Chapter Three Elementary Fluid Dynamics-The Bernoulli Equation 3.1 Elementary Fluid Dynamics

Course Notes in Fluid Mechanics University of Benghazi
Lecturer: Dr. Nabil Elsharif Faculty of Engineering

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CHAPTER THREE
Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation
3.1 Elementary Fluid Dynamics: -

Consider this dimensional fluid motion ( no friction µ=0 ) as in figure, if the
flow is steady (nothing change with time ) each particle of the fluid slides
along its path, and its velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path . The
lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors, throughout the velocity field
are called streamlines.
Chapter (3) - Fluid Kinematics Page 1 of 13
The particle motion is described by coordinate 𝑆⃗ along the streamlines, and
𝑛⃗⃗ normal to the stream line.
𝑑𝑆
We know that, the particle speed 𝑉=
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑉
The acceleration 𝑎⃗ = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑑𝑆 𝜕𝑉
𝑎𝑠 = = ∙ = ( )𝑉 the S component of acceleration
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑆 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑆
𝑉2
𝑎𝑛 = , the n component of acceleration where R is the
𝑅
radius of curvature of streamline
For steady flow the component of Newton's second law along the streamline
direction, s, can be written as
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
∑ 𝑑𝐹𝑠 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑑∀ 𝑉 (3.1)
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
Where
∑ 𝑑𝐹𝑠 : represents the sum of the s components of all the forces acting on
the particle
𝑑𝑚 : the mass of the particle = 𝜌 𝑑∀
𝑑∀ : the volume of the particle = 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑉
𝑉 : the acceleration in s direction
𝜕𝑠
The gravity force (weight) on the particle can be written as 𝑑𝑤 = 𝛾 𝑑∀, and
the component of the weight force in the direction of the streamline is
𝑑𝑤𝑠 = − 𝑑𝑤 sin 𝜃 = −𝛾 𝑑∀ sin 𝜃
𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑠
∑ 𝑑𝐹𝑠 = −𝑑𝑤𝑠 + (𝑝 − ) 𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑦 − (𝑝 + 𝜕𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑠 2 2
𝜕𝑝
= −𝑑𝑤 sin 𝜃 − 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑝
= −𝛾 𝑑∀ sin 𝜃 − 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑝
= −𝛾 𝑑∀ sin 𝜃 − 𝑑∀
𝜕𝑠
By substituting into (3.1)
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉
−𝛾 𝑑∀ sin 𝜃 − 𝑑∀ = 𝜌 𝑑∀ 𝑉
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑉
−𝛾 sin 𝜃 − = 𝜌𝑉 (3.2)
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑉 2
sin 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 =
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑠
By substituting into (3.2)
1
𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 2 + 𝛾 𝑑𝑧 = 0
2
For incompressible fluid can be integrate to give
1
𝑝+ 𝜌 𝑉 2 + 𝛾 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 along streamline
2
This equation is called Bernoulli equation
By similar manner the n- component of Newton's second law is
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝜌𝑉 2
−𝛾 − =
𝑑𝑛 𝜕𝑛 𝑅
For incompressible flow the result equation is
𝑉2
𝑝 +𝜌∫ 𝑑𝑛 + 𝛾 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 across the streamline
𝑅
The Bernoulli equation can be written as
𝑝 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾 2𝑔
Each term of this equation has unit of length and defined as :
𝑧 ≡ Elevation head : it is related to the potential energy of the particle.

𝑝
≡ Pressure head : it is represents the height of a column of the fluid that
𝛾
is needed to produce the pressure P.
𝑉2
≡ Velocity head: it is represents to kinematic energy of the particle.
2𝑔
3.2 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total pressure:
𝜌 𝑉2
Bernoulli equation 𝑝+ + 𝛾 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
(p) Static pressure: it is the actual pressure of the fluid as it flow, to

measure the static pressure we would use a piezometer tube as indicated by
the location of point (3) in the figure above.
The pressure in the flowing fluid at (1) is 𝑝1 = 𝛾ℎ3−1 + 𝑝3 , the same as if
the fluid were static. Also, 𝑝3 = 𝛾ℎ4−3
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠
Since ℎ3−1 + ℎ4−3 = ℎ → 𝑝1 = 𝛾ℎ
𝝆𝑽𝟐
( ) Dynamic pressure: it represents the velocity head at any point. Its
𝟐
interpretation can be seen in the figure by considering the pressure at the
end of a small tube inserted into the flow and pointing upstream.
Hydrostatic pressure: it is the pressure due to the height of fluid. It is not

actually a pressure but does represent the change in pressure possible due
to potential energy variations of the fluid as a result of elevation changes.
Stagnation pressure: it is the pressure when the fluid is come to rest.
After the initial transient motion has died out, the liquid will fill the tube to a
height of H as shown. The fluid in the tube, including that at its tip,(2), will
be stationary. That is, 𝑉2 = 0 , or point (2) is a stagnation point.
Total Pressure ( pT) : It is the sum of static pressure, hydrostatic pressure
and dynamic pressure. The Bernoulli equation is a statement that the total
pressure remains constant along a streamline. That is,
1
𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑝 + 𝜌 𝑉 2 + 𝛾 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
2
3.3 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation
3.3.1 Free Jets
Consider flow of a liquid from a large reservoir as shown in figure, through

a jet of diameter (d) and velocity (V). We can determine the velocity of jet by
applying the Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2),
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌 𝑉12 + 𝛾 𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌 𝑉22 + 𝛾 𝑧2
2 2
For large reservoir V1 = 0 , p1 = 0 (gage), and p2 = 0 (gage)
1
𝜌 𝑉22 = 𝛾 (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = 𝛾 ℎ
2
𝑉2 = √2 𝑔 ℎ
3.3.2 Confined Flows
Consider a fluid is flowing through a fixed volume (such as tank) as shown

in the figure , if the flow is steady , the mass flow rate into the volume must
equal the mass flow rate out of the volume.
𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝑄 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝐴
where 𝑄 : volume flow rate = VA

To conserve mass, the inflow rate must equal the outflow rate. If the inlet is
designated as (1) and the outlet as (2), it follows that 𝑚̇ 1 = 𝑚̇ 2
Thus, conservation of mass (continuity equation) requires

𝜌 1 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2
For incompressible fluid
𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 ⇒ 𝑄1 = 𝑄2
Example:
A stream of water of diameter d=0.01 m
flows steadily from a tank of diameter
D = 0.20 m as shown in the figure.
Determine the flow rate, Q needed from
the inflow pipe if the water depth
remains constant (h = 2 m).
Solution:
For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation applied

between points (1) and (2) is
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌 𝑉12 + 𝛾 𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌 𝑉22 + 𝛾 𝑧2
2 2
with the assumption that p1 = p2 = 0 (gage) , z1 - z2 = h
1 2 1 2
𝑉1 + 𝑔ℎ = 𝑉 … … … … … … … (1)
2 2 2
Although the liquid level remains constant (h= constant), there is an
average velocity,V1, across section (1) because of the flow from the tank.
For steady, incompressible flow, conservation of mass requires
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐷 𝑉1 = 𝑑 2 𝑉2
4 4
𝑑 2
𝑉1 = ( ) 𝑉2 … … … … … … … (2)
𝐷
By substituting eq. (2) into (1)
2𝑔ℎ 2∗9.81∗0.2
𝑉2 = √1−(𝑑⁄𝐷)4 = √1−(0.01⁄0.2)4 = 1.98 𝑚⁄𝑠
Thus,
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = (0.01)2 (1.98)
4
−4
𝑄 = 1.56 × 10 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
Example:
Water flows through a pipe reducer as is
shown in the figure. The static pressures
at (1) and (2) are measured by the
inverted U-tube manometer containing
oil of specific gravity, SG, less than one.
Determine the manometer reading, h.
Solution:
For steady, inviscid, incompressible
flow, the Bernoulli equation applied
between points (1) and (2) is
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌 𝑉12 + 𝛾 𝑧1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌 𝑉22 + 𝛾 𝑧2 … … … … … … … (1)
2 2
From continuity
𝑄 = 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 … … … … … … … (2)

1
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝛾( 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + 𝜌 𝑉22 [1 − (𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 )2 ] … … … … … (3)
2
This pressure difference is measured by the manometer and can be

determined by using the pressure–depth ideas. Thus,
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝛾( 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + 𝛾 𝑙 + 𝛾 ℎ − 𝑆𝐺 𝛾 ℎ − 𝛾 𝑙
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝛾( 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) + (1 − 𝑆𝐺) 𝛾 ℎ … … … … … (4)
1 − (𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 )2
2
𝑄 2 1 − (𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 )2
ℎ=𝑉 = ( )
2 𝑔 (1 − 𝑆𝐺) 𝐴2 2 𝑔 (1 − 𝑆𝐺)
3.3.3 Flow rate Measurement

An effective way to measure the flow rate through a pipe is to place some
type of restriction within the pipe as shown in the figure below.
Three commonly used types of flow meters are illustrated: the orifice meter,
the nozzle meter, and the Venturi meter. We assume the flow is horizontal
(z1 = z2 ), steady, inviscid, and incompressible between points (1) and (2).
The Bernoulli equation becomes
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌 𝑉12 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌 𝑉22 … … … … … … … (1)
2 2
From continuity
𝑄 = 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 … … … … … … … (2)
where A2 is the small (𝐴2 < 𝐴1 ) flow area at section (2).
By combination of these two equations we can determine flow rate
2 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑄 = 𝐴2 √
𝜌[1 − (𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 )2 ]
Example:
Kerosene (SG = 0.85) flows through the Venturi meter with flow rates
between 0.005 and 0.05 m3/s . Determine the range in pressure difference,
p1 - p2 , needed to measure these flow rates.
Solution:
For venturi meter
2 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑄 = 𝐴2 √
𝜌[1 − (𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 )2 ]
𝑄2 𝜌 [1 − (𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 )2 ]
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 =
2 𝐴22
𝜌𝑘 = 𝑆𝐺 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 = 0.85 × 1000 = 850 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
Example
and the area ratio
𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 = (𝐷2 ⁄𝐷1 )2 = (0.06⁄0.10)2 = 0.36
the pressure difference for the smallest flow rate is
[1 − (0.36)2 ]
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = (0.005)2 (850)
2 [(𝜋⁄4)(0.06)2 ]2
= 1160 N⁄m2 = 1.16 kPa
Likewise, the pressure difference for the largest flow rate
[1 − (0.36)2 ]
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = (0.05)2 (850)
2 [(𝜋⁄4)(0.06)2 ]2
= 1.16 × 105 N⁄m2 = 116 kPa
Thus,
1.16 kPa  p1 - p2  116 kPa
3.4 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
For an inviscid, incompressible, steady flow, the Bernoulli equation states

that the sum of pressure head, the velocity head and the elevation head is
constant along the streamline. This constant is called the total head "H".
𝑝 𝑉2
+ + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = "𝐻"
𝛾 2𝑔
The Energy line (EL): is a line that represents the total head available to
the fluid.
the Hydraulic Grade line (HGL): is the line that represents the summation
of pressure head and the elevation head as shown in figure above.

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Course Notes in Fluid Mechanics University of Benghazi

Lecturer: Dr. Nabil Elsharif Faculty of Engineering

3.1 Elementary Fluid Dynamics: -

𝑑𝑤𝑠 = − 𝑑𝑤 sin 𝜃 = −𝛾 𝑑∀ sin 𝜃

By substituting into (3.2)

For incompressible fluid can be integrate to give

This equation is called Bernoulli equation

For incompressible flow the result equation is

The Bernoulli equation can be written as

Each term of this equation has unit of length and defined as :

𝑧 ≡ Elevation head : it is related to the potential energy of the particle.

(p) Static pressure: it is the actual pressure of the fluid as it flow, to

Hydrostatic pressure: it is the pressure due to the height of fluid. It is not

3.3 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

3.3.1 Free Jets

Consider flow of a liquid from a large reservoir as shown in figure, through

For large reservoir V1 = 0 , p1 = 0 (gage), and p2 = 0 (gage)

Consider a fluid is flowing through a fixed volume (such as tank) as shown

where 𝑄 : volume flow rate = VA

Thus, conservation of mass (continuity equation) requires

For incompressible fluid

For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation applied

with the assumption that p1 = p2 = 0 (gage) , z1 - z2 = h

For steady, incompressible flow, conservation of mass requires

By substituting eq. (2) into (1)

By substituting eq. (2) into (1)

This pressure difference is measured by the manometer and can be

3.3.3 Flow rate Measurement

The Bernoulli equation becomes

where A2 is the small (𝐴2 < 𝐴1 ) flow area at section (2).

By combination of these two equations we can determine flow rate

𝐴2 ⁄𝐴1 = (𝐷2 ⁄𝐷1 )2 = (0.06⁄0.10)2 = 0.36

the pressure difference for the smallest flow rate is

= 1160 N⁄m2 = 1.16 kPa

Likewise, the pressure difference for the largest flow rate

= 1.16 × 105 N⁄m2 = 116 kPa

3.4 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

For an inviscid, incompressible, steady flow, the Bernoulli equation states

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