figure 5.8) whereas the two tidal channel
sequences in L3 are approximately 4800 and 1700 years old. The present location of the L3 core
site is not close to any active channels, but this site was apparently very dynamic in the past.
Two factors contribute to the tidal channel being the dominant association in the lagoon: 1. Fast
and continued displacement of channels in the tidal environment (Eisma, 1997; Reineck &
Singh, 1980) and 2. high preservation potential of channel deposits (Moslow & Tye, 1985; Rieu
et al., 2005). The mean modern rates of displacement of four tidal channels in the back-barrier
lagoon ranged from 3 to 6 m yr-1 with an average of 4.5 m yr-1 (Table 5.6). From surveys
Klagenberg et al. (2008) found average displacement rates of 2 and 5 m yr-1 for Lundvig Løb
and Kelding Lo, respectively in the period 1966 to 2003. These numbers are in agreement with
the displacement rates found in this study. During a 3000 year period a lateral moving channel
with a velocity of 4.5 m yr-1, would be displaced approximately 13.5 km. This is more than the
width of the present lagoon. The displacement rates of modern tidal channels therefore support
the idea that a majority of the sediment in the cores have been interpreted as the tidal channel
68
association. Neither at core site L1 nor at core site L2 is the tidal channel association found. The
absence of channel sedimentation at L1 is likely subscribed to the elevation of this position (34
cm DVR90) and its close proximity to the mainland coast of Jutland which reduces the tidal
current speed and thus the effect of the tide. This is in agreement with Billeaud et al. (2007) who
found high preservation potential for the high tidal flat deposits in back-barrier basins. The
reason that no tidal channel deposits are present at core site L2 is not clear, but it is possible that
the resistant sediment e.g. consolidated mud or salt marsh deposits prevents channel migration at
the site (Eisma, 1997). Another explanation could be the position of the core site at the northern
side of the water divide which generally comprises of less and mainly shallower channels.
Further research is required to fully answer this question.
The second most dominant association is the intertidal flat association (Fs. ass. c) which
composes approximately 27 % of the total core log length. This facies association constitutes the
upper part of all the cores and is almost absent in the deeper part of the cores (Figure 5.8). The
thickness of the sequence range from ~25 cm at core site L5 to ~120 cm at L1 and represent the
modern sedimentary environment in the lagoon. Only where active tidal channels migrate and in
the sheltered and high lying parts of the coastal lagoon the intertidal sedimentation is replaced
by either sub- or supratidal sedimentation. These findings are supported by a thematic surface
type mapping which revealed that 71 % of the Danish Wadden Sea was composed of tidal flats
(Figure 3.3) (Sørensen et al., 2006) and even a higher portion at the topographic water divide in
the lagoon. The age of the intertidal deposits is relative young, confirming that channel
displacement continuously and frequently removes this facies association. In areas with
extensive tidal channel migration the combination of low sedimentation rates (Reineck & Singh,
1980) and continuous sediment reworking causes a low preservation potential of intertidal
deposits. Billeaud et al. (2007) investigated the preservation potential for intertidal deposits in a
macro-tidal estuary and concluded that due to intensive channel displacement only sediment
deposited by the last active channel was preserved. The oldest intertidal flat deposits (~650
years) dated in this study are located in the eastern part of the lagoon because of the absent of
tidal channels in this area. Overall the sedimentation has been in progress for the shortest period
of time in the eastern part of the lagoon.
The salt marsh and mudflat facies association (Fs. ass. d) has been identified at core sites L2,
L3, and L4 and constitutes approximately 10 % of the total facies found. In the modern
depositional environment mudflat and salt marsh deposits are limited to restricted areas on the
landward side of Fanø and only in the most sheltered areas e.g. Albuen and the bay between
Halen and Nordby and constitute no more than 1 to 2 % of the surface area (for location see
Figure 3.2). The limited spatial distribution of this association in the present environment does
not correspond to its prevalence in the past and indicates changes of the depositional conditions.
Periods of sea level stability or slow sea level fall would favour the deposition of fine grained
sediment and therefore partly explain the difference between the past and present representation
of salt marsh and mudflat deposits. However, these changes may as well originate from modern
human intervention in the coastal environment. Diking of the mainland shore prevents landward
69
shifting of the back-barrier system during periods with sea level rise and results in higher energy
levels in the lagoon. This would deplete the lagoon of fine grained sediments, and favour
progressively more sandy dominated deposits (Flemming, 2002).
The last facies association with importance to the evolution of the coastal lagoon is the
distributary mouth bar association (Fs. ass. e). This facies is only found in the lower part of core
L2 and its share is approximately 7 % of the total core length. The protecting layer of fine sand,
which is often produced on top of the distributary mouth bar deposits at abandonment of the
active river course, entail a high preservation potential for this facies (Reineck & Singh, 1980).
The low percentage of distributary mouth bar deposits likely relates to the general low sediment
transport in the rivers terminating in the lagoon.
On the basis of the occurrence of the different facies and their distribution recorded, it is
possible to present a schematic illustration of the internal architecture of the studied lagoon
which is modified after the conceptual model by (Streif, 2004) (Figure 6.3). The figure depicts
how the lagoon has developed during the last approximately 8000 years in response to a sea
level rise of approximately 10 m. Compared to the original figure proposed by Streif (2004)
Figure 6.3 illustrates how channel deposits dominate the lagoon area except from the most
landward and sheltered parts. In addition, distributary mouth bar deposits have been added but
only comprise a minor part of the lagoon sediment. Peat is mainly basal peat but intercalated
peat is recorded at the eastern limit of the barrier island of Fanø. Washover deposits are
estimated to comprise ~1 % of the facies in the cores (Table 5.5) but it is expected that the share
of washover deposits will increase when the distance to the barrier island decreases. Another
important modification from the figure proposed by Streif (2004) is that dune sand is directly
deposited upon foreshore sand which indicates that Fanø with all probability not have been
located further eastward than its present location since it emerged from the sea. Research from
Rømø in the southern part of the Danish Wadden Sea revealed high barrier island stability to sea
level fluctuations. This can primarily be attributed to a large supply of sand from the littoral drift
in the North Sea which increases the resistance of the islands to sea level fluctuations (Pejrup et
al., in prep). It is believed that the prevalence of sand and therefore the stability of Fanø equals
that of Rømø.
70
Figure 6.3: Schematic cross section through the coastal Holocene with important morphological and sedimentary
elements. Modified after Streif (2004).
6.2.2. Sediment accumulation rates and sea level fluctuations

From the age-elevation profiles (Figure 5.12) it is indicated that sediment accumulation in the
lagoon shows considerably spatial and temporal variation throughout the last 5500 years of the
lagoon evolution. Several parameters influence the rate of sediment accumulation during
transgressive periods but especially two factors controls rates of accumulation: (1) sediment
supply and (2) accommodation space (Nichols, 1989).
The importance of the sediment supply is difficult to assess and little is known about this
parameter in the area. Sediment supply to the Wadden Sea area primarily originates from the
North Sea basin (Pejrup et al., 1997) but it is uncertain if sediment availability from the North
Sea has been constant the last 6000 years. Changes in the location of river mouths and in fluvial
sediment transport in adjoining watercourses also influence accumulation of sediment in the
lagoon.
Changes in accommodation space in the tidal lagoon during the Holocen are governed by
fluctuations of the relative sea level (Figure 2.8) and locally by channel scour. From the SSL-
diagram (Figure 6.4) an obvious coherence between depth of sedimentation and long-term sea
level exist. The following paragraph evaluates lagoonal sedimentation rates in relation to past
sea level fluctuations, the creation of accommodation space and changes in sediment supply to
determine what controls lagoonal sediment accumulation. Additionally it will be investigated if
changes in coastal lagoon sedimentation are a proxy of sea level fluctuations.
71
100
L1
0 L2
L3
L5
-100 Behre (2007)
Pedersen et al. (2009)
Elevation, cm DVR90
-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
Optical age, yr
Figure 6.4: Sediment-Sea-Level (SSL) diagram with dated samples from 4 cores. The sample elevation as a
function of the optical age. The black line represents the regional sea level curve according to Behre (2007). The
red line is the local relative sea level curve according to Pedersen et al. (2009). The encircled point from the L5
core is believed to be erroneously old due to sampling to close to the erosional base, thus contain both old and
young sediment.
Sediment accumulation rates in the lagoon are generally controlled by the extensive channel
displacement that continuously reworks the sediment. At core site L3 and L5 fast sedimentation
is the result of point bar deposition due to channel displacement. Displacement rates averaging
4.5 m yr-1 and as high as 9 m yr-1 have been measured in the lagoon which corresponds to rates
measured by Klagenberg et al. (2008). The rates are furthermore in the interval of displacement
rates measured in the southern part of the European Wadden Sea (Eisma, 1997; Reineck &
Singh, 1980). At the L5 core site three sedimentation periods are recognised. The first and
lowermost part constituted of subaerial washover deposits probably deposited almost
instantaneously for approximately 5500 years ago on the paleo-island of Fanø (Figure 5.12 and
Figure 6.4). The second and dominant sedimentation period preserved in the core log is a tidal
channel sequence starting approximately 350 years ago and filling up the channel during
approximately 170 years with a sedimentation rate of 14 mm yr-1. An escape trace (Figure 6.5)
found in the lowermost part of the tidal channel succession together with almost no bioturbation
in the remaining part of the sequence also indicates rapid sedimentation (Reineck & Singh,
1980).
72
Figure 6.5: Segment of the lowermost part of core L5 showing an escape trace. Fast sedimentation causes benthic
fauna to try escaping leaving distinct traces.
Due to the deep reworking of sediment when the channel displaces across the tidal flat no
sediment with an age between ~350 years and ~5500 years is preserved. Sample L5/344
(1463±153 years) obtained from the bottom of the tidal channel sequence is believed to be
erroneously old due to sampling too close to the erosional base separating this sequence from
the lower washover sequence. The sample consequently contains both old and young sediment
and has been omitted from the calculation of sedimentation rates and interpretation of the
environment. The third sedimentation period represents the present sedimentation at the site. It
is believed that the accretion rate of this period is considerably lower. Unfortunately there are no
OSL datings of the upper sequence to support this assumption, but the lack of primary
sedimentary structures indicate bioturbation by benthic fauna e.g. bivalves and gastropods which
necessitate time and slow sedimentation rates.
The sedimentation at the L3 core site shows the same overall depositional pattern as at L5. The
preserved sediment originates from three phases of sedimentation where the two earliest phases
derive from channel displacement and the latter stems from tidal flat deposition (Figure 5.12 and
Figure 6.4). Approximately 4800 years ago a tidal channel moved across the tidal flat depositing
sediment at a rate of 16 mm yr-1 filling up the accommodation space created by channel scour. It
appears from the SSL-diagram (Figure 6.4) that the upper part of the oldest tidal channel
sequence is deposited above mean sea level which is not consistent with subtidal channel
deposition. In section 4.1 it is assumed that plugging and compaction caused by vibracoring
have been equally distributed throughout the core and a linearly compensation applied for
correction. An erroneous overcompensation of the plugging/compaction in the lower part of the
core would result in the observed difference between the sea level curves and the SSL-data. An
additional explanation for the discrepancy could be differences in size of crustal movements
between the German Wadden Sea and the Danish Wadden Sea. From Figure 6.2 it is evident
that the area, from where a majority of sea level index points used by Behre (2007) to create the
sea level curve, experiences a larger subsidence compared to data collected in this study. This
would however only apply to the sea level curve proposed by Behre (2007) and not explain the
73
difference between this study and the sea level curve proposed by Pedersen et al. (2009). Further
research is needed to clarify the exact reason.
From Figure 6.4 it is likely to assume that sedimentation after filling of the lowermost channel
continued as tidal flat sedimentation until approximately 1700 years ago when another tidal
channel displaced past the core site depositing sediment with an accretion rate of 13 mm yr-1.
This channel eroded the top of the former channel sequence together with the sediment
deposited at the site between the two channel sequences creating a hiatus of approximately 3000
years (Figure 5.13). An erosional base separates the two sequences, which is in agreement with
several studies (Reineck & Singh, 1980; Reinson, 1992). The lithology just above the erosional
base and channel bottom is composed of muddy deposits which normally do not characterise
tidal channel sequences (Figure 5.8). Observation of interaction between supra- and subtidal
areas has showed that material eroded from mudflats during storm events temporarily is
deposited as fluid mud at the bottom of channels in the Danish Wadden Sea (Andersen et al.,
2006) which may explain these findings. Besides the knowledge about modern channel
displacement in the lagoon the tidal channel interpretation is further supported by a weak
upward fining sequence which characterises point bar sedimentation. The accommodation space
as well as the energy level decreases concurrently with the channel displacement. Sedimentation
takes place at a higher level of the point bar and progressively finer sediment can be deposited
(Figure 5.11). It should be noticed that the correlation coefficient is low (r2 = 0.14), which
probably attributes to mixing by waves, mixing induced by perpendicular side-channels, and the
low channel depths at the tidal divide (Reineck & Singh, 1980). Additionally, modern channel
depths (1 to 2.5 m) at the tidal water divide and in inner parts of the Grådyb and Lister Dyb tidal
area is measured by the Danish Coastal Authorities (Klagenberg et al., 2008; Kystdirektoratet,
1999; Vølund et al., 2006) and corresponds well with depths of the relict channels and further
strengthens the channel hypothesis. After filling of the second channel sequence at L3 the rapid
sedimentation continuous as mudflat or salt marsh deposits. Fast sediment accumulation at
mudflats is coherent with observations at the Kongsmark mudflat in the southern part of the
Danish Wadden Sea where sedimentation rates as high as 17 mm yr-1 were measured (Andersen
et al., 2006). Additionally, the sedimentation of the second tidal channel sequence terminates
close to the mean sea level line (Figure 6.4), which is expected for mudflat and salt marsh
sedimentation.
The third phase of sedimentation at the L3 core site is much slower (0.6 mm yr-1) and
corresponds to the modern tidal flat sedimentation. Infilling of the channel scour and reduction
of accommodation space result in a marked decrease in the sedimentation rate. The creation of
new accommodation space has been controlled by the continuously rising sea level quantified by
Behre (2007) to 1.1 mm yr-1 for the last 3000 years. However, it should be noted that the slow
sedimentation rate can be significantly influenced by two hiatuses identified in the upper part of
the core. Furthermore, the last approximately 43 cm of sediment (from the topmost OSL date to
the sediment surface) is according to the OSL date deposited in 40±2 years with an average
sedimentation rate of ~11 mm yr-1 (Figure 5.8). This is not corresponding to the prevailing
74
perception that net sedimentation on near-horizontal areas of the flats is very small. The
discrepancy could originate from old sediment continuously being mixed with young sediment
from the sediment surface prompted by bioturbation. This would further explain why
sedimentary structures are almost completely absent. It should be noticed that Mya arenaria is
present approximately 43 cm below the top of the core and these likely have disturbed the
sedimentation.
The sedimentation rates at the L2 core site are without influence of channel meandering, for
which reason it to a greater extent reflects the fluctuations in the sea level instead of mirroring
local variations in accommodation space caused by channel scour. This is especially evident in
the upper approximately 2.5 m of the core. Following the transgression of the peat subsurface
approximately 2600 years ago, sediment accumulated in a distributary mouth bar with an
average rate of 5.2 mm yr-1 (Figure 5.12 and Figure 6.4). Intensive accumulation of sediment in
the distributary mouth bar is expected since this subenvironment generally is regarded as the
part of a delta with the highest sedimentation rate (Reineck & Singh, 1980). However this fast
sedimentation rate cannot be directly linked to the sea level but expresses instead the
progradation of the delta which is confirmed by the upward coarsening sequence (Figure 5.10)
(r2 = 0.86). The transition to full tidal condition approximately 2300 years before present may be
initiated by the rising sea level and the ongoing transgression. Whether this reflects the generally
rising trend or a transgression phase followed by a local sea level low stand as proposed by the
curves by Behre (2007) and Pedersen et al. (2009) is hard to determine. A generally good
agreement between the accretion rate and sea level rise proposed by Pedersen et al. (2009) for
the period from approximately 2300 to 1600 years is however present. After the transition to full
lagoonal condition the sedimentation rate decreases to approximately 1.3 mm yr-1 which almost
corresponds to the rise in sea level proposed by Behre (2007). Between 408±22 and 77±4 years
ago the accumulation of sediment has increased to 1.6 mm yr-1 and from 77±4 years ago to
present the accretion rate has been 4.4 mm yr-1. In the last 77 years approximately 34 cm of
sediment have been deposited. A considerably part of this sediment is reworked by the benthic
fauna and it cannot be rejected that bioturbation influence on the OSL ages that indicates the
increased sedimentation rate.
The sedimentation at the L1 core site represents accumulation which took place close to the
mean sea level and it appears that two accretion rates have prevailed (Figure 5.12 and Figure
6.4). After the transgression of the site approximately 600 years ago, sediment deposited with a
rate of 1.1 mm yr-1 until 300 years ago, indicating a slow rising sea level. This rate is in
agreement with Pedersen et al. (2009), who found a sea level rise of 1.0 mm yr-1 from 1200
years B.P. and until today in the Grådyb tidal area, and Behre (2007) who observe a sea level
rise of 1.1 mm yr-1 during the last 3000 years. From approximately 300 years ago the
sedimentation rate appears to increase to 2.8 mm yr-1 and the sedimentary sequence is fining
upwards. The increased sedimentation rate may be attributed to mixing of the top most part of
the sedimentary sequence which impact on the OSL dates, as at the L2 and L3 core site.
Deposition of sediment in intertidal mixed flats are often disturbed by intensive bioturbation
75
(Eisma, 1997; Leeder, 1992) and this would explain the lack of sedimentary structures e.g.
planar lamination and coarsely interlayered bedding (subsection 2.3.2) which normally
characterises intertidal flat deposits. Additionally, it is expected that anthropogenic
interventions, especially diking of the area during the last 300 years have influenced the
sedimentation by narrowing the sedimentation field and prompted morphodynamic adjustments
(Flemming, 2002; Vos & van Kesteren, 2000). It would call for additional research to clarify the
exact reason for the increase in the sedimentation rate at the L1 core site and what causes the
upward coarsening of the upper sedimentary sequence.
This paragraph has discussed lagoonal sedimentation in relation to sea level fluctuations. From
this discussion it is evident that lagoonal sedimentation at a tidal water divide with extensive
channel migration only to a very limited extent reflects sea level fluctuations and this
sedimentary archive is thus a poor sea level proxy. Additionally, it is difficult to relate
deposition depth to sea level, making it difficult to create other that a tentative sea level curve
from the age-elevation data. Nevertheless, it can be deduced that the long-term infilling of the
lagoon has been able to keep up with the general sea level rise of 1 to 2 mm yr-1 during the last
5500 years of marine transgression and a near balance of accretion and relative sea level rise
rates exist. This is supported by findings by Nichols (1989) on a comparison of 22 coastal
lagoons, which showed a long-term (millennia) equilibrium between accretion and sea level rise.
6.2.3. Transgressive sedimentation

Overall, the sedimentation pattern in the coastal lagoon of Fanø has been controlled by the
marine transgression caused by the rising sea level during the Holocene and this has been the
main factor for accumulation of sediment in the lagoon. The overall pattern is in good
agreement with the modes of accumulation in the coastal lagoon situated behind Rømø in the
southern part of the Danish Wadden Sea (for location see Figure 3.1) (Pejrup et al., in prep). A
new conceptual model illustrating the accumulation of sediment in a transgressive coastal
lagoon where tidal channels rework the sediment is presented (Figure 6.6). The large influence
of channels in the lagoon creates a pattern of fast sediment accumulation in the channel scour
depressions due to point bar deposition followed by a decrease to low sedimentation after the
infilling of the channel and tidal flat sedimentation. The moderate sedimentation rates persist
until a new channel displaces past and erodes the tidal flat deposits whereupon the fast
accumulation will once again commence. This process will be in progress as long as the relative
rising sea creates new accommodation space. The model also explains why only a minor part of
the sedimentary sequence at the tidal divide shows traces of bioturbation which is surprising
since intense bioturbation is observed in the entire surface layer throughout the lagoon.
76
Figure 6.6: Conceptual model illustrating transgressive sedimentation in a channel dominated lagoon. Repeated
cycles of sediment accumulation are followed by periods of erosion when the channel displaces by. The accretion
generally occurs in two rates. A high Sedimentation Rate (SR) when the deposition is controlled by point bar
sedimentation in the channel scour and a low rate after the channel is filled and tidal flat sedimentation prevails.
Bioturbation are created during tidal flat sedimentation and eroded by the displacing channels. The right part of the
figure shows a schematic sedimentary log of the succession.
This inconsistency is recognised by Chang et al. (2006) who proposed that bioturbation is lost
due to deep reworking of the surface layer by wave action during episodic storms. This is not in
agreement with the discoveries in this study and it is unlikely that waves would rework so deep
in shallow water environments. Hence, it is more likely that bioturbation is lost when tidal
channels migrate and rework the surface layer. No or only minor bioturbation is present and the
lagoon deposits from long cores will appear to be without bioturbating fauna because of the fast
sedimentation associated with point bar deposition in tidal channels. This discrepancy in
interpretation may owe to the fact that no other studies have had a detailed OSL chronology to
their disposal. The lack of bioturbation which is proposed by Chang et al. (2006) is not just a
local phenomenon but also observed by Davis & Flemming (1995) and probably applies to the
parts of the Wadden Sea where tidal channels are abundant.
As described in section 2.4.2, washover deposits are believed to constitute a large part of the
deposits in transgressive micro-tidal environments and this is one of the main processes of
landward migration of barrier islands during a transgression (Reinson, 1992). Yet washover
deposits are only found in the lower part of L5 and L4 and these deposits are more than 5000
years old. The low representation of this facies possibly indicates a high stability of Fanø. In
spite of a sea level rise of approximately 10 m the last 7000 years the barrier island has grown
sufficiently high and wide to prevent washovers during storms. Additionally, this indicates that
77
the high sediment supply from the North Sea dominates above the sea level rise as the
controlling parameter in the evolution of the barrier. Research from the barrier island of Rømø
also shows intensive progradation despite a rising sea level and supports this interpretation
(Pejrup et al., in prep).
6.2.4. Regressive sedimentation

As described above the sedimentary architecture of the lagoonal deposited is transgressive in
nature but periods with regression are also present. The extensive channel migration at the water
divide generally makes it difficult to perform a lithostratigraphic as well as a chronostratigraphic
correlation between the five core sites and sea level fluctuations are only to a very limited
extend preserved in the cores and only at the sites where channels have not yet eroded the tidal
flat deposits.
From the frequency histogram Figure 5.13 and the SSL-diagram Figure 6.4 it is evident that two
periods during the last approximately 5500 years are not represented in the chronology
(unconformities). The first unconformity of approximately 2000 years from 4700 to 2650 years
before present is most likely created by the displacement of channels and its creation cannot be
used as a proxy for sea level fluctuations. The second unconformity is present at the L2 and L3
core sites and lasts from approximately 1450 to 900 years before present. Sedimentation below
and above the unconformity is interpreted as intertidal flat sedimentation and not as depositions
by displacing channels. A compact shell lag approximately 130 cm below the surface in the L3
core (Figure 5.8) may be an erosional base marking the unconformity. In L2 it is not possible
from the sedimentological core logs to identify the unconformity, which probably relates to
bioturbation of the intertidal flat deposits. The hiatus may be related to a forced regression
prompt by a relative sea level drop. This is in agreement with Madsen (2007c) who found a
marked decrease in the salt marsh accretion between 1340 and 970 years ago in Ho Bugt in the
northern part of the Danish Wadden Sea. The sea level curve proposed by Pedersen et al. (2009)
from the Danish Wadden Sea shows a relative sea level fall from ~1500 yr B.P. to ~1200 yr B.P.
where the sea level dropped from approximately -0.7 to -1.2 m below the present sea level.
From the German part of the Wadden Sea Behre (2007) reported a ~0.8 m drop in sea level from
1150 yr B.P. to 900 yr B.P., and Mauz & Bungenstock (2007) found a drop of ~0.77 m around
1100 years ago. Furthermore, the reported sea level drop some time between 1500 and 900 years
ago is supported by a significant cooling period in the Scandinavian region taking place between
1200 to 1000 yr B.P. (Mayewski et al., 2004).
An eigelkamp auger drilling north of Albuen revealed an approximately one metre thick
intercalated peat layer located in a depth of -0.78 m DVR90. Historical records also report a
layer of peat east of Sønderho with a thickness of a half metre which was exploited as fuel
during World War I (Figure 6.7) (Kromann, 1934). Finally, a water well-drilling at Fanø
midway between Albuen and Sønderho and approximately 500 m inland from the east coast
revealed a 1.5 metre thick layer of peat situated in -1.1 m DVR90 (Jupiter, 2009).
78
Figure 6.7: Extraction of peat in the tidal flat east of Sønderho 1917 (Kromann, 1934).
Due to the extent, the creation of this peat horizon is with all certainty not attributed to swale
sedimentation between two dune ridges but reflects a regional signal presumably from a sea
level fall. The depth of the peat layer indicates that the creation may be linked to the
unconformity in the intertidal and subtidal sedimentation as described above which occurred
between 1400 and 900 years ago. However, no ages of the peat horizons exist, which makes it
difficult to establish a precise timeframe of its formation. Dates of the upper part of a
Phragmites peat horizon (~-1 m DVR90) in Kjelst Enge situated in Grådyb tidal area <25 km
south of the present research area ranged from 1000 to 1500 yr B.P. (Gehrels et al., 2006). Time
of formation of this peat horizon is coherent with the time of the hiatus found in the lagoon in
this study and supports the interpretation of the unconformity being regional rather than local.
A distinct fine grained bed interpreted as mudflat or salt marsh deposits is identified in the in the
upper part of the L2, L3, and L4 cores and to some degree also in core L1 (Figure 5.8). The age
of the bed is approximately 400 to 500 years old and the fine grained deposits are likely
reflecting a time with a stable (regression) or a slow falling sea level (forced regression). A
stable or slow falling relative sea level would create a significant decrease in accommodation
space and together with changes in the hydrodynamic conditions (e.g. decrease in wave and
current stress) fine grained deposition would be favoured. The age of the bed is concurrently
with the cooling incident of the Little Ice Age (LIA; ~400 to 100 yr B.P. cf. Matthews & Briffa
(2005)) which effected the whole North Atlantic area (Mayewski et al., 2004). Several authors
have noticed the effects of enhanced climate variability during the LIA in Denmark. Gehrels et
al. (2006) identified a freshening phase culminating in the drying out of the salt marshes (1700
to 350 yr B.P.) in Ho Bugt located in the northern part of the Danish Wadden Sea. In the same
area Szkornik et al. (2008) found a relative sea level fall between 700 and 500 yr B.P. Extensive
dune formation also prevailed in the period and has been described by Aagaard et al. (2007b),
Clemmensen et al. (1996), and Clemmensen et al. (2001). In the Dutch Wadden Sea area the
79
period is characterised by relative sea level fall and regression (Behre, 2004; Behre, 2007) and it
is associated with intense peat formation which has been traced into the tidal flat far beyond the
present coastline. Sedimentation in lagoons normally take place very close to the mean sea level
and a minor drop in sea level of ~0.2 m (Szkornik et al., 2008) would create a considerable
decrease of accommodation space and changes in the morphodynamic conditions which controls
the sedimentation in the tidal lagoon.
6.3. Coastal lagoon sedimentation in response to present and future sea level
rise
The repeated redistribution of sediment and reworking by channel displacement constrains a
direct comparison of sediment level and sea level and entail that the lagoonal sediment only to a
minor degree mirrors short-term fluctuation of the sea level and makes it difficult to predict the
coastal lagoon response to present as well as to future sea level rise. As described above the
infilling of the lagoon has been equal to the rate of sea level rise during the last 5500 years
corresponding to a long-term accretion rate of approximately 1 to 2 mm yr-1. The values of
global sea level rise reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are 3.1
mm yr-1 from 1993 to 2003 (Meehl et al., 2007). In the same period Knudsen et al. (2008) in a
technical report state a sea level rise of 5 mm yr-1 in the Danish part of the Wadden Sea. The
IPCC has furthermore predicted a global sea level rise until 2100 ranging from 0.18 m to 0.59 m
(Meehl et al., 2007) corresponding to a mean rise between 1.9 mm yr-1 and 6.3 mm yr-1. These
rates are all higher than the average long-term accretion rate found in this study. New research
from the German part of the European Wadden Sea also finds long-term accretion rates in a
coastal lagoon smaller than those proposed by IPCC (Bungenstock & Schafer, 2009).
Short-term accretion of mudflat or salt marsh in L3 has shown rates (13 mm yr-1) sufficient to
keep up with a sea level rise of 3 to 5 mm yr-1. This is supported by similar findings in the
Danish Wadden Sea by Andersen et al. (2006) who demonstrated that fine grained deposits
accreted with up to 17 mm yr-1 and concluded that mudflats in coastal lagoons with all
probability are not threatened by the expected sea level rise. The same is deduced by Madsen et
al. (2007c) who found salt marsh accretion rates of 9 mm yr-1. Furthermore, sedimentation
which locally takes place in a distributary mouth bar, has a sedimentation rate (5.2 mm yr-1),
which is higher than the present sea level rise and these areas are not expected to be threatened
by the global rising sea. Fine grained mudflat, salt marsh, and deltatic sedimentation comprises a
minor part of the total lagoonal sedimentation and it is still uncertain if sandy intertidal flat areas
are able to keep up with the present and future sea level rise.
Comparing phases of sedimentation on a centennial or millennial timescale with phases lasting

only 10 years should however be performed with caution. It cannot be ruled out that the
increased sea level rise from 1993 to 2003 is expressing a short-term fluctuation, instead of a
long-term trend.
80
It could be speculated that the upward coarsening intertidal flat sequence observed at the L1
core site and especially the last 140 years of sedimentation (Figure 5.9) is indicative of a
sediment deficit resulting from a transgression prompted by an increased sea level rise. It is
however uncertain to what degree human interference e.g. reclamation of the salt marshes and
cultivating of the peat lands have affected the sedimentation. Research from the German
Wadden Sea has shown a depletion of fine grained sediments from back-barrier tidal flats
caused by land reclamation (Flemming & Nyandiwi, 1994). This is supported by Flemming &
Bartholomä (1997) who reports that the energy level at the foot of the dike is considerably
higher than was previously the case along the undiked shoreline from the same area. The authors
furthermore state that a rising sea level causes a gradual elimination of the finer facies along the
landward margin and an upward coarsening stratigraphic record when a man-made boundary
prevents landward displacement of the shoreline. This suggests that future sea level rise is
especially problematic for coastal lagoons if situated in areas with dikes and dams that restrict
the morphological and sedimentary adjustments. Human adaptations may become necessary to
compensate for a sea level rise and prevent permanent inundation of the intertidal flats in the
coastal lagoon system. Further research on the subject is needed to more precisely establish if
the coastal lagoon sedimentation is able to keep up with future sea level rise.
81
Chapter 7: Summary and conclusions
7. Summary and conclusions

The objectives of this thesis have been to outline the Holocene development across a micro-tidal
water divide in the coastal lagoon of the barrier island Fanø in the Northern part of the Danish
Wadden Sea. This is conducted in order to determine the impact of past sea level fluctuations on
the sedimentary environment and hereby be capable of, making more accurately predictions of
the lagoonal evolution in response to a rising sea level. Thirty-five OSL dates along with facies
and grain size analysis have been applied to describe and asses the internal architecture of the
lagoonal depositions. It has been outlined which facies constituting the sedimentary sequence,
the importance of each facies, and furthermore the sedimentation rates of the different facies
have been determined. Hereafter the Holocene stratigraphic development of the lagoon has been
reconstructed and related to the depositional environment, sedimentation rates, and past sea
level fluctuations. The assessment of the lagoonal development results in a new conceptual
model accounting for the evolution and modes of sedimentation in a channel dominated coastal
lagoon. Finally the results have been used to investigate if lagoon sedimentation is able to keep
up with future sea level rise.
A detailed absolute chronology has been developed, using optical stimulated luminescence. The
ages of the lagoonal sediment ranged from 40±2 years to 5450±333 years. Age reversals are few
and minor and within the range of uncertainty of the dates. Two out of three of the independent
age controls, using 14C dating of shells obtained from core L3 and L5 deviated less than 10 %.
The third 14C date deviated approximately 15 % from the corresponding OSL age, but this shell
was out of growing position and therefore possibly transported. In agreement with e.g. Madsen
et al. (2007b) it is inferred that optical dating of estuarine sediments has significant potentials in
sedimentary studies.
At core sites L1 and L2 basal peat is found at the bottom of the cores, marking the transition
from Pleistocene to Holocene deposits. Unfortunate, no datings of the peat have been conducted
but sediment samples situated right above the peat have ages of 643±30 years and 2635±134
years, respectively. At core sites L3 and L5 only lagoonal deposits with maximum ages of
4889±248 years and 5450±333 years, respectively are found. It is deduced that the Fanø barrier
island has been at approximately the same location during the last 5500 years, providing
condition for deposition of washover and fine grained lagoonal deposits.
A facies analysis of the sediment from the 5 cores revealed 10 different facies which could be
grouped into 7 facies associations: Freshwater swamp or bog association, tidal channel
association, intertidal flat association, salt marsh and mudflat association, distributary mouth bar
association, storm bed association, and washover association. In Table 5.5 the percentage of
each facies association is listed. The predominant facies association is the tidal channel
association which constitutes 51 % of the total recovered sediment. The intertidal flat
association constitutes 27 % of the recovered sediment and the remaining 5 facies associations
constitute 22 % of the sediment recovered from the 5 cores. In spite of the sampling have been
82
conducted on intertidal flats, this association is only present in the upper part of the sedimentary
sequence and down-core it only constitutes few percentages. Average tidal channel
displacement of 4.5 m yr-1 with local maximum rates up to 9 m yr-1 combined with high
preservation potentials produce the large abundance of the tidal channel association.
The Holocene sedimentation of the coastal lagoon has predominantly been transgressive and
from the sediment-sea-level diagram (Figure 6.4) a new conceptual model is presented (Figure
6.6), which describes the evolution of a transgressive coastal lagoon influenced by tidal channel
displacement. Sedimentation alternates between slow intertidal flat sedimentation and fast tidal
channel sedimentation. Deep and frequent reworking of tidal flats from tidal channel
displacement entail loss of sedimentary and biogenic structures from intertidal flats and only
intertidal flat sediments deposits after the last channel shifted by are preserved in the
sedimentary sequence. This explains why intensive bioturbation is observed in the modern
intertidal flats but not in the deeper parts of sedimentary sequence.
In the predominantly transgressive sedimentary lagoonal sequence two periods of regression is

identified. The first period from 1450 to 900 years before present is recognised in the
sedimentary sequence as a hiatus and may be interpreted as an erosional surface. It likely
reflects a relative sea level fall, which is in agreement with several studies in both the Danish
and German part of the Wadden Sea, e.g. Behre (2007), Madsen et al. (2007c), and Pedersen et
al. (2009). The second period of regression is recognised as a 400 to 500 years old fine grained
sediment bed found at core sites L1, L2, L3, and L4 which corresponds with the time of the
Little Ice Age (LIA). It is likely that lower temperatures during the LIA (Mayewski et al., 2004)
resulted in a stable or a slow falling sea level which would have caused a decrease in
accommodation space and favoured fine grained deposition. It is however found that possible
sea level fluctuations only to a limited extent is preserved in the sedimentary archive, due to the
high frequency of channel displacements why it would not be possible to create other than a
tentative sea level curve on the basis of the OSL dates (Figure 6.4).
Short-term sedimentation rates range from 0.6 mm yr-1 to 16 mm yr-1. Slow sedimentation rates
(0.6 to 2.8 mm yr-1) are related to intertidal flat sedimentation whereas fast sedimentation rates
(13 to 16 mm yr-1) are primarily related to tidal channel displacement. However, sedimentation
rates of 13 mm yr-1 in salt marshes/mudflats have been observed. As far as the author is aware of
it is the first time vertical tidal channel accretion has been determined using OSL dating. Long-
term sedimentation rates range from approximately 1 to 2 mm yr-1, which are lower than both
present and future sea level rise according to IPCC. It is thus uncertain how the coastal lagoon
will adjust to future rising sea level. Human interventions in the coastal zone and especially land
reclamation in the form of diking is believed to be of particular concern in the event of a fast
rising sea level in the future .
83
7.1. Conclusions
Based on the results and observations noted in this study the main conclusions may be draw as
follows:
Optical ages of the lagoonal sediments ranges from 40±2 years to 5450±333 years.
Internal tests together with an independent age control of the OSL dates, using 14C dates
were satisfactory. All age reversals are small and within the range of uncertainty of the
dates.
The dominant sedimentary facies association in the lagoon is the tidal channel
association which is created by channel displacement. This facies comprises
approximately 50 % out of a total of 18 m of core. Fast displacement of channels
(average 4.5 m yr-1) and high preservation potentials are responsible for the large
percentage of the tidal channel association in the cores.
The Fanø backbarrier lagoon basin is built up by transgressive deposition. On the basis
of the SSL-diagrams a new conceptual model, describing the Holocene transgressive
lagoon sedimentation is proposed. Sedimentation alternates between slow tidal flat and
fast tidal channel sedimentation but only the tidal channel sedimentation is preserved in
the sedimentary sequence. Bioturbation has low potentials for preservation and are lost
in the process of tidal channel displacement.
Short-term rates of sedimentation range from 0.6 mm yr-1 to 16 mm yr-1. Low

sedimentation rates are related to tidal flat sedimentation and fast sedimentation rates to
tidal channel and salt marsh/mudflat sedimentation.
At least two periods of regression are identified. A hiatus between 1450 and 900 years
before present is interpreted as an erosional surface and in agreement with e.g. Behre
(2007) and Pedersen et al. (2009) probably reflects a drop in relative sea level whereas a
400 to 500 years old fine grained sediment bed reflects a stable or slow decreasing sea
level during the Little Ice Age (Behre, 2004; Behre, 2007).
Sea level fluctuations are only to a minor extent preserved in the sedimentary archive
due to rapid channel displacement and the relationship between deposition depth and sea
level is only approximately determined, making it difficult to create other than a
approximately sea level estimate from this dataset.
Long-term sedimentation rates range from 1 to 2 mm yr-1. This rate is smaller than the
present and future sea level rise reported by IPCC. Only locally in the lagoon, e.g. in
tidal channels, at distributary mouth bars, salt marshes, and mudflats, short-term
sedimentation rates are equivalent or higher than future expected sea level rise.
84
Perspectives
8. Perspectives
From this research it is evident that several fields are obvious for further investigation. Even
though this study involves a fairly detailed OSL chronology from the coastal lagoon adjacent to
the barrier island Fanø, parts of the lagoon is still not dated. The deeper part of the lagoon and
especially dates from the transition between the glaciofluvial and marine facies would provide
useful knowledge and strengthen the interpretation of the lagoon evolution. Also the most
eastern and western part of the lagoon, together with drillings from Fanø would warrant further
research. Especially research in the development of Fanø would provide important knowledge
and establish the timeframe of the lagoonal evolution. Also OSL dates from core L4 would be
obvious and support the facies analysis.
14
C dating of basal- and intercalated peat would provide valuable information on the lagoonal
sea level history and together with the OSL chronology a local sea level curve could be created.
A sea level curve would be an important tool in the interpretation of the past lagoonal
sedimentation.
In addition to the present dataset, integration of high-resolution shallow marine seismic across
the lagoon integrated with borehole data would provide information of the sedimentary
sequence and help correlating the sedimentary facies between the cores. Seismic transects
lengthwise in the lagoon would likewise provide useful information on the Holocene lagoonal
development.
Finally it is still uncertain how the lagoonal evolution will respond to the present and future sea
level rise as proposed by IPCC (Meehl et al., 2007) and additional research on the subject is of
particular interest locally as well as on a global scale. In this context it would especially be
important to investigate if enough sand-sized sediment is available in the adjacent North Sea
area of Fanø and if the mechanisms transporting sand into the lagoon are sufficient to keep up
with the rising sea level. Eventually such studies could result in a sand-sized sediment budget
for the lagoon which would be a helpful tool in the management of the lagoon area and
particularly in relation to management of the dikes.
85
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the assistance and vivid support given by my supervisors Prof.
Morten Pejrup, Dr. Thorbjørn Joest Andersen, and Ph.D. student Anni Tindahl Madsen at the
Department of Geography and Geology, University of Copenhagen and my external supervisor
Prof. Andrew S. Murray at the Nordic Laboratory for Luminescence Dating (NLL), Department
of Earth Science, Aarhus University at Risø.
Thanks to Prof. Morten Pejrup who included me as a part of OBS project (The Origin and
Genesis of Coastal Barrier System) and later the REFLEKS project (Recent and Fossil Coastal
Systems) and for financial support from these projects.
I thank Dr. Thorbjørn Joest Andersen, Anni Tindahl Madsen, Lasse Christensen, and Maja
Louise Harder Nielsen who participated and provided essential practical help during field work.
A special thank goes to Dr. Jesper Bartholdy for introducing me to the vibracore technique and
letting me use his equipment.
Thanks to the NLL and Prof. Andrew S. Murray for letting me use their facilities for optical
dating and thanks to Ph.D. student Anni Tindahl Madsen, Lasse Christensen, Dr. Jørn Bjarke
Torp Pedersen, Anne Birgit Rasmussen, Vicki Hansen and Dr. Jan-Pieter Buylaert for helping
me in the laboratory and with useful comments on OSL-measurements.
Lars Henrik Nielsen, Peter N. Johannessen, and Jussi Hovikoski from the Geological Survey of
Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) are acknowledged for assistance and useful comments
regarding the sedimentary interpretations and Jakob Lautrup likewise from GEUS is thanked for
providing me with high resolution photographs of the sedimentary cores.
I would also like to thank Dr. Thorbjørn Joest Andersen for processing my grain size samples
and I thank Stine Holm Smed, Malene Holm Smed, Thilde Fruergaard, and Anni Tindahl
Madsen for proof reading, valuable suggestions, and improving the English text.
Finally, I thank Stine Holm Smed and Lasse Christensen for general support and advices during
the entire process.
Copenhagen,
September, 2009
Mikkel Fruergaard
86
References
References
Aagaard, T., Nielsen, N., and Nielsen, J. (1995): Meddelelser fra Skalling-Laboratoriet. Skallingen - Origin and
evolution of a barrier spit. Copenhagen, Institute of Geography, University of Copenhagen.
Aagaard, T., Nielsen, J., Jensen, S. G. and Friderichsen, J. (2004): Longshore sediment transport and coastal
erosion at Skallingen, Denmark. Geografisk Tidsskrift-Danish Journal of Geography 104 (1), 5-14.
Aagaard, T., Orford, J. and Murray, A. S. (2007a): Environmental controls on coastal dune formation; Skallingen
spit, Denmark. Geomorphology 83 (1-2), 29-47.
Aitken, M. J. (1985): Thermoluminescence dating. London, United Kingdom, Academic Press.
Aitken, M. J. (1998): An introduction to optical dating: The dating of Quaternary sediments by the use of photon-
stimulated luminescence. New York, United States, Oxford University Press.
Allen, J. R. L. (2000): Morphodynamics of Holocene salt marshes: a review sketch from the Atlantic and Southern
North Sea coasts of Europe (vol 19,pg 1155, 2000). Quaternary Science Reviews 19 (17-18), 1839-1840.
Andersen, T. J., Jensen, K. T., Lund-Hansen, L., Mouritsen, K. N. and Pejrup, M. (2002): Enhanced erodibility of
fine-grained marine sediments by Hydrobia Ulvae. Journal of Sea Research 48 (1), 51-58.
Andersen, T. J., Pejrup, M. and Nielsen, A. A. (2006): Long-term and high-resolution measurements of bed level
changes in a temperate, microtidal coastal lagoon. Marine Geology 226 (1-2), 115-125.
Ankjaergaard, C. and Murray, A. S. (2007): Total beta and gamma dose rates in trapped charge dating based on
beta counting. Radiation Measurements 42 (3), 352-359.
Baeteman, C. (2008): Radiocarbon-dated sediment sequences from the Belgian coastal plain: testing the hypothesis
of fluctuating or smooth late-Holocene relative sea-level rise. Holocene 18 (8), 1219-1228.
Ballarini, M., Wallinga, J., Murray, A. S., van Heteren, S., Oost, A. P., Bos, A. J. J. and van Eijk, C. W. E. (2003):
Optical dating of young coastal dunes on a decadal time scale. Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (10-13),
1011-1017.
Bartholdy, J. and Madsen, P. P. (1985): Accumulation of fine-grained material in a Danish tidal area. Marine
Geology 67 (1-2), 121-137.
Bartholdy, J. and Folving, S. (1986): Sediment classification and surface type mapping in the Danish Wadden Sea
by remote-sensing. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 20 (4), 337-345.
Bartholdy, J. and Hasholt, B. (1986): Fluvialt tilført materiale til det Danske Vadehav. In: Partikulært bundet
stoftransport i vand og jorderosion. NHP-Rapport nr. 14 (KOHYNO). Ed. Hasholt, B., 1-12.
Bartholdy, J. and Pejrup, M. (1994): Holocene evolution of the Danish Wadden Sea. Senckenbergiana maritima 24
(1/6), 187-209.
Behre, K. E. (2004): Coastal development, sea-level change and settlement history during the later Holocene in the
Clay District of Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen), northern Germany. Quaternary International 112, 37-53.
Behre, K. E. (2007): A new Holocene sea-level curve for the Southern North Sea. Boreas 36 (1), 82-102.
Beuselinck, L., Govers, G., Poesen, J. and Degraer, G. (1998): Grain-size analysis by laser diffractometry:
comparison with the sieve-pipette method. Catena 32 (3-4), 193-208.
Bhattacharya, J. P. and Walker, R. G. (1992): Deltas. In: Facies models - Response to sea level change. Eds.
Walker, R. G. and James, N. P., 157-178. St. John's, Canada. Geological Association of Canada.
87
References
Billeaud, I., Tessier, B., Lesueur, P. and Caline, B. (2007): Preservation potential of highstand coastal sedimentary
bodies in a macrotidal basin: Example from the Bay of Mont-Saint-Michel, NW France. Sedimentary
Geology 202 (4), 754-775.
Bird, E. C. F. (1994): Physical setting and geomorphology of coastal lagoons. In: Coastal lagoon processes. Ed.
Kjerfve, B., 9-40. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Elsevier.
Blott, S. J. and Pye, K. (2001): GRADISTAT: A grain size distribution and statistics package for the analysis of
unconsolidated sediments. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 26 (11), 1237-1248.
Bokuniewicz, H. (1995): Sedimentary systems of coastal-plain estuaries. In: Geomorphology and sedimentology of
estuareis. Ed. Perillo, G. M. E., 49-68. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Elsevier.
Boothroyd, J. C., Friedrich, N. E. and Mcginn, S. R. (1985): Geology of microtidal coastal lagoons - Rhode-Island.
Marine Geology 63 (1-4), 35-76.
Bostock, H. C., Brooke, B. P., Ryan, D. A., Hancock, G., Pietsch, T., Packett, R. and Harle, K. (2007): Holocene
and modern sediment storage in the subtropical macrotidal Fitzroy River estuary, Southeast Queensland,
Australia. Sedimentary Geology 201 (3-4), 321-340.
Bøtter-Jensen, L. (1997): Luminescence techniques: Instrumentation and methods. Radiation Measurements 27 (5-
6), 749-768.
Bøtter-Jensen, L., Bulur, E., Duller, G. A. T. and Murray, A. S. (2000): Advances in luminescence instrument
systems. Radiation Measurements 32 (5-6), 523-528.
Bøtter-Jensen, L., McKeever, S. W. S., and Wintle, A. G. (2003): Optically stimulated luminescence dosimetry.
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier.
Bungenstock, F. and Schafer, A. (2009): The Holocene relative sea-level curve for the tidal basin of the barrier
island Langeoog, German Bight, Southern North Sea. Global and Planetary Change 66 (1-2), 34-51.
Cadée, G. C. (1998): Intertidal fauna and vegetaion. In: Intertidal deposits, river mouths, tidal flats, and coastal
lagoons. Ed. Eisma, D., 383-438. Boca Raton, United States. CRC Press.
Chang, T. S., Flemming, B. W., Tilch, E., Bartholoma, A. and Wostmann, R. (2006): Late Holocene stratigraphic
evolution of a back-barrier tidal basin in the East Frisian Wadden Sea, Southern North Sea: Transgressive
deposition and its preservation potential. Facies 52 (3), 329-340.
Clemmensen, L. B., Andreasen, F., Nielsen, S. T. and Sten, E. (1996): The late Holocene coastal dunefield at
Vejers, Denmark: Characteristics, sand budget and depositional dynamics. Geomorphology 17 (1-3), 79-
98.
Clemmensen, L. B., Pye, K., Murray, A. and Heinemeier, J. (2001): Sedimentology, stratigraphy and landscape
evolution of a Holocene coastal dune system, Lodbjerg, NW Jutland, Denmark. Sedimentology 48 (1), 3-
27.
Clemmensen, L. B., Pedersen, K., Murray, A. and Heinemeier, J. (2006): A 7000-year record of coastal evolution,
Vejers, SW Jutland, Denmark. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark 53 1-22.
Dalrymple, R. W. (1992): Tidal depositional systems. In: Facies models - Response to sea level change. Eds.
Walker, R. G. and James, N. P., 195-218. St. John's, Canada. Geological Association of Canada.
Dalrymple, R. W., Zaitlin, B. A. and Boyd, R. (1992): Estuarine facies models - Conceptual basis and stratigraphic
implications. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 62 (6), 1130-1146.
Dansk Standardiseringsråd (1991): Standarder for vand og miljø. Fysiske og kemiske metoder. DS håndbog 21.1.
Holstebro, Denmark,
88
References
Davies, J. L. (1964): A morphogenic approach to world shorelines. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 8, 127-142.
Davis, R. A. (1989): Management of drumstick barrier islands. Reprinted from proceedings of sixth symposium on
coastal and ocean management. "Barrier Islands". Charleston, USA,
Davis, R. A. (1994): Barrier island systems - A geologic overview. In: Geology of Holocene barrier island systems.
Ed. Davis, R. A., 1-46. New York, United States. Springer-Verlag.
Davis, R. A. and Flemming, B. W. (1995): Stratigraphy of a sombined wave- and tide-dominated intertidal sand
Body: Martens Plate, East Frisian Wadden Sea, Germany. In: Tidal singatures in modern and ancient
sediments. Eds. Flemming, B. W. and Bartholomä, A., 121-132. Oxford, United Kingdom. Blackwell
Sceince.
de Béaumont, L. E. (1845): Septième Lecon. Lecons de géologie practique, 221-252. In: Benchmark papers in
geology, 1973. Ed. Schwartz, M. L., 5-43. Stroudsburg, United States. Dowden, Hutchingson and Ross,
Inc.
Duller, G. A. T. (2004): Luminescence dating of Quaternary sediments: recent advances. Journal of Quaternary
Science 19 (2), 183-192.
Ehlers, J. (1988): The morphodynamics of the Wadden Sea. Rotterdam, The Netherlands, A. A. Balkema.
Eisma, D., Mook, W. G., and Laban, C. (1981): An early Holocene tidal flat in the Southern Bight. In: Holocene
marine sedimentation in the North Sea Basin. Eds. Nio, S.-D., Shüttenhelm, R. T. E., and Weering, Tj. C.
E. van., 229-237. Oxford, United Kingdom. Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Eisma, D. (1997): Intertidal deposits - River mouths, tidal flats, and coastal lagoons. Boca Raton, United States,
CRC Press.
Fairbridge, R. W. (1980): The estuary: its definition and geodynamic cycle. In: Chemistry and biogeochemistry of
estuaries. Eds. Cato, I. and Olausson, E., 1-36. Chichester, United Kingdom. John Wiley and Sons.
Federico, I. I. (1995): Coastal lagoons. In: Geomorphology and sedimentology of estuaries. Ed. Perillo, G. M. E.,
241-272. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Elsevier.
Finkelstein, K. and Prins, D. (1981): An inexpensive, portable vibracoring system for shallow-water and land
application.
Flemming, B. W. and Nyandiwi, N. (1994): Land reclamation as a cause of fine-grained sediment depletion in
backbarrier tidal flats (Southern North Sea). Netherlands Journal of Aquatic Ecology 28 (3-4), 299-307.
Flemming, B. W. and Bartholomä, A. (1997): Response of the Wadden Sea to a rising sea level: A predictive
empirical model. German Journal of Hydrography 49 (2/3), 343-353.
Flemming, B. W. (2002): Effects of climate and human interventions on the evolution of the Wadden Sea
depositional system (Southern North Sea). In: Climate development and history of teh North Atlantic
realm. Eds. Wefer, G., Berger, W. H., Behre, K. E., and Jansen, E., 399-414. Berlin, Germany. Springer.
Galloway, W. E. (1975): Process framework for describing the morphologic and stratigraphic evolution of deltaic
depositional systems. In: Deltas, models for exploration. Ed. Broussard, M. L., 87-98. Houston, United
States. Houston Geological Society.
Gehrels, W. R., Szkornik, K., Bartholdy, J., Kirby, J. R., Bradley, S. L., Marshall, W. A., Heinemeier, J. and
Pedersen, J. B. T. (2006): Late Holocene sea-level changes and isostasy in western Denmark. Quaternary
Research 66 (2), 288-302.
89
References
Gilbert, G. K. (1885): The topographic features of lake shores. U.S. Geological Survey 5th Annual rapport, 87-88.
In: Benchmark papers in geology, 1973. Ed. Schwartz, M. L., 44-46. Stroudsburg, United States. Dowden,
Hutchingson and Ross, Inc.
Hart, H. S. (1995): Delta front estuaries. In: Geomorphology and sedimentology of estuaries. Ed. Perillo, G. M. E.,
207-240. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Elsevier.
Hayes, M. O. (1979): Barrier island morphology as a function of tidal and wave regime. In: Barrier islands - From
the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. Ed. Leatherman, S. P., 1-28. New York, United States.
Academic Press.
Heiri, O., Lotter, A. F. and Lemcke, G. (2001): Loss on ignition as a method for estimating organic and carbonate
content in sediments: reproducibility and comparability of results. Journal of Paleolimnology 25 (1), 101-
110.
Heron, S. D., Moslow, T. F., Berelson, W. M., Herbert, J. R., Steele, G. A. and Susman, K. R. (1984): Holocene
sedimentation of a wave-dominated barrier-island shoreline - Cape Lookout, North-Carolina. Marine
Geology 60 (1-4), 413-434.
Hobbie, J. E. (2000): Estuarine Science: The key to progress in coastale ecological research. In: Estuarine science. a
synthetic approach to research and practice. Ed. Hobbie, J. E., 1-16. Washington, D. C., United States.
Island Press.
Hong, D. G., Choi, M. S., Han, J. H. and Cheong, C. S. (2003): Determination of sedimentation rate of a recently
deposited tidal flat, western coast of Korea, using IRSL dating. Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (10-13),
1185-1189.
Hoselmann, C. and Streif, H. (2004): Holocene sea-level rise and its effect on the mass balance of coastal deposits.
Quaternary International 112, 89-103.
Houmark-Nielsen, M. (2004): The Pleistocen of Denmark: a review of stratigraphy and glaciation history. In:
Quaternary flaciations - Extent and chronology. Eds. Ehlers, J and Gibbard, P. L. Pp. 35-46. Amsterdam,
The Netherlands. Elsevier.
Hughen, K. A., Baillie, M. G. L., Bard, E., Beck, J. W., Bertrand, C. J. H., Blackwell, P. G., Buck, C. E., Burr, G.
S., Cutler, K. B., Damon, P. E., Edwards, R. L., Fairbanks, R. G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T. P.,
Kromer, B., McCormac, G., Manning, S., Ramsey, C. B., Reimer, P. J., Reimer, R. W., Remmele, S.,
Southon, J. R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F. W., van der Plicht, J. and Weyhenmeyer, C. E. (2004):
Marine04 marine radiocarbon age calibration, 0-26 cal kyr BP. Radiocarbon 46 (3), 1059-1086.
Hughes, R. G. (2004): Climate change and loss of saltmarshes: consequences for birds. Ibis 146, 21-28.
Huntley, D. J., Godfreysmith, D. I. and Thewalt, M. L. W. (1985): Optical dating of sediments. Nature 313 (5998),
105-107.
Jacobsen, N. K. (1964): Træk af Tøndermarskens naturgeografi med særlig henblik på morfogenesen. Folia
Geographica Danica.
Jacobsen, N. K. (1993): Shoreline development and sea-level rise in the Danish-Wadden Sea. Journal of Coastal
Research 9 (3), 721-729.
Jacobsen, N. K. (1998): The high sands of the Danish Wadden Sea - Especially the ebb-tide delta, Søren Jessens
Sande, and its incorporation with the island of Fanø. Journal of Coastal Research 14 (1), 175-184.
Jelgersma, S. (1979): Sea level changes in the North Sea basin. In: The Quaternary History of the North Sea. Eds.
Oele, E., Schüttenhelm, R. T. E., and Wiggers, A. J., 233-248. Uppsala, Sweden. Uppsala University.
90
References
Jervey, M. T. (1988): Quantitative geological modelling of siliciclastic rock sequences and their seismic
expressions. In: Sea Level Changes: an Integrated Approach. Eds. Wilgus, C. K., Hastings, B. S., Kendall,
C. G. St, Posamentier, H. W., Ross.C.A., and Wagoner, van J. C., 47-69. Tulsa, United States. Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists.
Johannessen, P. N., Nielsen, L. H., Nielsen, L., Moller, I., Pejrup, M., Andersen, T. J., Korshoj, J., Larsen, B. and
Piasecki, S. (2008): Sedimentary facies and architecture of the Holocene to Recent Rømø barrier island in
the Danish Wadden Sea. Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin (15), 49-52.
Jupiter (2009): Geological - Hydrological databases (On-line). Copenhagen, Denmark,

http://arcims.mim.dk/website/geus/dk/db/jupiter/viewer.htm (accessed 06-07-2009). Geological Survey of
Denmark and Greenland (GEUS).
Kelley, J. T., Gehrels, W. R. and Belknap, D. F. (1995): Late Holocene relative sea-level rise and the geological
development of tidal marshes at Wells, Maine, USA. Journal of Coastal Research 11 (1), 136-153.
Kjerfve, B. (1986): Comparative oceanography of coastal lagoons. In: Estuarine Variability. Ed. Wolfe, D. A., 63-
81. New York, United States. Academic Press.
Kjerfve, B. and Magill, K. E. (1989): Geographic and hydrodynamic characteristics of shallow coastal lagoons.
Marine Geology 88 (3-4), 187-199.
Kjerfve, B. (1994): Coastal lagoons. In: Coastal lagoon processes. Ed. Kjerfve, B., 1-8. Amsterdam, The
Netherlands. Elsevier.
Klagenberg, P. A., Knudsen, S. B., Sørensen, C., and Sørensen, P. (2008): Morfologisk udvikling i Vadehavet,
Knudedybs tidevandsområde. Kystdirektoratet, Danish Coastal Authority.
KMS (1997): Navigation Chart 60: Nordsøen, Fanø - Sylt. National Survey and Cadastre.
KMS (2009): National Survey and Cadastre (On-line). www.kms.dk (accessed 11-06-2009).
Knudsen, S. B., Sørensen, C., and Sørensen, P. (2008): Analyse af middelvandstanden i Vadehavet - Mean sea
levels in the Danish Wadden Sea. Kystdirektoratet, Danish Coastal Authority.
Kortekaas, M., Murray, A. S., Sandgren, P. and Bjorck, S. (2007): OSL chronology for a sediment core from the
southern Baltic Sea: A continuous sedimentation record since deglaciation. Quaternary Geochronology 2
(1-4), 95-101.
Kromann, N. M. (1934): Fanøs historie - II bind. Esbjerg, Denmark, Eget Forlag.
Kystdirektoratet (1999): Morfologisk udvikling i Vadehavet - Lister Dybs tidevandsområde og vadehavsfronten.

Danish Coastal Authorities.
Kystdirektoratet (2001): Sediment budget Vestkysten. Kystdirektoratet, Danish Coastal Authority.
Lamberti, A. and Zanuttigh, B. (2005): An integrated approach to beach management in Lido di Dante, Italy.
Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 62 (3), 441-451.
Lanesky, D. E., Logan, B. W., Brown, R. G. and Hine, A. C. (1979): New approach to portable vibracoring
underwater and on land. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 49 (2), 654-657.
Larsen, B. and Andersen, L. T. (2005): Late Quaternary stratigraphy and morphogenesis in the Danish eastern
North Sea and its relation to onshore geology. Netherlands Journal of Geosciences-Geologie en Mijnbouw
84 (2), 113-128.
Leeder, M. R. (1992): Sedimentology - Processe and product. London, United Kingdom, Chapman & Hall.
91
References
Leth, J. O., Larsen, B. and Anthony, D. (2004): Sediment distribution and transport in the shallow coastal waters
along the west coast of Denmark. Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin 4, 41-44.
Libby, W. F. (1952): Radiocarbon dating. Chicago, United States, University of Chicago.
Loizeau, J. L., Arbouille, D., Santiago, S. and Vernet, J. P. (1994): Evaluation of a wide-range laser diffraction
grain-size analyzer for use with sediments. Sedimentology 41 (2), 353-361.
Macintosh, D. J. (1994): Aquaculture in coastal lagoons. In: Coastal lagoon processes. Ed. Kjerfve, B., 401-442.
Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Elsevier.
Madsen, A. T., Murray, A. S., Andersen, T. J., Pejrup, M. and Breuning-Madsen, H. (2005): Optically stimulated
luminescence dating of young estuarine sediments: a comparison with Pb-210 and Cs-137 dating. Marine
Geology 214 (1-3), 251-268.
Madsen, A. T., Murray, A. S. and Andersen, T. J. (2007a): Optical dating of dune ridges on Rømø, a barrier island
in the Wadden Sea, Denmark. Journal of Coastal Research 23 (5), 1259-1269.
Madsen, A. T., Murray, A. S., Andersen, T. J. and Pejrup, M. (2007b): Temporal changes of accretion rates on an
estuarine salt marsh during the late Holocene - Reflection of local sea level changes? The Wadden Sea,
Denmark. Marine Geology 242 (4), 221-233.
Madsen, A. T., Murray, A. S., Andersen, T. J. and Pejrup, M. (2007c): Optical dating of young tidal sediments in
the Danish Wadden Sea. Quaternary Geochronology 2 (1-4), 89-94.
Malvern (2009): Malvern Mastersizer 2000 (On-line). www.malvern.com (accessed 08-06-2009).
Martin, L. and Dominguez, J. M. L. (1994): Geological history of coastal lagoons. In: Coastal lagoon processes. Ed.
Kjerfve, B. Pp. 41-68. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Elsevier.
Mason, J. A., Swinehart, J. B., Goble, R. J. and Loope, D. B. (2004): Late-Holocene dune activity linked to
hydrological drought, Nebraska Sand Hills, USA. Holocene 14 (2), 209-217.
Masselink, G. and Hughes, M. G. (2003): Introduction to coastal processes and geomorphology. London, United
Kingdom, Arnold.
Massey, A. C., Paul, M. A., Gehrels, W. R. and Charman, D. J. (2006): Autocompaction in Holocene coastal back-
barrier sediments from south Devon, southwest England, UK. Marine Geology 226 (3-4), 225-241.
Matthews, J. A. and Briffa, K. R. (2005): The 'Little Ice Age': Re-evaluation of an evolving concept. Geografiska
Annaler Series A-Physical Geography 87A (1), 17-36.
Mauz, B. and Bungenstock, F. (2007): How to reconstruct trends of late Holocene relative sea level: A new
approach using tidal flat clastic sediments and optical dating. Marine Geology 237 (3-4), 225-237.
Mayewski, P. A., Rohling, E. E., Stager, J. C., Karlen, W., Maasch, K. A., Meeker, L. D., Meyerson, E. A., Gasse,
F., van Kreveld, S., Holmgren, K., Lee-Thorp, J., Rosqvist, G., Rack, F., Staubwasser, M., Schneider, R.
R. and Steig, E. J. (2004): Holocene climate variability. Quaternary Research 62 (3), 243-255.
Mccave, I. N., Bryant, R. J., Cook, H. F. and Coughanowr, C. A. (1986): Evaluation of a laser-diffraction-size
analyzer for use with natural sediments. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 56 (4), 561-564.
McGee, W. J. (1890): Encroachments of the sea. The Forum, 437-449. In: Benchmark papers in geology, 1973. Ed.
Schwartz, M. L., 47-61. Stroudsburg, United States. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc.a.
Meckel, T. A., Ten Brink, U. S. and Williams, S. J. (2007): Sediment compaction rates and subsidence in deltaic
plains: numerical constraints and stratigraphic influences. Basin Research 19 (1), 19-31.
92
References
Meehl, G. A., Stocker, T. F., Collins, W. D., Friedlingstein, P., Gaye, A. T., Gregory, J. M., Kitoh, A., Knutti, R.,
Murphy, J. M., Noda, A., Raper, S. C. B., Watterson, I. G., Weaver, A. J., and Zhao, Z.-C. (2007): Global
Climate Projections. In: Climate Change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group
I to the fourth sssessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Eds. Solomon, S.,
Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., and Miller, H. L., 747-845.
Cambridge, United Kingdom. Cambridge University Press.
Mörner, N. A. (1976): Eustatic changes during the last 8,000 years in view of radiocarbon calibration and new
information from Kattegatt Region and other Northwestern European coastal areas. Palaeogeography
Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 19 (1), 63-85.
Morris, J. T., Sundareshwar, P. V., Nietch, C. T., Kjerfve, B. and Cahoon, D. R. (2002): Responses of coastal
wetlands to rising sea level. Ecology 83 (10), 2869-2877.
Moslow, T. F. and Tye, R. S. (1985): Recognition and characterization of Holocene tidal inlet sequences. Marine
Geology 63 (1-4), 129-151.
Murray, A. S., Marten, R., Johnston, A. and Martin, P. (1987): Analysis for naturally-occurring radionuclides at
environmental concentrations by gamma spectrometry. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry-
Articles 115 (2), 263-288.
Murray, A. S. and Roberts, R. G. (1998): Measurement of the equivalent dose in quartz using a regenerative-dose
single-aliquot protocol. Radiation Measurements 29 (5), 503-515.
Murray, A. S. and Wintle, A. G. (2000): Luminescence dating of quartz using an improved single-aliquot
regenerative-dose protocol. Radiation Measurements 32 (1), 57-73.
Murray, A. S. and Clemmensen, L. B. (2001): Luminescence dating of Holocene aeolian sand movement, Thy,
Denmark. Quaternary Science Reviews 20 (5-9), 751-754.
Murray, A. S. and Olley, J. M. (2002): Precision and accuracy in the optically stimulated luminescence dating og
sedimentary quartz: a status review. Geochronometria 21, 1-16.
Murray, A. S. and Wintle, A. G. (2003): The single aliquot regenerative dose protocol: potential for improvements
in reliability. Radiation Measurements 37 (4-5), 377-381.
Murray, A. S. and Funder, S. (2003): Optically stimulated luminescence dating of a Danish Eemian coastal marine
deposit: a test of accuracy. Quaternary Science Reviews 22 (10-13), 1177-1183.
Murray, A. S., Svendsen, J. I., Mangerud, J. and Astakhov, V. I. (2007): Testing the accuracy of quartz OSL dating
using a known-age Eemian site on the river Sula, northern Russia. Quaternary Geochronology 2 (1-4),
102-109.
Myers, K. J. and Milton, N. J. (1996): Concepts and principles of sequence stratigrphy. In: Sequnece stratigraphy.
Edd. Emery, D. and Myers, K. J. Pp. 11-44. Malden, United States. Blackwell Science.
Nichols, G. (1999): Sedimentology and stratigraphy. Malden, United States, Blackwell Publishing.
Nichols, M. M. (1989): Sediment accumulation rates and relative sea-level rise in lagoons. Marine Geology 88 (3-
4), 201-219.
Nielsen, A., Murray, A. S., Pejrup, M. and Elberling, B. (2006): Optically stimulated luminescence dating of a
Holocene beach ridge plain in Northern Jutland, Denmark. Quaternary Geochronology 1 (4), 305-312.
Nielsen, A. H. and Murray, A. S. (2008): The effects of holocene podzolisation on radionuclide distributions and
dose rates in sandy coastal sediments. Geochronometria 31, 53-63.
93
References
Olley, J. M., Murray, A. and Roberts, R. G. (1996): The effects of disequilibria in the uranium and thorium decay
chains on burial dose rates in fluvial sediments. Quaternary Science Reviews 15 (7), 751-760.
Pedersen, J. B. T. (2004): Fine-grained sediment budgets for the Grådyb, Knudedyb, and Juvredyb Tidal Areas, The
Danish Wadden Sea. Unpublised M. Sc. Thesis. University of Copenhagen.
Pedersen, J. B. T. (2007): On fine-grained sediment deposition in the Dansih Wadden Sea. Unpublished Ph.D.
Thesis. Copenhagen, Denmark, University of Copenhagen.
Pedersen, J. B. T. and Bartholdy, J. (2006): Budgets for fine-grained sediment in the Danish Wadden Sea. Marine
Geology 235 (1-4), 101-117.
Pedersen, J. B. T., Svinth, S. and Bartholdy, J. (2009): Holocene evolution of a drowned melt-water valley in the
Danish Wadden Sea. Quaternary Research 72 (1).
Pejrup, M., Larsen, M. and Edelvang, K. (1997): A fine-grained sediment budget for the Sylt-Rømø tidal basin.
Helgolander Meeresuntersuchungen 51 (3), 253-268.
Pejrup, M., Nielsen, L. H., Johannessen, P. N., Nielsen, L., Møllser, I. B., Murray, A., Madsen, A. T., Piasecki, S.,
Larsen, B., Elberling, B., Clemmensen, L. B., Noe-Nygaard, N., Christensen, L., Fruergaard, M., Korshoj,
J., and Andersen, T. J. (in prep): Tracing the history of a barrier island.
Perillo, G. M. E. (1995): Definitions and geomorphologic classifications of estuaries. In: Geomorphology and
sedimentology of estuaries. Ed. Perillo, G. M. E., 17-48. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Elsevier.
Phleger, F. B. (1981): A review of some general features of coastal lagoons. In: Coastal lagoon researach, present
and future: proceedings of a seminar., 7-14. UNESCO Technical Papers in Marine Science 33. United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Paris, France.
PingYin, Vinsløv, S. and Bartholdy, J. (1999): Grain-size distributions of sandy sediments - Sieving versus settling.
Geografisk Tidsskrift-Danish Journal of Geography 99, 9-17.
Prescott, J. R. and Hutton, J. T. (1988): Cosmic-ray and gamma-ray dosimetry for TL and electron-spin-resonance.
nuclear tracks and radiation measurements 14 (1-2), 223-227.
Pritchard, D. W. (1967): What is an estuary: Physical viewpoint. In: Estuaries. Ed. Lauff, G. H., 3-5. Washington,
D. C., United States. American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Reading, H. G. and Collinson, J. D. (1996): Clastic coasts. In: Sedimentary envrionments: Processes, facies and
stratigraphy. Ed. Reading, H. G., 154-231. Oxford, United Kigdom. Blackwell Science.
Reading, H. G. and Levell, B. K. (1996): Controls of the sedimentary rock record. In: Sedimentary envrionments:
Processes, facies and stratigraphy. Ed. Reading, H. G., 5-36. Oxford, United Kingdom. Blackwell Science.
Reimer, P. J. and Reimer, R. W. (2001): A marine reservoir correction database and on-line interface. Radiocarbon
43 (2A), 461-463.
Reimer, P. J., Baillie, M. G. L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Bertrand, C. J. H., Blackwell, P. G., Buck, C. E.,
Burr, G. S., Cutler, K. B., Damon, P. E., Edwards, R. L., Fairbanks, R. G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T. P.,
Hogg, A. G., Hughen, K. A., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., Manning, S., Ramsey, C. B., Reimer, R. W.,
Remmele, S., Southon, J. R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F. W., van der Plicht, J. and Weyhenmeyer,
C. E. (2004): IntCal04 terrestrial radiocarbon age calibration, 0-26 cal kyr BP. Radiocarbon 46 (3), 1029-
1058.
Reineck, H.-E. (1967): Layered sediments of tidal flats, beaches, and shelf bottoms of the North Sea. In: Estuaries.
Ed. Lauff, G. H., 191-206. Washington, D. C., United States.
94
References
Reineck, H.-E. and Wunderlich, F. (1968): Classification and origin of flaser and lenticular bedding. Sedimentology
11, 99-104.
Reineck, H.-E. and Singh, I. B. (1980): Depositional sedimentary environments. With reference to terrigenous
clastics. New York, United States, Springer-Verlag.
Reineck, H. E. and Gerdes, G. (1996): A seaward prograding siliciclastic sequence from upper tidal flats to salt
marsh facies (southern North Sea). Facies 34, 209-218.
Reinson, G. E. (1992): Transgressive barrier island and estuarine systems. In: Facies models - Response to sea level
change. Eds. Walker, R. G. and James, N. P., 179-194. St. John's, Canada. Geological Association of
Canada.
Rhodes, E. J. (2000): Observations of thermal transfer OSL signals in glacigenic quartz. Radiation Measurements
32 (5-6), 595-602.
Ribe Amt (1992): Redegørelse til regulativ for amtsvandløb nr. 5 Sneum Å. Ribe Amt.
Rieu, R., van Heteren, S., van der Spek, A. J. F. and De Boer, P. L. (2005): Development and preservation of a
Mid-Holocene tidal-channel network offshore the western Netherlands. Journal of Sedimentary Research
75 (3), 409-419.
Rittenour, T. M. (2008): Luminescence dating of fluvial deposits: applications to geomorphic, palaeoseismic and
archaeological research. Boreas 37 (4), 613-635.
Rodnight, H., Duller, G. A. T., Tooth, S. and Wintle, A. G. (2005): Optical dating of a scroll-bar sequence on the
Klip River, South Africa, to derive the lateral migration rate of a meander bend. Holocene 15 (6), 802-811.
Roep, T. B., Dabrio, C. J., Fortuin, A. R. and Polo, M. D. (1998): Late highstand patterns of shifting and stepping
coastal barriers and washover-fans (late Messinian, Sorbas Basin, SE Spain). Sedimentary Geology 116
(1-2), 27-56.
Scherneck, H.-G. (2001): BIFROST Procject: Observing the postglacial rebound in Fennoscandia using continuous
GPS (On-line). Onsala, Sweden, http://www.ecgs.lu/pdf/jlg89/JLG89_3_Scherneck.pdf (accessed 07-07-
2009).
Schwartz, R. K. (1982): Bedform and stratification characteristics of some modern small-scale washover sand
bodies. Sedimentology 29 (6), 835-849.
Shaw, E. M. (1994): Hydrology in practice. Abington, United States, Routledge.
Singer, J. K., Anderson, J. B., Ledbetter, M. T., Mccave, I. N., Jones, K. P. N. and Wright, R. (1988): An
assessment of analytical techniques for the size analysis of fine-grained sediments. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 58 (3), 534-543.
Smed, P. (1982): Landskabskort over Danmark. Brenderup, Denmark, Geografiforlaget.
Smith, D. G. (1984): Vibracoring fluvial and deltaic sediments - Tips on improving penetration and recovery.
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 54 (2), 660-663.
Smith, D. G. (1992): Vibracoring: Recent innovations. Journal of Paleolimnology 7. 137-143.
Smith, D. G. (1998): Vibracoring: A new method for coring deep lakes. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology
Palaeoecology 140 (1-4), 433-440.
Sørensen, T. H., Bartholdy, J., Christiansen, C. and Pedersen, J. B. T. (2006): Intertidal surface type mapping in the
Danish Wadden Sea. Marine Geology 235 (1-4), 87-99.
95
References
Soulsby, R. (1997): Dynamics of marine sands, a manual for practical applications. London, United Kingdom,
Thomas Telford.
Straaten, L. M. J. U. v. (1954): Composition and structure of Recent marine sediment in the Netherlands. Leidse
Geol.Mededel 19, 1-110.
Streif, H. (2002): The Pleistocene and Holocene development of the Southeastern North Sea Basin and adjacent
coastal areas. In: Climate development and history of the North Atlantic realm. Eds. Wefer, G., Berger, W.
H., Behre, K.-E., and Jansen, E. 387-398. Berlin, Germany. Springer.
Streif, H. (2004): Sedimentary record of Pleistocene and Holocene marine inundations along the North Sea coast of
Lower Saxony, Germany. Quaternary International 112, 3-28.
Stuiver, M. and Reimer, P. J. (1993): Extended C-14 data-base and revised Calib 3.0 C-14 age calibration program.
Radiocarbon 35 (1), 215-230.
Stuiver, M., Reimer, P. J. and Reimer, R. W. (2005): CALIB 5.0. [WWW program and documentation] .
Szkornik, K., Gehrels, W. R. and Murray, A. S. (2008): Aeolian sand movement and relative sea-level rise in Ho
Bugt, western Denmark, during the 'Little Ice Age'. Holocene 18 (6), 951-965.
Thomas, R. G., Smith, D. G., Wood, J. M., Visser, J., Calverleyrange, E. A. and Koster, E. H. (1987): Inclined
heterolithic stratification - Terminology, description, interpretation and significance. Sedimentary Geology
53 (1-2), 123-179.
Thomsen, K. J. (2004): Optically stimulated luminescence techniques in retrospective dosimetry using single grains
of quartz extracted from unheated materials. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. Roskilde, Denmark, Risø
National Laboratory.
Thomsen, K. J., Bøtter-Jensen, L., Denby, P. M., Moska, P. and Murray, A. S. (2006): Developments in
luminescence measurement techniques. Radiation Measurements 41 (7-8), 768-773.
Trumbore, S. E. (2000): Radiocarbon geochronology. In: Quaternary geochronology. Ed. Noller, J. S., Sowers, J.
M., and Lettis, W. R. 41-60. Washington, United States. The American Geophysical Union.
Udden, J. A. (1914): Mechanical composition of clastic sediments. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America
25 655-744.
Vandenberghe, D. (2004): Investigation of the optically stimulated luminescence dating method for application to
young geological sediments. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Ghent, Belgium, Department of Analytical
Chemistry, Ghent University.
Vølund, G., Lisby, T., Kloster, B. B., Andersen, I., Jensen, L. B., and Aarup, E. (2006): Morfologisk udvikling i
Vadehavet. Grådybs Tidevandsområde og Skallingen. Kystdirektoratet, Danish Coastal Authority.
Vos, P. C. and van Kesteren, W. P. (2000): The long-term evolution of intertidal mudflats in the northern
Netherlands during the Holocene; natural and anthropogenic processes. Continental Shelf Research 20
(12-13), 1687-1710.
Wallinga, J. (2002): Optically stimulated luminescence dating of fluvial deposits: a review. Boreas 31 (4), 303-322.
Wallinga, J., Murray, A. and Duller, G. (2000): Underestimation of equivalent dose in single-aliquot optical dating
of feldspars caused by preheating. Radiation Measurements 32 (5-6), 691-695.
Wentworth, C. K. (1922): A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. Journal of Geology 30 (5), 377-
392.
96
I. Appendix – Abbreviation, units, and isotopes
I. Appendix – Abbreviation, units, and isotopes

Abbreviations
AD Anno Domini
AMS Accelerator Mass Spectrometry
BC Before Christ
BLSL Blue Light Stimulated Luminescence
B.P. Before Present (defined as prior to1950)
D0 Equivalent dose
De Equivalent dose
DVR90 Danish Vertical Reference 1990
ED Equivalent dose
ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper
H2O2 Hydrogen peroxide
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HF Hydrofluoric acid
IR Infra-Red
IRSL Infra-Red Stimulated Luminescence
LED Light-Emitting Diode
Li Regenerative dose response
LIA Little Ice Age
MHV Mean High Water
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
OSL Optical Stimulated Luminescence
PMT Photo Multiplier Tube
PTM Postglacial Transgression Maximum identified by Mörner (1976)
R Period with regression identified by Behre (2007)
SAR Single Aliquot Regenerative
SSL Sediment Sea Level
Ti Test dose response
TL Thermoluminescence
Units
Bq Becquerel (1. decay per. second)
Gy Grays (J kg-1)
s seconds
t ton
yr years
Isotopes
12
C Carbon-12 isotope
13
C Carbon-13 isotope
14
C Carbon-14 isotope
137
Cs Cesium-137 isotope
210
Pb Lead-210 isotope
226
Ra Radium-226 isotope
222
Rn Radon-222 isotope
90
Sr Strontium-90 isotope
232
Th Thorium-232 isotope
238
U Uranium-238 isotope
90
Y Yttrium-90 isotope
97
II. Appendix – 14C calibration curves

Sample: AMS-L3/190 from core L3. Hydrobia ulvae 190 cm below surface.
Sample: AMS-L3/491 from core L3. Macoma balthica 491 cm below surface.
98
Sample: AMS-L5/145 from core L5. Mytilus edulis 145 cm below surface.
99
III. Appendix – Grain-size analysis

Facies 2a: Lower tidal facies - high energy
Sample: L4 - 253 cm below surface Sample: L4 - 258 cm below surface
100
101
Facies 2b: Lower tidal facies – low energy

102
103
Sample: L5 – 143 cm below surface Sample: L5 – 172 cm below surface
104
105
106
107
Sample: L5 – 300 cm below surface Sample L5 – 314 cm below surface
108
109
Facies 3: Upper tidal sand flat facies

110
111
Facies 3: Upper tidal mixed flat facies

112
113
114
115
116
Facies 4: Upper tidal mud flat facies

Sample: L3 – 73 cm below surface
117
118
Facies 5: Supra tidal / salt marsh facies

119
120
Facies 6: Distributary mouth bar facies

121
122
123
124
Sample: L2 – 354 cm below surface
125
Facies 9: Washover facies

Sample: L4 (1) – 272 cm below the surface Sample: L4 (2) – 272 cm below the surface
126
127
IV. Appendix – Loss on ignition
IV. Appendix – Loss on ignition

The loss of organic material after two hours of combustion at 450°C.
L1 L2 L3 L4 L5
Sample LOI Sample LOI Sample LOI Sample LOI Sample LOI
depth (%) depth (%) depth (%) depth (%) depth (%)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
12 1.0 10 1.9 12 0.6 13 0.7 13 3.0
24 1.5 20 1.9 23 0.6 26 0.6 27 1.4
36 1.9 30 0.7 35 1.1 39 0.9 40 1.5
48 2.2 40 0.6 47 1.9 52 2.9 54 0.4
60 2.8 50 1.1 59 6.5 65 1.7 67 0.7
72 2.5 60 1.9 70 6.9 77 1.1 80 2.6
84 2.9 70 1.3 82 5.2 90 3.6 94 2.2
96 2.5 80 1.7 94 0.7 103 8.0 107 0.6
108 2.9 90 6.4 105 1.0 116 1.0 121 1.0
120 1.9 100 8.6 117 1.7 129 3.0 134 0.5
132 78.1 110 3.7 129 0.6 142 0.9 147 0.9
144 78.1 120 2.4 140 0.8 155 0.8 161 0.5
156 61.6 130 3.3 152 5.1 168 1.9 174 0.9
168 78.4 140 2.5 164 8.2 181 0.7 188 1.9
180 38.0 150 2.7 176 8.7 194 0.9 201 0.5
160 2.3 187 7.2 206 1.1 214 0.8
170 1.5 199 5.3 219 0.9 228 0.9
180 2.2 211 0.6 232 0.8 241 1.4
190 7.3 222 0.4 245 0.5 255 4.1
200 2.6 234 0.8 258 1.1 268 0.5
210 1.9 246 0.4 271 0.9 281 0.7
220 1.7 257 0.9 284 0.4 295 0.6
230 0.5 269 11.2 297 1.3 308 1.3
240 0.2 281 0.6 310 0.5 322 0.6
250 0.5 293 8.9 323 0.5 335 1.6
260 0.7 304 9.6 335 0.2 348 1.1
270 0.5 316 0.7 348 0.2 362 0.4
280 1.0 328 0.7
290 1.4 339 1.0
300 1.5 351 1.2
310 3.2 363 1.0
320 3.5 374 0.5
330 4.8 386 0.3
340 1.9 398 0.5
350 8.0 410 0.6
360 4.4 421 2.0
370 1.2 433 2.0
380 59.1 445 3.2
456 1.5
468 1.7
480 0.4
491 2.2
128
V. Appendix – Photographs of core sequences

Core log: L1
129
Core log: L2
130
Core log: L3
131
Core log: L4
132
Core log: L5
133
VI. Appendix – Radionuclide concentrations

The natural occurring radionuclide concentrations measured in the samples together with the
corresponding dry infinite matrix dose rates resulting from the decay series in Figure VI.1 are
presented in Table VI.1.
Figure VI.1: Thorium and Uranium decay series. After Aitken (1985).
134
Table VI.1: Radionuclide concentrations and infinite matrix dose rates.

238 226 232 40
Core name Sample Depth below Depth, U, Ra, Th, K, Infinite matrix Infinite matrix
id surface, cm Bq kg-1 Bq kg-1 Bq kg-1 Bq kg-1 β-dose rate, γ-dose rate,
cm DVR90 mGy yr-1 mGy yr-1
L1/38 38 -4 14.1 ± 7.0 19.3 ± 0.6 26.4 ± 0.7 472 ± 14 0.84 ± 0.02 1.46 ± 0.05
L1 L1/82 82 -48 24.4 ± 6.6 21.3 ± 0.6 27.9 ± 0.6 507 ± 14 0.90 ± 0.02 1.63 ± 0.04
L1/120 120 -86 44.8 ± 13.2 19.7 ± 1.0 24.9 ± 1.1 434 ± 15 0.80 ± 0.02 1.51 ± 0.07
L2/34 34 -127 8.3 ± 6.5 9.6 ± 0.5 9.3 ± 0.5 419 ± 10 0.51 ± 0.01 1.17 ± 0.04
L2/76 76 -169 14.8 ± 5.2 13.7 ± 0.4 16.3 ± 0.5 436 ± 9 0.65 ± 0.01 1.31 ± 0.03
L2/86 86 -179 31.0 ± 17.7 22.2 ± 1.3 28.3 ± 1.3 566 ± 24 0.96 ± 0.03 1.81 ± 0.09
L2/138 138 -231 22.1 ± 9.9 17.6 ± 0.8 22.0 ± 0.9 498 ± 14 0.79 ± 0.02 1.54 ± 0.05
L2/149 149 -242 44.2 ± 11.2 18.8 ± 0.8 21.3 ± 0.9 498 ± 15 0.80 ± 0.02 1.64 ± 0.06
L2/177 177 -270 11.5 ± 7.4 17.2 ± 0.6 18.5 ± 0.7 458 ± 11 0.71 ± 0.02 1.38 ± 0.04
L2/195 195 -288 -0.3 ± 14.0 25.0 ± 1.1 28.0 ± 1.1 535 ± 20 0.94 ± 0.03 1.62 ± 0.08
L2
L2/221 221 -314 6.8 ± 7.5 10.9 ± 0.6 10.2 ± 0.6 363 ± 10 0.49 ± 0.01 1.04 ± 0.04
L2/234 234 -327 5.0 ± 6.4 4.9 ± 0.5 3.4 ± 0.5 357 ± 10 0.36 ± 0.01 0.94 ± 0.04
L2/263 263 -356 19.1 ± 8.4 8.3 ± 0.6 7.2 ± 0.7 421 ± 12 0.49 ± 0.01 1.20 ± 0.05
L2/296 296 -389 9.9 ± 8.8 12.1 ± 0.7 11.3 ± 0.7 470 ± 13 0.60 ± 0.02 1.33 ± 0.05
L2/325 325 -418 21.1 ± 10.3 22.7 ± 0.8 25.4 ± 0.9 508 ± 14 0.88 ± 0.02 1.61 ± 0.06
L2/348 348 -441 47.9 ± 12.7 19.6 ± 0.9 22.2 ± 1.0 470 ± 16 0.80 ± 0.02 1.59 ± 0.07
L2/371 371 -464 29.7 ± 6.5 10.8 ± 0.5 9.9 ± 0.5 327 ± 9 0.47 ± 0.01 1.04 ± 0.03
L3/43 43 -61 17.9 ± 5.6 8.5 ± 0.5 9.8 ± 0.4 421 ± 12 0.52 ± 0.01 1.21 ± 0.04
L3/92 92 -110 15.8 ± 9.8 10.4 ± 0.7 11.5 ± 0.8 382 ± 12 0.52 ± 0.02 1.13 ± 0.05
L3/145 145 -163 12.0 ± 7.8 8.7 ± 0.6 8.0 ± 0.6 384 ± 11 0.47 ± 0.01 1.09 ± 0.04
L3/193 193 -211 10.4 ± 7.6 12.3 ± 0.6 14.8 ± 0.6 432 ± 15 0.61 ± 0.02 1.26 ± 0.05
L3/202 202 -220 10.6 ± 10.4 7.4 ± 0.7 6.4 ± 0.8 364 ± 13 0.42 ± 0.01 1.01 ± 0.05
L3 L3/249 249 -267 5.7 ± 6.6 6.1 ± 0.5 4.1 ± 0.5 369 ± 10 0.39 ± 0.01 0.98 ± 0.04
L3/300 300 -318 10.7 ± 6.8 8.3 ± 0.5 8.0 ± 0.5 387 ± 11 0.47 ± 0.01 1.09 ± 0.04
L3/319 319 -337 7.5 ± 3.4 5.6 ± 0.3 4.8 ± 0.3 370 ± 9 0.39 ± 0.01 1.00 ± 0.03
L3/386 386 -404 5.4 ± 5.9 5.4 ± 0.4 4.7 ± 0.4 355 ± 8 0.38 ± 0.01 0.95 ± 0.03
L3/438 438 -456 8.6 ± 5.5 10.0 ± 0.4 8.0 ± 0.5 421 ± 9 0.50 ± 0.01 1.17 ± 0.03
L3/495 495 -513 12.8 ± 5.8 8.4 ± 0.5 8.2 ± 0.5 374 ± 12 0.46 ± 0.01 1.06 ± 0.04
L5/54 54 -86 20.7 ± 11.1 8.3 ± 0.8 8.4 ± 0.9 409 ± 14 0.49 ± 0.02 1.18 ± 0.06
L5/105 105 -137 6.7 ± 7.4 7.6 ± 0.5 7.1 ± 0.6 344 ± 10 0.41 ± 0.01 0.95 ± 0.04
L5/161 161 -193 13.3 ± 8.5 7.8 ± 0.6 8.0 ± 0.7 407 ± 12 0.48 ± 0.01 1.14 ± 0.05
L5 L5/210 210 -242 -4.5 ± 7.4 8.3 ± 0.5 7.4 ± 0.6 405 ± 11 0.47 ± 0.01 1.06 ± 0.04
L5/291 291 -323 3.1 ± 4.4 8.5 ± 0.3 8.3 ± 0.4 376 ± 8 0.46 ± 0.01 1.03 ± 0.03
L5/344 344 -376 -1.0 ± 5.3 5.5 ± 0.4 5.3 ± 0.4 335 ± 11 0.37 ± 0.01 0.88 ± 0.03
L5/366 366 -398 -0.2 ± 10.4 6.0 ± 0.7 5.2 ± 0.8 309 ± 12 0.35 ± 0.01 0.82 ± 0.05
135
VII. Appendix – List of figures and tables

List of figures
Figure 2.1: Classification of coastlines on the basis of tidal range. (a) Micro-tidal coasts with a tidal range <2 m, (b)
meso-tidal coasts with a tidal range of 2 to 4 m, and (c) macro-tidal coasts with a tidal range > 4 m. After Hayes
(1979) ........................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2.2: Coastal lagoons subdivided into (a) Choked Lagoons, (b) Restricted Lagoons, and (c) Leaky Lagoons
based on the degree of water exchange with the adjacent coastal ocean. After Kjerfve (1994). .................................. 6
Figure 2.3: Diagram showing the generation of longitudinal cross-bedding on the point bar of a tidal channel. In the
base of the channel a shell and pebble bed represent channel lag deposits. After Reineck & Singh (1980). ............... 8
Figure 2.4: Scheme of classification of flaser, wavy, and lenticular bedding. Varying proportions of mud and sand
produces different forms of bedding. Modified after Reineck & Singh (1980) and Nichols (1999). ........................... 8
Figure 2.5: Patterns of strata relative to sediment supply and sea level. (a) Aggration occurs when there is a balance
between the rates of sediment supply and sea level rise. (b) Regression occurs when the sediment supply exceeds
the sea level rise and patterns of progradation forms. (c) Forced regression takes place under a relative sea level fall
and causes shift of facies basinward. (d) Transgression occurs when the sea level rise exceeds the sediment supply
and patterns of retrogradation forms. After Nichols (1999). ...................................................................................... 10
Figure 2.6: (a) diagram showing the various sedimentation zones in a delta front environment. Modified after
Reineck & Singh (1980). (b) Cross section of a seaward prograding depositional environment. Due to prograding of
the delta coarsening-upward succession is generated. Modified after Nichols (1999). .............................................. 13
Figure 2.7: Main Weichselian Advance. M: Main Stationary Line, F, S, and V: Re-advances during general
deglaciation. After Houmark-Nielsen (2004). ............................................................................................................ 14
Figure 2.8: Holocene sea level reconstruction according to Mörner (1976), Jelgersma (1979), Behre (2007), and
Pedersen et al. (2009). ................................................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 2.9: The average rate in sea level rise in the Wadden Sea as measured in Esbjerg. The measured rise in sea
level for the periods 1972 to 2007 and 1993 to 2003 should only be accepted with some reserves. After Knudsen et
al. (2008)..................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 3.1: Location map. (a) The European Wadden Sea stretches from Blåvandshuk in north to Den Helder in
south. (b) Landsat image (ETM+ 31. May 2003) showing the Danish part of the European Wadden Sea.
Southernmost part not included. ................................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 3.2: The lagoon between Fanø and Jutland. Modified after KMS (1997). The tidal divide after Klagenberg et
al. (2008)..................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 3.3: Sediment types in the lagoon between Fanø and Jutland. Modified after Sørensen et al. (2006). The tidal
divide after Klagenberg et al., (2008). ........................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 4.1: The sampling method from the halve core tube. 1. subsample is used for equivalent dose estimation and
2. subsample for dose rate estimation. ........................................................................................................................ 29
Figure 4.2: Schematic drawing of the Risø TL/OSL luminescence reader. After Thomsen (2004). .......................... 30
136
Figure 4.3: Sensitivity corrected growth curve for sample L2/296. Regenerated signals are shown as filled circles
(●), recycling point shown with an open circle (○) is derived from repeating of an earlier dose. The recuperation
signal corresponds to a zero Gy dose measurement shown with an open square (□). ................................................ 31
Figure 4.4: The atmospheric (IntCal04) (Reimer et al., 2004) and marine (Marine04) (Hughen et al., 2004) 14C level
for the last 3000 years. The atmospheric 14C level changes quickly but is muted in the ocean mix layer. ‘R’ is the
global marine reservoir age, and it is necessary to assign the regional difference ΔR when using the Marine04
calibration curve. ........................................................................................................................................................ 34
Figure 4.5: Example of the digitisation of Lundvig Løb. Background is the aerial photo from 1990. Red line shows
the position of Lundvig Løb in 1990 and the green line the position in 2003. The small black lines are transects
between the two digitised lines used to measure the size of displacement. The white arrow shows the general
direction of displacement. ........................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 5.1: Natural decay curves from a sample close to the surface (L3/43), a relative deep lying sample (L3/438),
and a sample with an intermediate depth (L2/296) (a log scale is used for clarity). ................................................... 39
Figure 5.2: Preheat plateau test on sample L2/296. (a) Equivalent dose (●) as a function of 8 different preheat
temperatures. (b) Corresponding recycling (○) ratio and recuperation (■) for each of the temperatures. The dashed
lines highlight the ideal measurements of unity. The cut heat was 160°C and the test dose was 3.4 Gy. Each point
represents the average of three aliquots. ..................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 5.3: Thermal transfer test on sample L2/296. (a) Equivalent dose (De) (●) as a function of 8 different preheat
temperatures. (b) Corresponding recycling ratios (○) and recuperation (■) for each of the temperatures. The dashed
lines highlight the ideal measurements of unity. The cut-heat was 160°C and the test dose was 3.4 Gy. Each point
represents the average of three aliquots. ..................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 5.4: Dose recovery test on sample L2/296. (a) Measured / given dose ratio (●), as a function of 8 different
preheat temperatures. (b) Corresponding recycling ratios (○) and recuperation (■) for each of the temperatures. The
dashed lines highlight the ideal measurements of unity. The cut-heat was 160°C and the test dose was 3.4 Gy. Each
point represents the average of 3 aliquots. .................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 5.5: Summary of dose recovery data on all samples. (a) Dose recovery tests were done for all samples using
3 aliquots per sample. The given dose was ~De for all samples. The 1:1 line is dashed but is behind the linear fit
through all samples and only visible in the top (r2=0.99, n=105, p<0.05). (b) Same aliquots as in (a) but shown as a
histogram. The dashed line marks the interval 0.9 to 1.1; 69 % of the aliquots have dose recovery ratios within this
interval (n = 105, average = 0.965 and standard err. = 0.012). ................................................................................... 42
Figure 5.6: Plot of OSL ages as a function of calibrated 14C ages. The dashed line represents the 1:1 relationship and
the solid line represents a linear fit through all data points (r2=0.99, n=3, p<0.05). The horizontal and vertical error
bars displays the standard error of the OSL ages and AMS ages, respectively. The OSL ages have been corrected
into years before present to allow for direct comparison with the 14C ages. ............................................................... 44
Figure 5.7: Landsat ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) scene from 2003 with location of coring sites indicated
with red crosses. Tidal divide is shown with a dashed line after Klagenberg et al. (2008). The network of tidal
channels transporting water from the Grådyb and Knudedyb tidal inlets towards the tidal divide are indicated with
the light gray lines. These lines have been drawn on the basis of a Landsat ETM+ 2001 scene at low water. .......... 44
Figure 5.8: Sedimentological core logs from the L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5 sites (for location see Figure 5.7) with
approximately distance between core sites. Optical ages in years before 2008 (no dates available from L4),
lithology, and structures. To the right the facies associations related to the lithology and structure are shown. (a)
freshwater swamp or bog association, (b) tidal channel association, (c) intertidal flat association, (d) salt marsh and
mudflat association, (e) distributary mouth bar association, (f) storm bed association, and (g) washover association.
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
137
Figure 5.9: The primary mode grain size as a function of depth on the basic of 10 grain size analysis from the
intertidal flat association in L1. The solid line displays a linear fit (r2=0.39, n=10, p>0.05). .................................... 54
Figure 5.10: The primary mode grain size as a function of depth on the basis of 9 grain size analysis from the
upward coarsening distributary mouth bar association in L2. The solid line displays a linear fit (r2=0.86, n=9,
p<0.005)...................................................................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 5.11: The primary mode grain size as a function of depth on the basis of 16 grain size analysis from the tidal
channel association in L5. The solid line displays a linear fit (r2=0.14, n=16, p<0.05). ............................................. 55
Figure 5.12: The variation of optical ages with elevation (cm DVR90) of samples taken at the L1, L2, L3, and L5
core sites. The error bars indicate the standard error and the slope of the dashed line is the average vertical accretion
rate in cm yr-1. The solid line is the mean sea level as proposed by Behre (2007). Except from expressing an
accretion rate the slope of the graph is an indicator for the type of depositional environment. The position of the
graph in relation to the sea level indicates whether the sediment was deposited above or below the sea level. Note
that the scale of the axes is not the same. ................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 5.13: Frequency histogram showing the thirty-five OSL dates grouped with a bin size of 145 years. Dashed
line marks two age intervals (approximately 4700 to 2650 years and 1450 to 900 years before present) in which no
ages are obtained indicating periods of non-deposition or erosion. ............................................................................ 59
Figure 5.14: Investigation of modern channel displacement at the tidal divide in the lagoon. (a) Landsat ETM+ 2003
scene showing the location of the examined channels (tidal divide after Klagenberg et al. (2008)). (b) Aerial
photograph from 1990 showing Lundvig Løb. (c) The same photo as in (b) but showing Kelding Lo. Red lines mark
the position of Lundvig Løb and Kelding Lo in 1990. The green lines mark the position of Lundvig Løb in 2003 and
Kelding Lo in 2001. The small black lines are transects used to calculate the displacement of the channels and the
white arrows shows the direction of displacement. .................................................................................................... 60
Figure 5.15: West-east profile of approximately upper 5 metres of the lagoon. Coring sites are indicated with red
vertical lines from which all sedimentary boundaries and timelines are measured from. Isochrones (green dashed
lines) are based on thirty-five OSL dates of sediment samples, provides a description of the temporal development
of the lagoon. OSL ages in years before present. The peat subsurface is indicated with partial solid and partial dotted
brown line. The solid part of the line is based on 8 eigelkamp gauge auger drillings. The dashed section is more
speculative and only relies on the peat at the bottom of L2. The gray line represents the Pleistocene subsurface and
is composed of the same eigelkamp gauge auger drillings as the peat surface. .......................................................... 62
Figure 6.1: Lowermost part of core L3 with the Macoma balthica used for 14C dating. The mussel is out of growth
position and possibly transported which can explain the inconsistency between the OSL and 14C age. .................... 65
Figure 6.2: Contours of contemporary crustal movement in mm yr-1 affecting the European Wadden Sea. The study
site is located south of the 0 mm yr-1 line which indicates a lowering of the area. Isostasy measured by Global
Positioning System. After Scherneck (2001). ............................................................................................................. 67
Figure 6.3: Schematic cross section through the coastal Holocene with important morphological and sedimentary
elements. Modified after Streif (2004)........................................................................................................................ 71
Figure 6.4: Sediment-Sea-Level (SSL) diagram with dated samples from 4 cores. The sample elevation as a function
of the optical age. The black line represents the regional sea level curve according to Behre (2007). The red line is
the local relative sea level curve according to Pedersen et al. (2009). The encircled point from the L5 core is
believed to be erroneously old due to sampling to close to the erosional base, thus contain both old and young
sediment. ..................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 6.5: Segment of the lowermost part of core L5 showing an escape trace. Fast sedimentation causes benthic
fauna to try escaping leaving distinct traces. .............................................................................................................. 73
138
Figure 6.6: Conceptual model illustrating transgressive sedimentation in a channel dominated lagoon. Repeated
cycles of sediment accumulation are followed by periods of erosion when the channel displaces by. The accretion
generally occurs in two rates. A high Sedimentation Rate (SR) when the deposition is controlled by point bar
sedimentation in the channel scour and a low rate after the channel is filled and tidal flat sedimentation prevails.
Bioturbation are created during tidal flat sedimentation and eroded by the displacing channels. The right part of the
figure shows a schematic sedimentary log of the succession. .................................................................................... 77
Figure 6.7: Extraction of peat in the tidal flat east of Sønderho 1917 (Kromann, 1934). ........................................... 79
List of tables
Table 4.1: Generalised single-aliquot regeneration sequence (SAR protocol). After Murray & Wintle (2003). ....... 30
Table 5.1: Summary of sample depth below surface, depth in Danish Vertical Reference 1990 (DVR90), grain size,
estimated water content values as weight percentage, n the number of aliquots of the sample used to determining the
equivalent dose (De), total dose rate, luminescence ages with standard error in years, and standard error in
percentage for the L1, L2, L3, and L5 core sites. ....................................................................................................... 38
Table 5.2: AMS radiocarbon ages for the L3 and L5 site calibrated with CALIB v. 5.0.2 (Stuiver et al., 2005;
Stuiver & Reimer, 1993) using the Marine04 calibration curve and the Marine Reservoir Correction Database
(Hughen et al., 2004; Reimer & Reimer, 2001). ......................................................................................................... 43
Table 5.3: The three corresponding OSL samples used for the comparison with the AMS datings. No OSL dating
did directly correspond with the 14C dating of the shell in the L5 core why the OSL age marked with (*) has been
converted, by linear interpolation, to correspond to a depth of 145 cm below the surface which is the depth of the
14
C sample. ................................................................................................................................................................. 43
Table 5.4: Summary of the facies analysis from the core logs. .................................................................................. 46
Table 5.5: The percentage of each facies association of a total of 18 metres of core obtained from the lagoon. ....... 56
Table 5.6: Average displacements rates per year for Lundvig Løb and Kelding Lo in the periods 1990 to 2003 and
1990 to 2001, respectively. ......................................................................................................................................... 60
139
View publication stats

Fruergaard2009M.sc - Thesis MidHolocenetoRecentsedimentaryevolutionofamicro Tidal

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fruergaard2009M.sc - Thesis MidHolocenetoRecentsedimentaryevolutionofamicro Tidal

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Mid Holocene to Recent sedimentary evolution of a micro-tidal coastal

Research · June 2015

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Supervisors: Morten Pejrup, Thorbjørn Joest Andersen

External supervisor: Andrew S. Murray

Front page images:

A detailed absolute chronology composed of 35 Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) ages

En detaljeret absolut kronologi, som udgøres af 35 Optisk Stimulerede Luminescens (OSL)

Tidevandskanalernes høje forskydningsrater forhindrer i de fleste tilfælde genkendelsen af

De langvarige sedimentationsrater som er fundet i lagunen er lavere end den nuværende og

Nøgleord: OSL-datering; Faciesanalyse; Transgressiv sedimentation; Sedimentationsrater;

Chapter 3 introduces the regional setting of the study site.

Chapter 7 contains summary and conclusions of this thesis.

Chapter 8 outlines the perspectives of the study.

The overall objectives of this study are therefore:

 To establish an absolute chronology across a micro-tidal coastal lagoon by the use of

 To reconstruct the Mid Holocene to Recent stratigraphic development of a micro-tidal

 To analyse the temporal and spatial variations in sedimentation rates in a micro-tidal

 To investigate whether the sedimentation in a micro-tidal coastal lagoon is able to keep

2.1. Barrier islands formation and characteristics

(a) (b) (c)

2.2. Coastal lagoon formation and characteristics

(a) (b) (c)

2.3. Distribution of sediments and sedimentary structures in coastal lagoons

2.3.1. Characteristics of dominant bedding types in coastal lagoons

2.3.2. Sedimentary signatures of sea level changes

2.3.3. Preservation potentials

2.4. Sedimentary subunits in coastal lagoons

2.4.2. Washover deposits

2.5. The evolution of the European Wadden Sea

2.5.1. Sea level fluctuations in the Wadden Sea region

1889-2007 1,35 mm yr-1

1972-2007 4.00 mm yr-1

3.1. The Wadden Sea

3.1.2. The lagoon of Fanø

4.1. The vibracoring technique

4.2. Core processing

4.3. Optical dating

4.3.1. Sample preparation

4.3.2. Luminescence measurements

Corrected OSL, Li/Ti

4.3.3. Dosimetry measurements

4.3.3.1. Correction for water content

4.4. Radiocarbon dating

a conventional radiocarbon age to a historical age a calibration is therefore necessary. In this

4.5. Loss on Ignition

4.6. Grain-size analyses

4.7. Determination of modern channel displacement rates

5.1. OSL ages and luminescence characteristics

5.1.1. The dependence of equivalent dose on preheat temperature

160 200 240 280 320

5.1.2. Thermal transfer test

160 200 240 280 320

5.1.3. Dose recovery test

160 200 240 280 320

5.2. Independent age control of the OSL ages

L3 L3/193 193 -211 Sand 1698 ± 80 1698 ± 80

5.3. Core descriptions

5.3.1. Facies analysis

Fs 2b: Low inclined heterolithic 16

energy. upward fining is Primary

Fs 3: Sand or mixed sand and 12

To establish an absolute chronology across a micro-tidal coastal lagoon by the use of

To reconstruct the Mid Holocene to Recent stratigraphic development of a micro-tidal

To analyse the temporal and spatial variations in sedimentation rates in a micro-tidal

To investigate whether the sedimentation in a micro-tidal coastal lagoon is able to keep

Short-term rates of sedimentation range from 0.6 mm yr-1 to 16 mm yr-1. Low