2 DATA COLLECTION AND SUMMATION

NOTATION

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of the learning experience, students must be able to:

1. Recognize and differentiate between key terms.
2. Apply various types of data collection.
3. Identify the different types of variables.
4. Classify data according to the level of measurement
5. Carry out summation notation and apply operations involving the summation.

Methods of Collecting Data:

 Objective Method – by measurement, counting, observation.
 Subjective Method – provided by respondent.
 Use of existing records – published statistics.

General Classification of Collecting Data:

 Census or complete enumeration  process of gathering information from every unit in
the population
- not always possible to get timely, accurate and economical data
- Costly if the number of units in the population is too large

Survey Sampling  process of obtaining info from the units in the selected sample

Advantages:
 reduced cost
 greater speed / scope / accuracy

Problems Associated with Surveys

1. Survey Nonresponse - may result in a biased survey because the sample is not
representative of the population.

Remedies:
 Offering an inducement for participating in the survey
 Sending reminders or making follow-up telephone calls to the individuals who
did not respond to the first contact
 Using statistical techniques to adjust the survey findings to account for the
sample profile differing from the population profile.
2. Measurement Problem
 Inability to recall answers to questions
 Leading questions
 Unclear wording of questions

Two Types of Data:

Primary Data  data which have been acquired directly from source.

Some Techniques:
 Self-administered questionnaire
 Personal interviews
 Telephone interviews
 Direct observation
Example 2.1. Data obtained by measuring weight of 1,000 one-day old chicks from Farm
ABC.

Secondary Data  non-primary data

Example 2.2. Philippine rice production (tons/hectare) data by province from 2005-200
taken from publications of the Philippine Statistics Authority.

Levels of Measurement

The level of measurement determines which statistical calculations are

meaningful. The four levels of measurement are: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

1. Nominal – quantitative data

- Calculated using names, labels, or qualities. No mathematical computations can be
made at this level.
Examples 2.3. Colors in the US flag, Names of students in your class, Textbooks you are
using this semester
2. Ordinal – both qualitative and quantitative data
- Arranged in order, but differences between data entries are not meaningful

Examples 2.4

 Class standings: freshman, sophomore, junior, senior

 Numbers on the back of each player’s shirt
 Top 50 songs played on the radio
3. Interval – are quantitative data. A zero entry simply represents a position on a scale;
the entry is not an inherent zero
- Arranged in order, the differences between data entries can be calculated.
Examples 2.5: temperatures, year in a timeline
4. Ratio – data are similar to the interval level, but a zero entry is meaningful.
- A ratio of two data values can be formed so one data value can be expressed as a
ratio.
Examples 2. 6: ages, grade point averages, weights

Summary of Levels of Measurement

Level of Put data in Arrange data in Subtract data Determine if

measurement categories order values one data value
is a multiple of
another

Nominal Yes No No No

Ordinal Yes Yes No No

Interval Yes Yes Yes No

Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes

Summation Notation

where:
 is the summation symbol
i is the “index of the summation”
𝑥𝑖 is the summand
1 is the lower limit of the index
N is the upper limit of the index

Note: Index of the summation can be any letter such as j, k, m and the like.

Theorems of the Summation Notation

𝑁
1. If c is a constant, then ∑𝑖=1 𝑐𝑥𝑖 = 𝑐 ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 .
2. If c is a constant, then ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑐 = 𝑁𝑐
3. If a and b are constants, then ∑𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝑖=1(𝑎𝑥𝑖 ± 𝑏𝑦𝑖 ) = 𝑎 ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ± 𝑏 ∑𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖

Example 2.7
1. Write the following in expanded form.
a. ∑4𝑖=1(2𝑌𝑖3𝑖 − 𝑎𝑖 ) = (2𝑌13 − 𝑎1 ) + (2𝑌26 − 𝑎2 ) + (2𝑌39 − 𝑎3 ) + (2𝑌412 − 𝑎3 )
3𝑌 3𝑌 3𝑌4 3𝑌5 3𝑌6
b. ∑4𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘+2 = 13 + + +
2 3 4
2. Prove the following:
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
Given a set of values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 , if 𝜇𝑥 = . Prove the
𝑛
following:
a. ∑𝑠𝑖=1(∑𝑡𝑖=1 𝑎𝑡) = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
∑𝑠𝑖=1(∑𝑡𝑖=1 𝑎𝑡) = ∑𝑠𝑖=1 𝑡(𝑎𝑡) , applying Theorem 2
∑𝑠𝑖=1(∑𝑡𝑖=1 𝑎𝑡) = ∑𝑠𝑖=1 𝑡𝑎𝑡
∑𝑠𝑖=1(∑𝑡𝑖=1 𝑎𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡𝑎𝑡), applying Theorem 2
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
1
b. ∑𝑛𝑖=1 [(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 + 𝑛] = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖2 − 𝑛𝜇𝑥2 + 1
𝑛 𝑛
1 1 Expanding the square of a binomial
∑ [(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 + ] = ∑ [(𝑥𝑖2 − 2𝜇𝑥 𝑥𝑖 + 𝜇𝑥2 ) + ]
𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 Distributing the
1 1
∑ [(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 + ] = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − ∑ 2𝜇𝑥 𝑥𝑖 + ∑ 𝜇𝑥2 + ∑ , Summation
𝑛 𝑛 symbol
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 1 Applying theorem 1 & 2
∑ [(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 + ] = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − 2𝜇𝑥 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑛𝜇𝑥2 + 𝑛( ),
𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

1 Note: ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑛𝜇𝑥

∑𝑛𝑖=1 [(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 + ] = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖2 − 2𝜇𝑥 (𝑛𝜇𝑥 ) + 𝑛𝜇𝑥2 + 1, from the given above
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
1
∑ [(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 + ] = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − 2 𝑛𝜇𝑥2 + 𝑛𝜇𝑥2 + 1
𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
 𝑛 𝑛
1
∑ [(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 + ] = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − 𝑛𝜇𝑥2 + 1
𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − 𝑛𝜇𝑥2 + 1 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − 𝑛𝜇𝑥2 + 1

𝑖=1 𝑖=1

REFERENCES:

Ott, L., & Longnecker, M. (2001). An introduction to statistical methods and data analysis.
5th Edition. Australia: Duxbury.

Walpole, R.E. (1982). Introduction to Statistics. 3rd Edition. Prentice Hall Professional
Technical.

Walpole, R. E., & Myers, R. H. (1985). Probability and statistics for engineers and
scientists. 5th Edition. New York: Macmillan.

Nalangan, L.C. & Casinillo, MAC. 2009. Laboratory manual in Statistics 1. Rex Bookstore,
Inc. Sampaloc, Manila, Philippines