Christopher O.

Castro
Jose Kian Provido Brgy. Poblacion,Daanbantayan, Cebu
Clarence Losadio Group 4
Jan Eloise Nogra

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Review of literature gives an overview of the previous studies done pertaining to the

current area of investigation. The literature review in this section encapsulates the various studies

undertaken that is relevant to the development of a DIY Three-Layered Face Mask through

Wettability Engineering. 

Wettability Engineering

Wettability engineering plays a crucial part in the measurement of liquids’ ability of

interaction with other fluids and/or solid surface. Wettability measures the level of wetting when

solid and liquid phases interact with each other. It measures the surface attributes of polymers

and performs many important tasks in printing and coating of liquids. (Sarkar & Rashid, 2020)

According to Bhardwaj and Agrawal (2020), one of the main mechanisms of the

transmission of COVID-19 is by respiratory droplets deposited on a surface because the drying

time of respiratory droplets is related to the spread of COVID-19. These droplets are ejected

while coughing, sneezing, or even speaking moistly. The drying time of such droplets on a

surface is particularly important since it decides the duration over which the coronavirus can get

transmitted from an infected person to another person through contact with a contaminated

droplet. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume substantially reduced chances of infection after the

drying of the respiratory droplets.

A crucial piece of information for designing protective masks and assessing their efficacy

is the fluid dynamic data related to coughing and sneezing, namely, volume flow rate of air

ejected along with number density, size and velocity distributions of the ejected droplets and

aerosols. (Sarkar et al. 2020). Both these factors play determining roles in the trajectory of the

droplets and their longevity as air-borne particles. Although such detailed studies in the context

of COVID-19 virus transmission are, expectedly, scarce in the peer-reviewed open literature,

similar studies are available in the context of other air-borne infectious diseases, like influenza

and earlier versions of corona virus, like SARS and MERS (Sarkar et al. 2020).

Highspeed flow visualization studies have shown that during violent respiratory events,

like sneezing and coughing, the pathogen-carrying droplets of diameter 10 μm may remain
Christopher O. Castro
Jose Kian Provido Brgy. Poblacion,Daanbantayan, Cebu
Clarence Losadio Group 4
Jan Eloise Nogra
suspended even at several meters away from the source (Bouroiba et al. 2014). Highspeed flow

visualization studies have shown that during violent respiratory events, like sneezing and

coughing, the pathogen-carrying droplets of diameter 10 μm may remain suspended even at

several meters away from the source (Bouroiba et al. 2014). Moreover, such small droplets, from

the cough or sneeze cloud can be re-suspended by the ambient air currents having velocities of

the order of 1 cm/s.

Yang et al. (2007) reported that the average droplet size distribution was 0.58–5.42 μm

and 82% of the droplets were in the range 0.74–2.12 μm. Thus, face masks have dual challenges

of preventing liquid penetration for high-velocity droplets from inside to outside during cough

and sneeze, and also the ingress of suspended droplets from the ambient.

Leveraging wettability engineering by tailoring its surface wettability can help reduce

chances of infection of COVID-19 by a respiratory droplet and minimize the use of disposable

surgical masks which can help the environment.

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Materials for Face Masks:

Due to the widespread use of felt masks in the community, improving the filtration

capability of this mask for particles smaller than 500 nm and also modifying the surface and

structure of the mask by hydrophilizing polypropylene fibers inside the mask can play an

important role in reducing the prevalence of Covid-19. (Tabrizi et al. 2020).

Here, we introduce hydrophilic and hydrophobic materials as a mask-free alternative to

achieving a low-cost and effective mask for reusability purposes. Due to the lack of N95 masks

and medical masks with good performance, felt masks are widely used due to their ease of

manufacture and low cost.

WPT Nonwovens Corporations stated that hydrophobic material resists water penetration

with extremely low absorbency and high stability. They are lightweight, soft, water-repellent,

antibacterial and have high strength. Hydrophobic nonwovens are used for products that are

intended to provide a dry barrier, while withstanding moisture. While hydrophilic materials on

the other hand are used for products that are made for absorption of liquids and moisture, but

must retain original strength and form. They are washable, comfortable, soft, air permeable,
Christopher O. Castro
Jose Kian Provido Brgy. Poblacion,Daanbantayan, Cebu
Clarence Losadio Group 4
Jan Eloise Nogra
lightweight, and have high absorption and strength. Using additives such as surfactants, wetting

agents, and rewetting agents, a hydrophilic material can be developed from a naturally water

repellent material like polyester.

According to Clase, C., de Lannoy, C.-F., and Laen, S. (2020), every study that has

examined layering has found that using additional layers in face masks improves filtration, but

some fabrics provide more filtration than others. However, there is still a higher possibility that

nonwoven polypropylene reduces the transmission of diseases as it is now recommended for

preventing the spread of COVID-19. Polypropylene is a naturally hydrophobic polymer, meaning

it “fears water” and causes water to bead up on its surface (White, 2020).

According to (Mates et al. 2014; Chen et al. 2012), The combination of stacked

hydrophobic-hydrophilic hydrophobic layers typically follows the principle of liquid diode,

which is characterized by preferential transport of liquid droplets.

Effective DIY Face mask and its reusability for the good of the environment.

The increasing use of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as face masks around the

world has meant that we are also witnessing a massive increase of disposable waste, much of it

made from plastic. Wearing a face mask is not just about protecting yourself: it is also about

protecting others but as always, we also need to think about protecting the planet (Young, 2020).

Following environmental concerns, the surgical face masks, made up of polymeric

materials, as a source of microplastic pollution potential in the ecosystem, ends up with the

microplastic pollutions and raises environmental threats (Tadele,2020). CBC news reported that

conservationists have warned that the coronavirus pandemic could spark a surge in ocean

pollution, adding to a glut of plastic waste that already threatens marine life after finding

disposable masks floating like jellyfish and waterlogged latex gloves scattered across sea beds.

Wearing a reusable mask, which can be made at home, may sound like a small thing compared to

the big picture, but it is a critical and positive action you can take for yourself, for others, and for

the environment. 
Christopher O. Castro
Jose Kian Provido Brgy. Poblacion,Daanbantayan, Cebu
Clarence Losadio Group 4
Jan Eloise Nogra
According to Agro, Grunding, and Szeto (2020), there are many different masks in the

market but there are still no standards for consumer masks. Some masks work very well but

others offer little protection from the particles that transmit the novel coronavirus. One type of

mask can even spread those particles to others like masks with exhalation valves and bandanas.

Thus, it is important to test the efficacy rate on each variety of the masks.

According to Asadi, Cappa, and Barreda (2020), homemade masks, still, prevents from

disease transmission. Based on a study from CDC Centers for Disease and Prevention (2020),

fabric masks made from spun bond nonwoven polypropylene can be washed and reused (by the

same individual). Disposable medical masks (and respirators) that contain melt blown NWPP are

designed to be safely discarded after a single use, but due to ongoing shortages may be reused up

to five times when safely stored (e.g., in a breathable paper bag) for at least 5 days between uses.

According to Robertson, P. (2020), data shows that polypropylene bags are worse than

surgical masks at capturing virus-sized particles. However, the high breathability of

polypropylene bags means they can be layered up to make more effective DIY masks through

hydrophilic layers of fabric and the reliability and validity of other sources. According to

MakerMask.org, Polypropylene (PP) is a lightweight synthetic material that is inexpensive,

durable, breathable, water resistant, and recyclable (#5). PP is generally considered non-toxic,

and safe for human contact.

Related Studies

A research study conducted by Sarkar, S., Mondal, S., Ganguly, R. et al. (2020), tested

their DIY mask made with two hydrophobic polypropylene nonwoven layers interspaced with a

hydrophilic cellulosic cloth through wettability engineering by using a garden sprayer and

showed that their masks perform better in arresting the droplet transmission as compared to

surgical masks available in the market The combination of the innermost and the middle layer

allow high-momentum droplets to penetrate the hydrophobic layer and get absorbed on the

hydrophilic layer, while the outermost hydrophobic layer prevents any escape of droplets to the

surroundings of the wearer.

Christopher O. Castro
Jose Kian Provido Brgy. Poblacion,Daanbantayan, Cebu
Clarence Losadio Group 4
Jan Eloise Nogra
Another research conducted by Agro, Grunding, and Szeto (2020), tested over 20

different masks available in the market place through a standard NIOSH aerosol test which

measures filtration efficiency, meaning the quantity of particles the mask filters out as the wearer

breathes in. The results show that some masks are just as good as an N95 when it comes to

filtering out those potentially harmful particles, including one made with something called

polypropylene fabric. They also stated that a polypropylene fabric masks with an inner layer of

melt-blown, non-woven polypropylene fabric and outer layers of cotton had filtration efficiency

rates as high as an N95.

A study by Bharwaj & Agrawal (2020) that focused on “Tailoring surface wettability to

reduce chances of infection of COVID – 19 by a respiratory droplet and to improve the

effectiveness of personal protection equipment” showed that by making a surface more

hydrophilic reduces the drying time, and therefore advisable to use hydrophilic surfaces for

mask/PPE and frequently touched surfaces in spaces, where the outbreak is most likely to occur

(e.g., common area in hospitals). They analyzed the drying time of droplets ejected from a

COVID-19 infected subject on surfaces of personal protection equipment (PPE), such as a face

mask of different wettability and found to correlate with the growth rate of the pandemic for six

cities examined in this work. In the case of N95 mask/PPE bodywear, a reduction in contact

angle to 10° (hydrophilic) reduces the chances of the infection of COVID-19 by around 38%.

Another study by Davies, Thompson, Giri, Walker, and Bennett (2020) about “Testing

the efficacy of Homemade Masks: Would they Protect in an Influenza Pandemic?” examines

homemade masks as an alternative to commercial face masks. A protective mask may reduce the

likelihood of infection, but no matter how efficient at filtration or how good the seal, it will have

minimal effect if it is not used in conjunction with other preventative measures, such as isolation

of infected cases, immunization, good respiratory etiquette, and regular hand hygiene. An

improvised face mask should be viewed as the last possible alternative if a supply of commercial

face masks is not available, irrespective of the disease against which it may be required for

protection. Homemade mask should only be considered as a last resort to prevent droplet

transmission from infected individuals, but it would be better than no protection.

Christopher O. Castro
Jose Kian Provido Brgy. Poblacion,Daanbantayan, Cebu
Clarence Losadio Group 4
Jan Eloise Nogra
Another study conducted by Robertson (2020), tested 30 DIY face masks with different

materials including a polypropylene bag through a Smart Air lab and found that a triple-layer

non-woven polypropylene mask makes a great candidate for homemade mask material although

data shows that polypropylene bags are worse than surgical masks at capturing virus-sized

particles. However, the high breathability of polypropylene bags means they can be layered up to

make more effective DIY masks

Our DIY Three – Layered Face Mask

It is better to use our own three layer DIY facemasks in arresting the droplet transmission as

compared to surgical masks available in the market because masks are a simple barrier to help prevent

our respiratory droplets from reaching other. Studies show that mask reduce the spray of droplets when

worn over the nose and mouth. The outermost hydrophobic layer prevents penetration of the liquids

from the middle layer to the outside, and arrests any airborne droplets on its exterior rather than

surgical mask.

The advantages of our DIY three layered facemask it prevents the penetration of the liquids and

arrests any airborne aerosols. Our DIY facemask can be used by people in high-risk situations like

crowded public spaces where there is high risk of close physical proximity with other people. Our DIY

three layered mask may be less effective than surgical mask, but they’re still better than not wearing one

at all. When using mask, it is important to pay attention to the characteristics of the cloth used.

We will make my own DIY facemask marketable to the people through recyclable and reusable

materials because our homemade mask captured 7% fewer virus particles than the larger bacteria

particles. Once the three-layer fabric assembly has been prepared by stitching them together, the mask

can be made following any suitable mask-making template available online. We have one method used

in making facemask is common sewing machine. In the absence of a sewing machine, the mask can be

hand-stitched.

References:

1. Bhardwaj, R., & Agrawal, A. (2020, August 1). Tailoring surface wettability to reduce
chances of infection of COVID-19 by a respiratory droplet and to improve the
effectiveness of personal protection equipment. AIP Publishing.
https://aip.scitation.org/doi/citedby/10.1063/5.0020249
Christopher O. Castro
Jose Kian Provido Brgy. Poblacion,Daanbantayan, Cebu
Clarence Losadio Group 4
Jan Eloise Nogra

2. Sarkar, M., & Rashid, A. (2020, August). Wettability. Wettability - an overview |

ScienceDirect Topics. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/wettability
.
3. Sarkar, S., Mukhopadhyay, A., Sen1, S., & Ghosh, R. (2020, June 4). Leveraging
Wettability Engineering to Develop Three-Layer DIY Face Masks From Low-Cost
Materials. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s41403-020-00115-9.pdf .

4. Bourouiba, L., Dehandschoewercker, E., & Bush, J. W. M. (2014, March 24). Violent
expiratory events: on coughing and sneezing: Journal of Fluid Mechanics. Cambridge
Core. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-fluid-
mechanics/article/violent-expiratory-events-on-coughing-and-
sneezing/475FCFCBD32C7DB6C1E49476DB7A7446 .

5. Yang, Shinhao & Lee, Grace & Chen, Cheng-Min & Wu, Chih-Cheng & Yu, Kuo-Pin.
(2007). The Size and Concentration of Droplets Generated by Coughing in Human
Subjects. Journal of aerosol medicine : the official journal of the International Society for
Aerosols in Medicine. 20. 484-94. 10.1089/jam.2007.0610.

6. Tabrizi, A., Tajpoor, A., & Beheshti, M. H. (2020, October 28). Efficacy of 3-Layer Felt
Masks Containing Polypropylene Membranes in Particle Filtration with SARS-CoV-2
Size Range. http://eprints.gmu.ac.ir/1954/1/17.pdf .

7. Know Your Nonwovens: Hydrophobic Material vs Hydrophilic Material. WPT

Nonwovens Corp. (2019, September 12).
https://www.wptnonwovens.com/blog/hydrophobic-material-vs-hydrophilic/ .

8. Clase , C., de Lannoy , C. F., & Laengert , S. (2021, May 25). Polypropylene, the
material now recommended for COVID-19 mask filters: What it is, where to get it. The
Conversation. https://theconversation.com/polypropylene-the-material-now-
recommended-for-covid-19-mask-filters-what-it-is-where-to-get-it-149613 .

9. Parlin, A. F., Stratton, S. M., Culley, T. M., & Guerra, P. A. (2020, September 18). A
laboratory-based study examining the properties of silk fabric to evaluate its potential as
a protective barrier for personal protective equipment and as a functional material for
face coverings during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLOS ONE.
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/authors?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0239531 .

10. White, A. (2020, April 10). Why Your Surgical Mask Orientation Matters: How We Use
Wettability to our Advantage. Nanoscience Instruments.
https://www.nanoscience.com/applications/medical/why-your-surgical-mask-orientation-
matters-how-we-use-wettability-to-our-advantage/ .

11. Young, N. (2020, August 7). How to make a reusable covid mask and avoid plastic
pollution. Greenpeace Aotearoa. https://www.greenpeace.org/aotearoa/story/how-to-
make-an-upcycled-reusable-fabric-covid-mask-and-avoid-plastic-pollution/ .

12. Agro, C., Grunding, T., & Szeto, E. (2020, November 13). Marketplace tested over 20
different masks. Here's what will best protect you and others during the pandemic | CBC
News. CBCnews. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/marketplace-masks-test-1.5795481 .

13. Davies, A., Thompson, K. A., Walker, J., & Bennett, A. (2013, August 7). Testing the
efficacy of homemade masks: would they protect in an influenza pandemic? Disaster
medicine and public health preparedness. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24229526/ .

14. Aragaw, T. A. (2020, July 25). Surgical face masks as a potential source for microplastic
pollution in the COVID-19 scenario. Marine Pollution Bulletin.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X20306354 .
Christopher O. Castro
Jose Kian Provido Brgy. Poblacion,Daanbantayan, Cebu
Clarence Losadio Group 4
Jan Eloise Nogra
15. Robertson, P. (2021, January 4). Are Reusable Polypropylene Bags Effective as DIY Face
Masks for COVID-19? Smart Air. https://smartairfilters.com/en/blog/reusable-
polypropylene-bags-effective-covid-mask/ .