STATISTICS

COURSE: AGR-410
SUBMITTED BY: SYED HASSAAN RAZA
SUBMITTED TO: SIR MUJEEB AKRAM

1-COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN

Definition:
CRD is statistical experimental design where the treatments are
assigned completely at random so that each treatment unit has the
same chance of receiving any one treatment.

Introduction:
The Completely Randomized Design (CRD) is the most simplest of all
the design based on randomization and replication. In CRD, all
treatments are randomly allocated among all experimental subjects.
This allows every experimental unit; i.e.; plot, animal, soil sample etc.,
to have an equal probability of receiving a treatment.

Advantages of CRD:
1. CRD has several advantages it is easy to layout the design.
2. There is complete flexibility in the number of treatments and
number of replication which may vary
3. from treatment to treatment.
4. The no. of replication need not to be same for each treatment.
5. The CRD provides maximum d. f. for the experiment of
experimental error.

Disadvantage of CRD:
1. CRD can be applied only to homogenous experiments.
2. The principle of ‘Local-control’ is not used in CRD.
The main objection against the CRD is that the principle of local control
has not been used in this design. So that the experimental error is
inflated by the presents of the entire variation among experimental
units.

Importance of CRD:
1. CRD is used when the experimental material is homogeneous.
2. CRD is often inefficient.
3. CRD is more useful when the experiments are conducted inside
the lab.

Conclusion:
A completely randomized design relies on randomization to control for
the effect of extraneous variables. CRDs are for the studying the effect
on the primary factor without the need to take other nuisance variables
into account.
Numerical:

Solution:
 2-RANDOMIZED COMPLETE BLOCK
DESIGN
Definition:
A Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) is defined by an
experiment whose treatment combinations are assigned randomly to
the experimental units within a block.

Introduction:
Randomized complete block designs differ from the completely
randomized designs in that the experimental units are grouped into
blocks according to known or suspected variation which is isolated by
the blocks. Variation such as fertility, sand, and wind gradients, or age
and litter of animals can be isolated by appropriate blocking.

Advantages of RCBD:
1. Complete flexibility. Can have any number of treatments and
blocks.
2. Provides more accurate results than the completely randomized
design due to grouping.
3. Relatively easy statistical analysis even with missing data.
4. Allows calculation of unbiased error for specific treatments.
5. Generally more precise than the CRD.
6. No restriction on the number of treatments or replicates.
 7. Some treatments may be replicated more times than others.
8. Missing plots are easily estimated.
9. Whole treatments or entire replicates may be deleted from the
analysis.

Disadvantages of RCBD:
1. Not suitable for large numbers of treatments because blocks
become too large.
2. Not suitable when complete block contains considerable
variability.
3. Interactions between block and treatment effects increase error.

Importance of RCBD:
1. Probably the most used and useful of the experimental designs.
2. Takes advantage of grouping similar experimental units into
blocks or replicates.
3. The blocks of experimental units should be as uniform as possible.

Conclusion:
The randomized complete block design (RCBD) is perhaps the most
commonly encountered design that can be analyzed as a two-way AOV.
In this design, a set of experimental units is grouped (blocked) in a way
that minimizes the variability among the units within groups (blocks).
The objective is to keep the experimental error within each block as
well as possible. Each block contains a complete set of treatments,
therefore differences among Blocks are not due to treatments, and this
variability can be estimated as a separate source of variation.

NUMERICAL:
1. A Randomized block design was conducted to compare the mean
responses for three treatments A, B and C in four blocks. The data
are shown in table.

TREATMENTS BLOCK
1 2 3 4
A 3 6 1 2
B 5 7 4 6
C 2 3 2 2

a. Complete the ANOVA table

b. Do the data provide sufficient evidence to indicate that biocking
was effective in means? Testing using 0.05
c. Do the data provide sufficient evidence to indicate the biocking
was effective in reducing the experimental error? Test using =0.05
d. Find 90% confidence interval for

SOLUTION:
 3-LATIN SQUARE DESIGN
Definition:
In experimental design, a Latin square is an n × n array filled with n
different symbols, each occurring exactly once in each row and exactly
once in each column.

Introduction:
A Latin square is an ancient puzzle where you try to figure out how
many ways Latin letters can be arranged in a set number of rows and
columns (a matrix); each symbol appears only once in each row and
column. It’s called a Latin square because it was developed based on
Leonard Euler’s works, which used Latin symbols. However, any letters
can be used.

Advantages of Latin square design:

1. The design is particularly appropriate for comparing t treatment
means in the presence of two sources of extraneous variation.
2. The analysis is quite simple.

Disadvantage of Latin square design:

1. Although a Latin square can be constructed for any value of t, it is
best suited for comparing t treatments.
2. Any additional extraneous sources of variability tend to inflate the
error term, making it more difficult to detect differences among
the treatment means.
3. The effect of each treatment on the response must be
approximately the same across rows and columns.

Importance of Latin square design:

1. A Latin Square experiment is assumed to be a three-factor
experiment.
2. The factors are rows, columns and treatments.
 3. It is assumed that there is no interaction between rows, columns
and treatments.
4. The degrees of freedom for the interactions is used to estimate
error.

Conclusion:
One main conclusion of the study is that the Latin square analysis of
variance may seriously overestimate the error of treatment
comparisons and under- estimate the component of variation
associated with treatment main effects than the randomized block
design.

Numericals:
Solution:

4-Split plot design

Definition:
The split-plot design is an experimental design that is used when a
factorial treatment structure has two levels of experimental units.

Introduction:
A split-block design has the structure in which two whole plots, or
strips, are orthogonal. The randomization procedure consists of two
steps: first, randomly allocate one of the two factors, say factor A, to
the row strips, then randomly allocate the other factor, factor B, to the
column strips.
Advantages of split plot design:
1. Useful when all the factors are not equal importance, i.e., some of
them required larger plots and others require smaller plots.
2. When some of the factor have small amount of material, they can
used as sub plots or ultimate plots in this design.

Disadvantages of split plot design:

1. The layout and analysis more complicated as compared to that
RBD and LSD.
2. To provides lesser degree of freedom for the estimation of error
variance than RBD.

Importance of split plot design:

1. Cheaper to run.
2. More efficient statistically, with increased precision.

Conclusion:
In a split plot design, two error terms need to be considered (short
term and long term) separately, and two R² values need to be
computed (short term and long term). The analysis may look
more complex, but that makes the interpretation of the DOE
results a lot more realistic. Split-plot designs are frequently
needed in practice because of practical limitations and issues
related to cost.
Numericals:

5-VITAL STATISTICS
Definition:
Vital statistics are conventionally numerical records of marriage, birth,
sickness and death by which the health and growth of community may
be studied.

OR

It is a branch of biometry that deals with data and law of human

mortality, morbidity and demography.

Introduction:
Vital statistics are the statistical outputs of a civil registration system.
The information contained in the individual civil registration records is
compiled to generate vital statistics for the population.

Vital statistics include:

 Numbers and rates of births

 Key characteristics of births, such as births by sex, location and
maternal age
 Numbers and rates of deaths
  Deaths by key characteristics such as age, sex, location and cause
of death.
 Common indicators of fertility and mortality that can be
generated from a well-functioning CRVS system are summarized
below.

Advantages of vital statistics:

1. It does not need much human resources.
2. Less time, money, and work is involved.
3. Easy to interpret.

Disadvantages of vital statistics:

1. Sometimes collection of accurate information is not possible.
2. Availability of local statistics and its acceptability by the public is
difficult.
3. Stated cause of death may be quite unreliable.

Importance of vital statistics:

1. To evaluate impact of various national health program.
2. To plan for better future measures of disease control.
3. To explain hereditary nature of disease.
4. To evaluate economic and social development.
5. It is primary tool of research activity.

Conclusion:
With the main objective of determining the number of births, deaths,
marriages and divorces that occur within the nation, vital statistics
deals in these areas as well as the characteristics associated with these
demographic phenomena. Vital statistics, truly the figures of life and
deaths, embraces an irrefutable position of importance within a data
resource of a country. In the simplest forms, the determination of
births and deaths is one of the highest data accumulation preferences
for any government.

Numerical:
1. The following table gives the male and female population of
four towns of a country. Find sex ratios by towns.

POPULATION (000)
Towns
Males Females
A 5762 5300
B 24860 22432
C 9999 9030
D 2284 2048

SOLUTIONS:

Towns POPULATIONS Sex ratio=M/F*100

Males Females I.e. Males per 100
females
 A 7562 5300 108.7
B 24860 22432 110.8
C 9999 9030 110.7
D 2294 2048 111.5

2. Calculate crude death rate of the following data.

Age group Population Number of death

(in a year)
0-5 4,500 135
5-15 10,000 40
15-40 12,500 75
Above 40 3,000 140

SOLUTION:
Age group Population Deaths
0-10 4500 135
5-55 10000 40
15-40 12500 75
Above 40 3000 140
Total 30000=P 390=D
 6-INDEX NUMBER
Definition:
Index number in statistics is the measurement of change in a variable or
variables across a determined period. It will show general relative
change and not a directly measurable figure. An index number is
expressed in percentage form.

Introduction:
An index number measures the relative change in price, quantity, value,
or some other item of interest from one time period to another. A
simple index number measures the relative change in one or more than
one variable.

Advantages of index number:

 Helps in framing policies.
 Facilitates comparisons.
 Helps in measuring the changes in the value of money.
 Helps in analyzing the markets.
 Useful to measure quantitative changes.

Disadvantage of index number:

 Sampling errors.
 Quality of the product remains same.
 Specific index for specific purpose.
  No change in taste, habits and customers.
 Variety of methods of constructions.

Importance of index number:

1. Index numbers are specialised averages.
2. Index numbers measure the change in the level of a phenomenon.
3. Index numbers measure the effect of changes over a period of
time.

Conclusion:
Thus index numbers are used to measures all types of quantitative
changes in the agricultural, industrial, and commercial fields, as also in
such economic magnitudes as income, employment, exports, imports,
prices, etc.

Numericals:
1. From the following data compute index numbers for the year
1930-1938 taking 1932 as base.

Years 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938
Price 15 14 20 21 24 23 25 18 27

SOLUTION:
 YEAR PRICE PRICE INDEX NUMBER
Taking 1932 as base
1930 15 15/20*100=75
1931 14 14/20*100=70
1932 20 100
1933 21 21/20*100=105
1934 24 24/20*100=120
1935 23 23/20*100=115
1936 25 25/20*100=125
1937 18 18/20*100=90
1938 27 27/20*100=135

2. Find the price relatives for each year the following average retail
prices of wheat, using 1957 as a base year.

Year 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962

Retail 14.95 14.94 15.10 15.05 16.28 16.53
Price

SOLUTION:

year price Price Relatives

Using 1957 as base
1957 14.95 100
1958 14.94 14.94/14.95*100=99.9
1959 15.10 15.10/14.95*100=101.0
1960 15.05 15.05/17.95*100=100.7
1961 16.28 16.28/14.95*100=108.9
1962 16.53 16.53/14.95*100=110.6